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156-568: The Imperial Fora, while not part of the Roman Forum , are located relatively close to each other. Julius Caesar was the first to build in this section of Rome and rearranged both the Forum and the Comitium, another forum type space designated for politics, to do so. These fora were the centres of politics, religion and economy in the ancient Roman Empire. During the early 20th century, Mussolini restored

312-520: A podium on which stands a tall attic , both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the Doric , Ionic , and Corinthian orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian pilasters . Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from Classical mythology . Two hundred and forty mast corbels were positioned around

468-536: A gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released, or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold in November 2012 following the abolishment of capital punishment in

624-465: A large forum bearing his name. This forum was inaugurated in 46 BC, although it was probably incomplete at this time and was finished later by Augustus . The Forum of Caesar was constructed as an extension to the Roman Forum. The Forum was used as a replacement venue to the Roman Forum for public affairs as well as government; it was also designed as a celebration of Caesar's power. Caesar had placed, on

780-425: A major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius ), which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. Honorius banned the practice of gladiator fights in 399 and again in 404. Gladiatorial fights are last mentioned around 435. An inscription records the restoration of various parts of

936-469: A major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40 billion  lire ($ 19.3 million or €20.6 million at 2000 prices). In recent years, the Colosseum has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as

1092-407: A productive role for the Colosseum. Pope Sixtus V (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death. In 1671 Cardinal Altieri authorized its use for bullfights ; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned. In 1749, Pope Benedict XIV endorsed the view that the Colosseum

1248-709: A quarry for new buildings being undertaken in Rome after a long lapse. The Forum Romanum suffered some of its worst depredations during the Italian Renaissance, particularly in the decade between 1540 and 1550, when Pope Paul III exploited it intensively for material to build the new Saint Peter's Basilica . Just a few years before, in 1536, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V held a triumph in Rome on his return from conquering Tunis in North Africa. To prepare

1404-444: A religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the velarium or awning. The Colosseum was used to host gladiatorial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called munera , were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige and were immensely popular. Another major attraction

1560-410: A services center and restoring the galleries and underground spaces inside the Colosseum. Since 1 November 2017, the top two levels have been opened for guided visits. The fourth level held the marketplace, and the top fifth tier is where the poorest citizens, the plebeians, gathered and watched the show, bringing picnics for the day-long event. The Colosseum is generally regarded by Christians as

1716-535: A site of the martyrdom of large numbers of believers during the persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire , as evidenced by Church history and tradition. On the other hand, other scholars believe that the majority of martyrdoms may have occurred at other venues within the city of Rome, rather than at the Colosseum, citing a lack of still-intact physical evidence or historical records. These scholars assert that "some Christians were executed as common criminals in

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1872-472: A small number of inhumation burials. On current evidence, it is likely that burials in the Forum ceased in the late 9th century BC and that the Esquiline Necropolis replaced them. The first archaeological finds on the sites of the key public buildings point to a transformation of the Forum from a cemetery to a public site in the 8th century BC. Part of the Forum was paved over. The earliest finds in

2028-421: A wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the hypogeum ). Sylvae or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor, and animals would then be introduced. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for

2184-429: A €25 million restoration of the Colosseum. Work was planned to begin at the end of 2011, taking up to two and a half years. Due to the controversial nature of using a public–private partnership to fund the restoration, work was delayed and began in 2013. The restoration is the first full cleaning and repair in the Colosseum's history. The first stage is to clean and restore the Colosseum's arcaded façade and replace

2340-615: Is a neuter Latin noun formed from the adjective colosseus , meaning "gigantic" or "colossean". By the year 1000 the Latin name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre from the nearby "Colossus Solis". In the 8th century, an epigram attributed to the Venerable Bede celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus ("as long as

2496-602: Is also known as Transitional Forum, because it worked as an access way, just like via dell'Argileto had done. It is probable that Domitian's projects were more ambitious than the building of the small Forum of Nerva and probably under his reign they started to remove the small saddle that united the Capitoline Hill to the Quirinal Hill , thus blocking the Fora towards Campus Martius , near to modern Piazza Venezia . The project

2652-418: Is an ellipse 87 m (287 ft) long and 55 m (180 ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5 m (15 ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating. The outer wall is estimated to have required over 100,000 cubic metres (3.5 million cubic feet ) of travertine stone which were set without mortar; they were held together by 300 tons of iron clamps. However, it has suffered extensive damage over

2808-476: Is built of travertine limestone, tuff (volcanic rock), and brick-faced concrete . It could hold an estimated 50,000 to 80,000 spectators at various points in its history, having an average audience of some 65,000; it was used for gladiatorial contests and public spectacles including animal hunts , executions, re-enactments of famous battles, dramas based on Roman mythology , and briefly mock sea battles . The building ceased to be used for entertainment in

2964-478: Is no physical evidence of naumachiae at the Colosseum remains. The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the Ludus Magnus , a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for

3120-511: Is often used, there is no evidence it was used in classical antiquity . This name refers to the patronage of the Flavian dynasty , during whose reigns the building was constructed, but the structure is better known as the Colosseum. In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name Amphitheatrum Caesareum (with Caesareum an adjective pertaining to the title Caesar ), but this name may have been strictly poetic as it

3276-609: Is one of the most visible landmarks there today. The arch closed the Forum's central area. Besides the Arch of Augustus, which was also constructed following a Roman victory against the Parthians, it is the only triumphal arch in the Forum. The Emperor Diocletian (r. 284–305) was the last of the great builders of Rome's city infrastructure and he did not omit the Forum from his program. By his day it had become highly cluttered with honorific memorials. He refurbished and reorganized it, building anew

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3432-465: Is said to have celebrated his victories in Dacia in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days. During lunch intervals, executions ad bestias would be staged. Those condemned to death would be sent into the arena, naked and unarmed, to face the beasts of death which would literally tear them to pieces. Acrobats and magicians would also perform, usually during

3588-523: Is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs, although some of his contemporaries did not share his conviction. A century later Fioravante Martinelli listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book Roma ex ethnica sacra . Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn

3744-543: Is the 1600 translation, by Philemon Holland , of the Urbis Romae topographia of Bartolomeo Marliani , which he used in the preparation of his translation of Livy 's Augustan era Ab Urbe Condita Libri . The text states: "This Amphitheatre was commonly called Colosseum, of Neroes Colossus, which was set up in the porch of Neroes house." Similarly, John Evelyn , translating the Middle French name: le Colisée used by

3900-480: Is there even any evidence that anyone before the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the Catholic Encyclopedia concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition, other than the reasonably plausible conjecture that some of the many martyrs may well have been. Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown

4056-671: The Forum Romanum to the larger and more extravagant structures ( Trajan's Forum and the Basilica Ulpia ) to the north. The reign of Constantine the Great saw the construction of the last major expansion of the Forum complex—the Basilica of Maxentius (312 AD). This returned the political centre to the Forum until the fall of the Western Roman Empire almost two centuries later. Unlike

4212-659: The Argiletum , which connected the Roman Forum to the Subura , the temple faced the Velian Hill (in the direction of the Colosseum ). The fact that this structure is not mentioned as having a civil function has prevented it from being classified as a true Forum. Therefore, the structure was simply identified as the Temple of Peace ( Templum Pacis ) until the late Empire. The shape of the square

4368-606: The Catholic Church , as each Good Friday the Pope leads a torchlit "Way of the Cross" procession that starts in the area around the Colosseum. The Colosseum is depicted on the Italian version of the 5 euro cent coin . Originally, the building's Latin name was simply amphitheatrum , 'amphitheatre'. Though the modern name Flavian Amphitheatre ( Latin : Amphitheatrum Flavium )

4524-533: The Corcyrean (Corfiot) Greeks and the Corinthians . This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong or that the Colosseum originally featured

4680-549: The Eastern Roman Emperor Phocas . This proved to be the last monumental addition made to the Forum. The emperor Constans II , who visited the city in 663 AD, stripped the lead roofs of the monumental buildings, exposing the structures to the weather and hastening their deterioration. By the 8th century, the whole space was surrounded by Christian churches taking the place of abandoned and ruined temples. An anonymous eighth-century Einsiedeln Itinerary reports that

4836-529: The Forum of Caesar . The Forum was also witness to the assassination of a Roman Emperor in 69 AD: Galba had set out from the palace to meet rebels but was so feeble that he had to be carried in a litter. He was immediately met by a troop of his rival Otho 's cavalry near the Lacus Curtius in the Forum, where he was killed. During these early Imperial times, much economic and judicial business transferred away from

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4992-512: The Frangipani family took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle. In the early to mid 14th century, the Pope's relocation to Avignon caused a population decline in Rome that left the region insecure. The colosseum was largely abandoned by the public and became a popular den for bandits. Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great earthquake in 1349 , causing

5148-671: The Hellenistic sanctuaries; also the choice of the Forum site carried a meaning: the future dictator didn't want to be far from the central power, represented in the Curia , seat of the Senate . In fact, not long before Caesar's death, the Senate agreed to reconstruct the Curia on the site. In the battle of Philippi in 42 BC, in which Augustus and Mark Antony worked together and avenged Caesar's death, defeating

5304-459: The Menorah from Herod's Temple . Domitian decided to unify the previous complex and the free remaining irregular area, between the Temple of Peace and the Fora of Caesar and Augustus, and build another monumental forum which connected all of the other fora. The limited space, partially occupied by one of the exedrae of the Forum of Augustus and by the via dell'Argileto , obliged Domitian to build

5460-525: The Temple of Antoninus and Faustina , the Temple of Vesta , the steps and foundation of the Temple of Castor and Pollux , and the Regia . The Conservators protested vehemently against the ruination of their heritage, as they perceived it, and on one occasion applied fruitlessly to Pope Gregory XIII (1572–1585) to revoke all licenses for foraging materials, including the one granted to the fabbrica of Saint Peter's in

5616-465: The Temple of Saturn , the Temple of Vesta and the Curia Julia . The latter represents the best-preserved tetrarchic building in Rome. He also reconstructed the rostra at each end of the Forum and added columns. The reign of Constantine the Great saw the completion of the construction of the Basilica of Maxentius (312 AD), the last significant expansion of the Forum complex. This restored much of

5772-537: The early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a fortress , a quarry , and a Christian shrine. Although substantially ruined by earthquakes and stone robbers taking spolia , the Colosseum is still a renowned symbol of Imperial Rome and was listed as one of the New 7 Wonders of the World . It is one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions and has links to

5928-562: The maestri to issue their own excavation licenses was revoked by the Bull of Pope Nicholas V , which absorbed that power into the Vatican. From then on only two authorities in Rome had the power to issue such licenses: the Vatican and the Conservators. This dual, overlapping authority was recognized in 1462 by a Bull of Pope Pius II . Within the context of these disputes over jurisdiction, ruins in

6084-521: The "Black Stone" marble together over the Lapis Niger in Rome. Excavations in the Forum continue, with discoveries by archaeologists working in the Forum since 2009 leading to questions about Rome's exact age. One of these recent discoveries includes a tuff wall near the Lapis Niger used to channel water from nearby aquifers . Around the wall, pottery remains and food scraps allowed archaeologists to date

6240-421: The 19th century revealed one layer on top of another. The deepest level excavated was 3.60 meters above sea level . Archaeological finds show human activity at that level with the discovery of carbonized wood. An important function of the Forum, during both Republican and Imperial times, was to serve as the culminating venue for the celebratory military processions known as Triumphs . Victorious generals entered

6396-451: The 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the Great Fire of Rome in 64 AD, following which Nero seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose Domus Aurea on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing Aqua Claudia aqueduct was extended to supply water to

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6552-675: The American state of Connecticut in April 2012. Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included Ray Charles (May 2002), Paul McCartney (May 2003), Elton John (September 2005), and Billy Joel (July 2006). Unlike Roman theatres that were built into hillsides,

6708-574: The Capitoline Hill end of the Forum by order of the consuls for that year, M. Aemilius Lepidus and Q. Lutatius Catulus . In 63 BC, Cicero delivered his famous speech denouncing the companions of the conspirator Catiline at the Forum (in the Temple of Concord , whose spacious hall was sometimes used as a meeting place by the Senators). After the verdict, they were led to their deaths at the Tullianum ,

6864-403: The Colosseum began under the rule of Vespasian in around 70–72 AD (73–75 AD according to some sources). The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished by his son, Titus , in 80, and the inaugural games were held in 80 or 81 AD. Dio Cassius recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the inaugural games of

7020-399: The Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded Pope Clement X to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary. At the insistence of St. Leonard of Port Maurice , Pope Benedict XIV (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected Stations of

7176-506: The Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615 ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510 ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of 24,000 square metres (6 acres). The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157 ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788 ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena

7332-406: The Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre, in effect, placing it both symbolically and geographically at the heart of Rome. Construction was funded by

7488-488: The Colosseum under Theodosius II and Valentinian III (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484 and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when Anicius Maximus celebrated his consulship with some venationes , criticised by King Theodoric the Great for their high cost. The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use. By

7644-427: The Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators. Each tier was divided into sections ( maeniana ) by curved passages and low walls ( praecinctiones or baltei ), and were subdivided into cunei , or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row ( gradus ) of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number. The arena itself

7800-568: The Colosseum—their crime being refusal to reverence the Roman gods", but most Christian martyrs of the early Church were executed for their faith at the Circus Maximus . According to Irenaeus (died about 202), Ignatius of Antioch was fed to the lions in Rome around 107 A.D. and although Irenaeus says nothing about this happening at the Colosseum, tradition ascribes it to that place. In

7956-527: The Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world"). This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, Byron 's poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage ). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the masculine noun coliseus was applied to the statue rather than to the amphitheatre. The spelling

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8112-444: The Comitium and the Temple of Vesta by purchasing existing private homes and removing them for public use. Building projects of several consuls repaved and built onto both the Comitium and the adjacent central plaza that was becoming the Forum. The 5th century BC witnessed the earliest Forum temples with known dates of construction: the Temple of Saturn (497 BC) and the Temple of Castor and Pollux (484 BC). The Temple of Concord

8268-510: The Comitium around the old Etruscan temple where the Senate would meet at the site of the Sabine conflict. He is said to have converted that temple into the Curia Hostilia close to where the Senate originally met in an old Etruscan hut. In 600 BC Tarquinius Priscus had the area paved for the first time. Originally a low-lying, grassy wetland , the Forum was drained in the 7th century BC with

8424-419: The Comitium was excavated into a deep triangular depression. The area was paved with a beaten earth pavement and later replaced with a more substantial gravel one. Nearby was located an archaic sanctuary dedicated to Vulcan known as Vulcanal (also Volcanal ): a small rectangular pit and elliptical basin carved out of an outcrop of tuff . It has been suggested that the earliest ancient materials collected in

8580-480: The Comitium, such as the popular assemblies, funerals of nobles, and games, were transferred to the Forum as it developed. Especially notable was the move of the comitia tributa , then the focus of popular politics, in 145 BC. In 133 BC the Tribune Tiberius Gracchus was lynched there by a group of senators. In the 80s BC, during the dictatorship of Sulla , major work was done on the Forum including

8736-472: The Cross around the arena, which remained until February 1874. Benedict Joseph Labre spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on alms , before he died in 1783. Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains its Christian connection today. A Christian cross stands in the Colosseum, with a plaque, stating: The amphitheater, one consecrated to triumphs, entertainments, and

8892-532: The Emperor and the Vestal Virgins to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds. Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the hypogeum . Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major hydraulic mechanisms and according to ancient accounts, it

9048-403: The Emperor and the Vestal Virgins , providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or podium for the senatorial class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use. The tier above the senators, known as the maenianum primum ,

9204-413: The Forum for the procession intended to imitate the pageantry of the ancient Roman triumph, the papal authorities undertook sweeping demolitions of the many medieval structures on the site, to reveal and better display the ancient monuments. This required the clearance of some 200 houses and several churches, the excavation of a new "Via Sacra" to pass under the arches of Titus and Septimius Severus , and

9360-467: The Forum in 184 BC by Marcus Porcius Cato , who thus began the process of "monumentalizing" the site. The Basilica Fulvia was dedicated on the north side of the Forum square in 179 BC. (It was rebuilt and renamed several times, as Basilica Fulvia et Aemilia, Basilica Paulli, Basilica Aemilia ). Nine years later, the Basilica Sempronia was dedicated on the south side. Many of the traditions from

9516-560: The Forum neighborhood with balconies, which were called after him maeniana , so that the spectators might better view the games put on within the temporary wooden arenas set up there. The Tribune benches were placed on the Forum Romanum, as well. First, they stood next to the senate house; during the late Roman Republic, they were placed in front of the Basilica Porcia. The earliest basilicas (large, aisled halls) were introduced to

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9672-539: The Forum to larger and more extravagant structures to the north. After the building of Trajan's Forum (110 AD), these activities transferred to the Basilica Ulpia . The white marble Arch of Septimius Severus was added at the northwest end of the Forum close to the foot of the Capitoline Hill and adjacent to the old, vanishing Comitium. It was dedicated in 203 AD to commemorate the Parthian victories of Emperor Septimius Severus and his two sons against Pescennius Niger and

9828-504: The Forum was already falling apart at that time. During the Middle Ages, though the memory of the Forum Romanum persisted, its monuments were for the most part buried under debris, and its location was designated the "Campo Vaccino" or "cattle field," located between the Capitoline Hill and the Colosseum . After the eighth century, the structures of the Forum were dismantled, rearranged, and used to build towers and castles within

9984-465: The Forum, additional fora throughout the city began to emerge to expand on specific needs of the growing population. Fora for cattle, pork, vegetables and wine specialised in their niche products and the associated deities. Rome's second king, Numa Pompilius (r. 715–673 BC), is said to have begun the cult of Vesta , building its house and temple as well as the Regia as the city's first royal palace. Later Tullus Hostilius (r. 673–642 BC) enclosed

10140-405: The Forum, reach the lowest possible level of the Forum without damaging existing structures, and to identify already half-excavated structures, along with the Senate house and Basilica Aemilia. These state-funded excavations were led by Dr. Giacomo Boni until he died in 1925, stopping briefly during World War I. In 2008, heavy rains caused structural damage to the modern concrete covering holding

10296-432: The Forum. The temple originally was to be built to the god Jupiter but was replaced with Saturn ; historians are unsure why. The building was not used solely for religious practice; the temple also functioned as a bank for Roman society. The Temple stood in the forum along with four other temples, the temples of Concord , Vesta , Castor and Pollox . At each temple, animal sacrifices and rituals were done in front of

10452-527: The Imperial Fora as part of his campaign to evoke and emulate the past glories of Ancient Rome , but he also built the Via dei Fori Imperiali across the middle of the site. The modern street and its heavy traffic has proved a source of damage to the buildings because of vibration and pollution. There have been a number of proposals to remove the road, but none have taken effect. Julius Caesar decided to construct

10608-463: The Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit. According to the Codex-Calendar of 354 , the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for

10764-410: The Middle Ages, the Colosseum was not regarded as a monument, and was used as what some modern sources label a "quarry," which is to say that stones from the Colosseum were taken for the building of other sacred sites. This fact is used to support the idea that, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated the Colosseum was not being treated as a sacred site. It was not included in

10920-468: The Roman Forum. Little is known about when the temple was built, as the original temple is believed to have been burnt down by the Gauls early in the fourth century. However, it is understood that it was also rebuilt by Munatius Plancus in 42 BC. The eight remaining columns are all that is left of the illustrious temple. Though its exact date of completion is not known, it stands as one of the oldest buildings in

11076-476: The Roman naval headquarters at Misenum and housed in the nearby Castra Misenatium , were used to work the velarium . The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadia to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators. Each entrance and exit

11232-650: The Senate at Collisee .... Similarly, the Italian : colosseo , or coliseo , are attested as referring first to the amphitheatre in Rome, and then to any amphitheatre (as Italian : culiseo in 1367). By 1460, an equivalent existed in Catalan : coliseu ; by 1495 had appeared the Spanish : coliseo , and by 1548 the Portuguese : coliseu . The earliest citation for the name Colosseum in Early Modern English

11388-583: The Via Sacra, the Forum was accessed by several storied roads and streets, including the Vicus Jugarius , Vicus Tuscus , Argiletum , and Via Nova.) Pottery deposits discovered in the Forum, Palatine and Capitoline demonstrated that humans occupied these areas in the Final Bronze Age (1200–975 BC). In the early Iron Age an area of the future Forum, close to the site of Temple of Antoninus and Faustina ,

11544-411: The amphitheatre. Commemorative coinage was issued celebrating the inauguration. The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor Domitian , who constructed the hypogeum , a series of tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its seating capacity . In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by

11700-471: The ancient city were located on or near the Forum. The Roman Kingdom 's earliest shrines and temples were located on the southeastern edge. These included the ancient former royal residence, the Regia (8th century BC), and the Temple of Vesta (7th century BC), as well as the surrounding complex of the Vestal Virgins , all of which were rebuilt after the rise of imperial Rome . Other archaic shrines to

11856-504: The architectural theorist Roland Fréart de Chambray , wrote "And 'tis indeed a kind of miracle to see that the Colosseum … and innumerable other Structures which seemed to have been built for Eternity, should be at present so ruinous and dilapidated". The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the Caelian , Esquiline and Palatine Hills , through which a canalised stream ran as well as an artificial lake/marsh. By

12012-481: The area and the gigantic bronze Colossus of Nero was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea. Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. Vespasian's decision to build

12168-720: The area of the Vulcanal are from the second half of the 8th century BC. It appears that the Romans were aware of the sites’ archaic origins: the foundation of the Comitium and Vulcanal were attributed to Romulus himself while the first Curia (senate house), which was located nearby, to Tullus Hostilius . At the western end of the Forum, excavations near the House of the Vestals and the sanctuary of Vesta have revealed an important group of 7th-century-BC buildings. The archaeologists have identified them as

12324-548: The arena, opened to the public in summer 2010. The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, Pope Benedict XVI led the Stations of the Cross called the Scriptural Way of the Cross (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum on Good Fridays . In 2011 Diego Della Valle , head of the shoe firm Tod's , entered into an agreement with local officials to sponsor

12480-453: The building of the first structures of Cloaca Maxima , a large covered sewer system that emptied into the Tiber , as more people began to settle between the two hills. Archaeological evidence shows that by the end of the 7th century BC, the ground level of the Forum was raised significantly in some places to overcome the problems of poor drainage and provide a foundation for a pebble-paved area. In

12636-645: The buildings facing it and, sometimes, an additional area (the Forum Adjectum ) extending southeast as far as the Arch of Titus . Originally, the site of the Forum had been a marshy lake where waters from the surrounding hills drained. This was drained by the Tarquins with the Cloaca Maxima . Because of its location, sediments from both the flooding of the Tiber and the erosion of the surrounding hills have been raising

12792-598: The central square had reduced the open area to a rectangle of about 130 by 50 meters. Its long dimension was oriented northwest to southeast and extended from the foot of the Capitoline Hill to that of the Velian Hill . The Forum's basilicas during the Imperial period—the Basilica Aemilia on the north and the Basilica Julia on the south—defined its long sides and its final form. The Forum proper included this square,

12948-588: The centre of the city of Rome . Citizens of the ancient city referred to this space, originally a marketplace, as the Forum Magnum , or simply the Forum . For centuries, the Forum was the centre of day-to-day life in Rome: the site of triumphal processions and elections; the venue for public speeches, criminal trials and gladiatorial matches ; and the nucleus of commercial affairs. Here statues and monuments commemorated

13104-484: The centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall. The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three superposed storeys surmounted by

13260-507: The chambers opened at the end of the porticos housed the Forma Urbis Romae , a marble map of ancient Rome, made in the Severan period (3rd century) by drawing on the marble slab that covered the wall. The wall is now part of the façade of the church of Santi Cosma e Damiano , where the holes used to mount the slabs of the map can still be seen. The Temple of Peace is also said to have housed

13416-637: The city by the western Triumphal Gate ( Porta Triumphalis ) and circumnavigated the Palatine Hill (counterclockwise) before proceeding from the Velian Hill down the Via Sacra and into the Forum. From here, they would mount the Capitoline Rise ( Clivus Capitolinus ) up to the Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus on the summit of the Capitol. Lavish public banquets ensued back down on the Forum. (In addition to

13572-508: The city of Rome , Italy , just east of the Roman Forum . It is the largest ancient amphitheatre ever built, and is still the largest standing amphitheatre in the world, despite its age. Construction began under the Emperor Vespasian ( r.  69–79 AD ) in 72 and was completed in AD 80 under his successor and heir, Titus ( r.  79–81 ). Further modifications were made during

13728-478: The city's leaders. The heart of ancient Rome , it has been called the most celebrated meeting place in the world, and in all history. Located in the small valley between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills , the Forum today is a sprawling ruin of architectural fragments and intermittent archaeological excavations attracting 4.5 million or more sightseers yearly. Many of the oldest and most important structures of

13884-507: The construction of the amphitheatre. This claim is disputed; it would, nonetheless, be commensurate with Roman practice to add humiliation to the defeated population. Along with this free source of unskilled labor, teams of professional Roman builders, engineers, artists, painters and decorators undertook the more specialized tasks necessary for building the Colosseum. The Colosseum was constructed with several different materials: wood, limestone, tuff , tiles, cement, and mortar. Construction of

14040-654: The early 16th century, by which time the word could be applied to any amphitheatre. From Middle French: colisée derived the Middle English : colisee , in use by the middle of the 15th century and employed by John Capgrave in his Solace of Pilgrims , in which he remarked: Middle English : collise eke is a meruelous place … þe moost part of it stant at þis day . An English translation by John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners , of Antonio de Guevara 's biography of Marcus Aurelius ( r.  161–180 ) in about 1533 referred to Middle English : this Emperour, beynge with

14196-406: The early 19th century. The interior of the amphitheater was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make quicklime . The iron clamps which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today. During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought

14352-462: The early phases of the Regia (House of the kings), House of the Vestals, and Domus Publica (official residence of the pontifex maximus ). There seems to have been something of a surge in development of the Forum in the last quarter of the 7th century BC, as many of the changes date from 625 to 600 BC. Archaeologically, there is substantial evidence for development of the Forum in the 6th century BC: parts of

14508-473: The elite towards the Forum, an act symbolically repeated two centuries later by Gaius Gracchus . This began the tradition of locus popularis , in which even young nobles were expected to speak to the people from the Rostra. Gracchus was thus credited with (or accused of) disturbing the mos maiorum ("custom of the fathers/ancestors") in ancient Rome. When Censor in 318 BC, Gaius Maenius provided buildings in

14664-437: The end of the subsequent civil war , Augustus finished his great-uncle's work, giving the Forum its final form. This included the southeastern end of the plaza where he constructed the Temple of Caesar and the Arch of Augustus there (both in 29 BC). The Temple of Caesar was placed between Caesar's funeral pyre and the Regia. The Temple's location and reconstruction of adjacent structures resulted in greater organization akin to

14820-431: The excavation of the more prominent monuments to reveal their foundations. In 1425, Pope Martin V issued a papal bull inaugurating a campaign of civic improvement and rebuilding in the city, which was depopulated and dominated by ruins. The demand for building materials consequently increased significantly, making the Forum a convenient quarry for stone and marble. Since the 12th century, when Rome's civic government

14976-407: The extent to which the buildings in the Forum were buried under sediment. Renowned British artist J. M. W. Turner painted Modern Rome – Campo Vaccino in 1839, following his final trip to the city. Colosseum The Colosseum ( / ˌ k ɒ l ə ˈ s iː ə m / KOL -ə- SEE -əm ; Italian : Colosseo [kolosˈsɛːo] ) is an elliptical amphitheatre in the centre of

15132-531: The focus of judicial activity moved to the new Basilica Aemilia (179 BC). Some 130 years later, Julius Caesar built the Basilica Julia , along with the new Curia Julia , refocusing both the judicial offices and the Senate itself. This new Forum, in what proved to be its final form, then served as a revitalized city square where the people of Rome could gather for commercial, political, judicial and religious pursuits in ever greater numbers. Eventually, much economic and judicial business would transfer away from

15288-449: The forces of Brutus and Cassius , Augustus vowed to build the Temple of Mars Ultor (" Mars the Avenger "). The incomplete forum was inaugurated, after 40 years of construction, in 2 BC, adding the second monumental square, the Forum of Augustus . This new complex lies at right angles to the Forum of Caesar. The temple consists of a very tall wall, and this still distinguishes itself from

15444-426: The form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via vomitoria (singular vomitorium ), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name vomitoria derived from

15600-528: The forum occurred under Paul III, who in 1540 revoked previous excavation licenses and brought the forum exclusively under the control of the Deputies of the Fabric of the new Saint Peter's Basilica , who exploited the site for stone and marble. Monuments which fell victim to dismantling and the subsequent burning of their materials for lime included the remains of the Arch of Augustus , the Temple of Caesar , parts of

15756-417: The forum of Nerva, rising the number to four and not two exedras. This completely changed the layout for the south part of the Forum of Augustus, meaning that it is much more similar to the Forum of Trajan and a new theory for this southern part of the forum suggests that in fact there was a basilica between the two new exedras (like in the Forum of Trajan). This supports the numerous ancient authors that tell us

15912-408: The forum was used as a court of law. The entire decoration of the Forum was tightly connected to the ideology of Augustus. According to myth, Rome herself was born from the god Mars through Romulus . This forum was occupied by . . . In 75 AD, the Temple of Peace, also known as the Forum of Vespasian, was built under Emperor Vespasian . Separated from the Forum of Augustus and the Forum of Caesar by

16068-523: The forum were increasingly exploited and stripped. In 1426, a papal license authorized the destruction of the foundations of a structure called the "Templum Canapare" for burning into lime, provided that half the stone quarried be shared with the Apostolic Camera (the Papal treasury). This structure was identified by Rodolfo Lanciani as the Basilica Julia , but the name could have applied to any structure in

16224-525: The forum. The excavation by Carlo Fea , who began clearing the debris from the Arch of Septimius Severus in 1803 marked the beginning of clearing the Forum. Excavations were officially begun in 1898 by the Italian government under the Minister of Public Instruction, Dr. Baccelli. The 1898, restoration had three main objectives: restore fragmented pieces of columns, bases, and cornices to their original locations in

16380-400: The front of his forum, a temple devoted to Venus Genetrix , since Caesar's family ( gens Julia ) claimed to descend by Venus through Aeneas . A statue of Caesar himself riding Bucephalus , the celebrated horse of Alexander the Great , was placed in front of the temple, to symbolise absolute power. This centralised vision corresponded to the ideological function, following the propaganda of

16536-642: The gladiators. The Ludus Magnus had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the Ludus Matutinus (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools. Also nearby were the Armamentarium , comprising an armory to store weapons; the Summum Choragium , where machinery

16692-422: The intervals. During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for naumachiae (more properly known as navalia proelia ) or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between

16848-512: The itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century Mirabilia Urbis Romae ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the Circus Flaminius – but not the Colosseum – as the site of martyrdoms. Part of the structure was inhabited by a Christian religious order , but it is not known whether this was for any particular religious reason. Pope Pius V (1566–1572)

17004-423: The late 6th century a small chapel had been built into the structure of the amphitheater, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200

17160-485: The later imperial fora in Rome—which were self-consciously modelled on the ancient Greek plateia (πλατεῖα) public plaza or town square —the Roman Forum developed gradually, organically, and piecemeal over many centuries. This is the case despite attempts, with some success, to impose some order there, by Sulla , Julius Caesar , Augustus and others. By the Imperial period, the large public buildings that crowded around

17316-441: The lateral porticos as simply decorations of the bounding walls of the forum. The temple, dedicated to Minerva as protector of the emperor, was built leaning on the exedra of the Forum of Augustus, so that the remaining space became a large monumental entrance ( Porticus Absidatus ) for all the fora. Because of the death of Domitian, the forum was inaugurated by his successor, Nerva , who gave his own name to it. The Forum of Nerva

17472-401: The level of the Forum floor for centuries. Excavated sequences of remains of paving show that sediment eroded from the surrounding hills was already raising the level in early Republican times. As the ground around buildings rose, residents simply paved over the debris that was too much to remove. Its final travertine paving, still visible, dates from the reign of Augustus . Excavations in

17628-464: The like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen. The hypogeum was connected by tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the Ludus Magnus to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for

17784-417: The likely construction of the wall to the 8th or 9th century BC, over a century before the traditional date of Rome's founding. In 2020, Italian archaeologists discovered a sarcophagus and a circular altar dating to the 6th century BC. Experts disagree whether it is a memorial tomb dedicated to Rome's legendary founder, Romulus . The Temple of Saturn was one of the more significant buildings located in

17940-404: The local area. In the 13th century, these rearranged structures were torn down and the site became a dumping ground. This, along with the debris from the dismantled medieval buildings and ancient structures, helped contribute to the rising ground level. The return of Pope Urban V from Avignon in 1367 led to an increased interest in ancient monuments, partly for their moral lesson and partly as

18096-443: The means of sculptures, videos, architectural pieces, and scale models depicts the history of the four fora and the Temple of Peace. [REDACTED] Media related to Forums of Rome at Wikimedia Commons Roman Forum The Roman Forum ( Italian : Foro Romano ), also known by its Latin name Forum Romanum , is a rectangular forum ( plaza ) surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient government buildings at

18252-412: The metal enclosures that block the ground-level arches. After three years, the work was completed on 1 July 2016, when the Italian minister of culture, Dario Franceschini, also announced that the funds have been committed to replace the floors by the end of 2018. These will provide a stage that Franceschini says will be used for "cultural events of the highest level." The project also includes creating

18408-456: The middle of the 7th century BC thatch-and-timber huts were demolished on the route of the Via Sacra and rectangular stone buildings began to replace them. The earliest structures in the Forum were discovered in two separate locations: the site of the Comitium and the group of sanctuaries of Regia (House of the kings), House of the Vestals and Domus Publica . Around 650–630 BC the area of

18564-463: The nearby dungeon which was the only known state prison of the ancient Romans. Over time, the Comitium was lost to the ever-growing Curia and to Julius Caesar 's rearrangements before his assassination in 44 BC. That year, two events were witnessed by the Forum, perhaps the most famous ever to transpire there: Marc Antony 's funeral oration for Caesar (immortalized in Shakespeare 's famous play )

18720-578: The northwest, such as the Umbilicus Urbis and the Vulcanal (Shrine of Vulcan), developed into the Republic 's formal Comitium (assembly area). This was where the Senate —as well as Republican government itself—began. The Senate House, government offices, tribunals, temples, memorials and statues gradually cluttered the area. Over time, the archaic Comitium was replaced by the larger adjacent Forum, and

18876-588: The opulent spoils taken from the Jewish Temple after the First Jewish–Roman War in 70 AD led to the Siege of Jerusalem . According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor Vespasian ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." It is often assumed that Jewish prisoners of war were brought back to Rome and contributed to the massive workforce needed for

19032-416: The original arena floor, but the hypogeum is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called hegmata , provided access for elephants and

19188-406: The outer south side, lying on a less stable alluvial terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. In 1377, after the Pope's return to Rome, the Colosseum was restored by a religious order called Arciconfraternita del SS. Salvatore ad Sancta Sanctorum, who then inhabited a northern portion of it until as late as

19344-472: The paving have been found and a large number of fragments of terracotta decorations from this area suggests that structures around the Forum were becoming more elaborate and highly decorated. During the Republican period, the Comitium continued to be the central location for all judicial and political life in the city. However, to create a larger gathering place, the Senate began expanding the open area between

19500-651: The political focus to the Forum until the fall of the Western Roman Empire almost two centuries later. After the Fall of the Western Roman Empire , and the resulting Gothic Wars between the Byzantine / Eastern Roman Empire and the Ostrogoths over Italia, much of the city of Rome fell into ruin, from famine, warfare, and lack of authority. The population of Rome was reduced from hundreds of thousands to tens of thousands, as

19656-478: The popular neighbourhood of Suburra . This high wall served as a firebreak, protecting the Forum area from the frequent conflagrations from which Rome suffered. The rectangular square has long deep porticos with a surface that widens into large semicircular exedras . Recently one more slightly smaller exedra was found south on the wall bordering the Forum of Trajan , meaning that for the sake of symmetry there must have been other exedra demolished to make room for

19812-586: The populated areas contracted to the river, largely abandoning the forum. Strenuous efforts were made to keep the Forum (and the Palatine structures) intact, not without some success. In the 6th century, some of the old edifices within the Forum began to be transformed into Christian churches. On 1 August 608, the Column of Phocas , a Roman monumental column , was erected before the Rostra and dedicated or rededicated in honour of

19968-401: The powers of the maestri in protecting the ruins, but in conferring papal authority the Vatican essentially brought the maestri under its control and away from the independence of the Conservators. In the 15th century, the Vatican escalated the issuance of excavation licenses, which gave broad permission to individuals to mine specific sites or structures for stone. In 1452, the ability of

20124-507: The prayers and cries of the Sabine women. Because the valley lay between the two settlements, it was the designated place for the two peoples to meet. Since the early Forum area included pools of stagnant water, the most easily accessible area was the northern part of the valley which was designated as the Comitium . It was here at the Vulcanal that, according to the story, the two parties laid down their weapons and formed an alliance. The Forum

20280-407: The raising of the plaza level by almost a meter and the laying of permanent marble paving stones. Remarkably, this level of the paving was maintained more or less intact for over a millennium: at least until the sack of Rome by Robert Guiscard and his Normans in 1084, when neglect finally allowed debris to begin to accumulate unabated. In 78 BC, the immense Tabularium (Records Hall) was built at

20436-474: The reign of Domitian ( r.  81–96 ). The three emperors who were patrons of the work are known as the Flavian dynasty , and the amphitheatre was named the Flavian Amphitheatre ( Latin : Amphitheatrum Flavium ; Italian : Anfiteatro Flavio [aɱfiteˈaːtro ˈflaːvjo] ) by later classicists and archaeologists for its association with their family name ( Flavius ). The Colosseum

20592-519: The religious sites. These acts were meant to provide good fortune to those entering and using the temple. Since the Temple of Saturn also functioned as a bank, and since Saturn was the god of the Golden Age, sacrifices were made there in the hope of financial success. Inside the Temple, there were multiple vaults for the public and private ones for individuals. There were also sections of the Temple for public speaking events and feasts which often followed

20748-489: The sacrifices. From the 17th through the 19th century, the Roman Forum was a site for many artists and architects studying in Rome to sketch. The focus of many of these works produced by visiting Northern artists was on the current state of the Roman Forum, known locally as the Campo Vaccino, or "cow field", from the livestock who grazed on the largely ignored section of the city. Claude Lorrain 's 1636 Campo Vaccino shows

20904-491: The sites of the Comitium and Vulcanal were votive offerings. They indicate that the area was dedicated to a celebration of religious cults. According to Roman historical tradition, the Forum's beginnings are connected with the alliance between Romulus , the first king of Rome controlling the Palatine Hill , and his rival, Titus Tatius , who occupied the Capitoline Hill . An alliance formed after combat had been halted by

21060-497: The structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under Benito Mussolini in the 1930s. The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually. The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted

21216-400: The top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable awning , known as the velarium , that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center. It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from

21372-486: The urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death. Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways that were once used for transporting wild animals and gladiators to

21528-663: The western section of the Forum, often called the Canapare or Cannapara . Between 1431 and 1462 the huge travertine wall between the Senate House and the Forum of Caesar adjoining the Forum Romanum was demolished by a grant of Pope Eugene IV , followed by the demolition of the Templum Sacrae Urbis (1461–1462), the Temple of Venus and Roma (1450), and the House of the Vestals (1499), all by papal license. The worst destruction in

21684-421: Was 83 meters by 48 meters (272 ft by 157 ft / 280 by 163 Roman feet). It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is harena or arena ), covering an elaborate underground structure called the hypogeum (literally meaning "underground"). The hypogeum was not part of the original construction but was ordered to be built by Emperor Domitian . Little now remains of

21840-558: Was a sacred site where early Christians had been martyred . He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the Passion of Christ and installed Stations of the Cross , declaring it sanctified by the blood of the Christian martyrs who perished there ( see Significance in Christianity ). However, there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor

21996-425: Was added in the following century, possibly by the soldier and statesman Marcus Furius Camillus . A long-held tradition of speaking from the elevated speakers' Rostra —originally facing north towards the Senate House to the assembled politicians and elites—put the orator's back to the people assembled in the Forum. A tribune known as Caius Licinius (consul in 361 BC) is said to have been the first to turn away from

22152-426: Was also different: the temple was constructed as a large apsidal hall that opened up like an exedra at the bottom of the portico . A row of columns distinguished the portico from the temple. The central area was not paved like other fora and served as a garden, with pools and pedestals for statues, so that it was similar to an open-air museum. The monument was built to celebrate the conquest of Jerusalem . One of

22308-525: Was closed by the Basilica Ulpia , with Trajan's Column at its back. In front of the basilica, a monumental façade was the background of a large, equestrian sculpture of the Emperor. The last Forum was also the biggest and greatest. In 2007, a museum dedicated to the Imperial Fora was opened in the Trajan's Market , which once constituted the northern edge of the Forum of Trajan . The new museum, named "Museo dei Fori Imperiali" (English: Museum of Imperial Fora) by

22464-593: Was delivered from the partially completed speaker's platform known as the New Rostra and the public burning of Caesar's body occurred on a site directly across from the Rostra around which the Temple to the Deified Caesar was subsequently built by his great-nephew Octavius ( Augustus ). Almost two years later, Marc Antony added to the notoriety of the Rostra by publicly displaying the severed head and right hand of his enemy Cicero there. After Julius Caesar's death and

22620-558: Was formed, responsibility for protecting the ruins of the forum fell to the maestri di strade under the authority of the Conservatori , Rome's senior magistrates. Historically, the maestri and the Conservatori saw themselves as guardians of Rome's ancient legacy and zealously protected the ruins in the Forum from further destruction, but in the 15th century the Papacy gradually encroached upon these prerogatives. The Bull of 1425 strengthened

22776-558: Was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed a Flavian Amphitheatre in Puteoli (modern Pozzuoli). The name Colosseum is believed to be derived from a colossal statue of Nero on the model of the Colossus of Rhodes . The giant bronze sculpture of Nero as a solar deity was moved to its position beside the amphitheatre by the emperor Hadrian ( r.  117–138 ). The word colosseum

22932-530: Was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the Roman Emperor and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted stucco reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIIII (54) survive. Spectators were given tickets in

23088-538: Was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights ( equites ). The next level up, the maenianum secundum , was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens ( plebeians ) and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the immum ) was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the summum ) was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating

23244-471: Was outside the walls of the original Sabine fortress, which was entered through the Porta Saturni. These walls were mostly destroyed when the two hills were joined. The original Forum functioned as an open-air market abutting on the Comitium, but eventually outgrew its day-to-day shopping and marketplace role. As political speeches, civil trials, and other public affairs began to take up more and more space in

23400-421: Was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct. However, the construction of the hypogeum at Domitian's behest put an end to the practise of flooding, and thus also to naval battles, early in the Colosseum's existence. There is however wide debate over the practicality and logistics of this phenomenon which leads to speculation over its actuality. This is mostly because there

23556-494: Was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups. Another level, the maenianum secundum in legneis , was added at the very top of the building during the reign of Domitian . This comprised a gallery for the common poor, slaves and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from

23712-400: Was resumed by Trajan with the construction of Trajan's Forum between 112 and 113. The occasion was the conquest of Dacia , whose spoils paid for this celebration of the military conquests of Rome. The preparation of the Forum required a lot of work. It was necessary to remove the hilly saddle, and to support the cut of Quirinal Hill through the building of Trajan's market. The Forum square

23868-686: Was sometimes altered in Medieval Latin : coloseum and coliseum are attested from the 12th and 14th centuries respectively. In the 12th century, the structure was recorded as the amphitheatrum colisei , 'Amphitheatre of the Colossus';. In the High Middle Ages , the Flavian amphitheatre is attested as the late 13th-century Old French : colosé , and in Middle French as: colisée by

24024-538: Was stored; the Sanitarium , which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the Spoliarium , where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of. Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of 18 m (59 ft) from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been

24180-528: Was the animal hunt, or venatio . This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as rhinoceros , hippopotamuses , elephants , giraffes , aurochs , wisents , Barbary lions , panthers , leopards , bears , Caspian tigers , crocodiles and ostriches . Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. These events could be huge in scale; Trajan

24336-473: Was used as a cemetery (10th century BC), possibly by the communities based on the Palatine and Capitoline hills. Most of the burials were cremations of the same type which is also found in the other sites in Latium . The urn containing the ashes of the deceased was placed inside a large earthenware jar, along with grave goods, and then buried in a cavity cut into the ground and covered with a capstone. There were also

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