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64-466: Events Places The Curia Hostilia was one of the original senate houses or " curiae " of the Roman Republic . It was believed to have begun as a temple where the warring tribes laid down their arms during the reign of Romulus (r. c. 771–717 BC). During the early monarchy, the temple was used by senators acting as a council to the king. Tullus Hostilius (r. 673–641 BC) was believed to have replaced
128-461: A temple built on the spot where the Romans and Sabines laid down their arms during the reign of Romulus (traditionally reigned 753–717 BC). The institution of the senate was always ascribed to Romulus; although the first senate was said to comprise 100 members, the earliest number which can be called certain is 300, probably connected with the three tribes and 30 curiae also attributed to Romulus. After
192-518: A Plebeian Tribune, the Tribune could interpose the sacrosanctity of his person ( intercessio ) to physically stop that particular action. Any resistance against the tribune was considered to be a capital offense. The most significant constitutional power that a magistrate could hold was that of "Command" ( Imperium ), which was held only by consuls and praetors. This gave a magistrate the constitutional authority to issue commands (military or otherwise). Once
256-806: A curia. Today, the most famous curia is the Curia of the Roman Catholic Church , which assists the Roman Pontiff in the hierarchical government of the Church. The word curia is thought to derive from Old Latin coviria , meaning 'a gathering of men' ( co- , 'together' = vir , 'man'). In this sense, any assembly, public or private, could be called a curia . In addition to the Roman curiae, voting assemblies known as curiae existed in other towns of Latium , and similar institutions existed in other parts of Italy. During
320-431: A dedication from a Latin king. An honorary column was also among the tightly packed items. This spot was separated from the rest of the comitium with a low rising concrete fence to keep pedestrians from walking atop it. The Curia Hostilia architecture had changed a number of times, but maintained its original form even after a number of refurbishments. The structure was where all of Rome's early political life centered. It
384-569: A magistrate's annual term in office expired, he had to wait ten years before serving in that office again. Since this did create problems for some magistrates, these magistrates occasionally had their command powers extended, which, in effect, allowed them to retain the powers of their office as a promagistrate . The consul of the Roman Republic was the highest ranking ordinary magistrate. Two Consuls were elected every year, and they had supreme power in both civil and military matters. Throughout
448-407: Is also refuted by Mommsen . Each curia had its own sacra , in which its members, known as curiales, worshipped the gods of the state and other deities specific to the curia, with their own rites and ceremonies. Each curia had a meeting site and place of worship, named after the curia. Originally, this may have been a simple altar, then a sacellum , and finally a meeting house. The curia
512-457: Is believed the temple was converted by bricking up the front portico creating an anteroom. There may have been a balcony created above this space with an opening for public viewing but little is known about how this addition may have looked like. It is believed the exterior may well have looked almost exactly the same as the Curia Julia as the classic lines of the simple structure match the lines of
576-404: Is more broadly used to designate an assembly , council , or court , in which public, official, or religious issues are discussed and decided. Lesser curiae existed for other purposes. The word curia also came to denote the places of assembly, especially of the senate . Similar institutions existed in other towns and cities of Italy. In medieval times, a king's council was often referred to as
640-628: Is referred to their Curia. The Court of Justice of the European Union uses "CURIA" (in roman script) in its official emblem. The term curia may refer to separate electoral colleges in a system of reserved political positions (reserved seats), e.g. during the British mandate of Palestine at the third election (1931) of the Asefat HaNivharim there were three curiae, for the Ashkenazi Jews ,
704-504: Is said that the public was always allowed to stroll into the Curia Hostilia to listen to the senators debate. Relatively little is known about the Curia Hostilia. One feature of the Curia that is mentioned in almost all sources is the "Tabula Valeria", a painting on the exterior of the Curia's western wall. It depicted the victory of Manius Valerius Maximus Corvinus Messalla over Hiero and
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#1732844443116768-420: Is sometimes translated as ' ward '. Only a few of the names of the 30 curiae have been preserved, including Acculeia, Calabra, Faucia, Foriensis, Rapta, Veliensis, Tifata , and Titia. The assertion that the plebeians were not members of the curiae, or that only the dependents ( clientes ) of the patricians were admitted, and not entitled to vote, is expressly contradicted by Dionysius . This argument
832-609: The Carthaginians in 263 BC. Pliny says that the painting was the first such picture in Rome. Another detail that most sources agree on is that the Curia Hostilia was located on the north side of the comitium. It is believed that the circular set of stairs of the Comitium, which also doubled as seating for citizens listening to speakers at the Rostra , led up to the Curia's entrance. With regard to
896-669: The Palatine pomerium of Roma quadrata . It is probable that this shrine was located at the northeast corner of the Palatine Hill . Its remains have likely been identified in excavations carried out by Clementina Panella . As the Republic continued, the curiae grew too large to meet conveniently at the Curiae Veteres , and a new meeting place, the Curiae Novae , was constructed. A few of
960-699: The Ramnes, Tities , and Luceres , was divided into ten curiae. In theory, each gens (family, clan) belonged to a particular curia, although whether this was strictly observed throughout Roman history is uncertain. Each curia had a distinct name, said to have been derived from the names of some of the Sabine women abducted by the Romans in the time of Romulus. However, some of the curiae evidently derived their names from particular districts or eponymous heroes. The curiae were probably established geographically, representing specific neighborhoods in Rome, for which reason curia
1024-819: The Sephardi Jews and for the Yemeni Jews . In the United States Supreme Court an interested third party to a case may file a brief as an amicus curiae . Under the Fundamental Law adopted in 2011, Hungary 's supreme court is called the Curia . The Federal Palace of Switzerland , the seat of the Swiss Confederation , bears the inscription Curia Confœderationis Helveticæ . Roman magistrate The Roman magistrates ( Latin : magistratus ) were elected officials in ancient Rome . During
1088-579: The auspices (a ritual search for omens from the Gods), and was vested with legal authority ( imperium ) by the popular assembly. The Roman magistrates were elected officials of the Roman Republic. Each Roman magistrate was vested with a degree of power. Dictators (a temporary position for emergencies) had the highest level of power. After the Dictator was the Consul (the highest position if not an emergency), and then
1152-445: The comitium , and abandoned the original orientation of the previous curiae, pointing slightly northwest. The building featured a large central hall with a daïs for magistrates, and marble benches on one side. There was also a record office on one side. The building was completed by Caesar's grandnephew, Octavian , the future emperor Augustus, in 29 BC, although he reduced the senate itself to its former number of 600. The Curia Cornelia
1216-408: The curio maximus was probably elected by the curiones , but in later times by the people themselves. Each curia was attended by one lictor ; an assembly of the comitia curiata was attended by thirty lictors. The comitia curiata voted to confirm the election of magistrates by passing a law called the lex curiata de imperio . It also witnessed the installation of priests, and adoptions, and
1280-469: The dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla in 80 BC. Sulla had doubled the senate's membership from 300 to 600, necessitating a larger building, which retained the original orientation of the Curia Hostilia , but extended further south into the comitium. In 52 BC, following the murder of Publius Clodius Pulcher , his clientes set fire to the senate house, which was rebuilt by Faustus Cornelius Sulla , son of
1344-567: The period of the Roman Kingdom , the King of Rome was the principal executive magistrate . His power, in practice, was absolute. He was the chief priest , lawgiver , judge , and the sole commander of the army . When the king died, his power reverted to the Roman Senate , which then chose an Interrex to facilitate the election of a new king. During the transition from monarchy to republic,
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#17328444431161408-437: The "tribunician powers" and the "proconsular powers". In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or proconsuls , under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. While these distinctions were clearly defined during
1472-546: The Curia's location, Stambaugh writes, "[T]he Curia Hostilia was built on rising ground so as to dominate the whole space of the Forum Romanum". Given its prominent place in the Forum, it seems that the Curia Hostilia was a symbol of the strength of the Roman Republic . The original Etruscan Temple was probably used as the meeting place of the separate tribes of the seven hills. It may have had only two columns and an open portico. It
1536-615: The Etruscan Temple. The building was destroyed in 52 BC after the makeshift funeral fire for Publius Clodius Pulcher ignited the structure, burning it to the ground. It was replaced with the Curia Cornelia , located in almost the same space. This structure was in turn replaced by the Curia Julia started by Julius Caesar and finished by Emperor Augustus . Curia Curia ( pl. : curiae) in ancient Rome referred to one of
1600-457: The Gods or leaders of other communities, and could unilaterally decree any new law. Sometimes he submitted his decrees to either the popular assembly or to the senate for a ceremonial ratification, but a rejection did not prevent the enactment of a decree. The king chose several officers to assist him, and unilaterally granted them their powers. When the king left the city, an Urban Prefect presided over
1664-498: The Praetor, and then the Censor, and then the curule aedile , and finally the quaestor . Each magistrate could only veto an action that was taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of power. Since plebeian tribunes (as well as plebeian aediles ) were technically not magistrates, they relied on the sacrosanctity of their person to obstruct. If one did not comply with the orders of
1728-482: The Roman Empire were elected individuals of the ancient Roman Empire . The powers of an emperor (his imperium ) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. The two most significant components to an emperor's imperium were the "tribunician powers" ( potestas tribunicia ) and the "proconsular powers" ( imperium proconsulare ). In theory at least, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of
1792-401: The census, the emperor had the power to assign individuals to a new social class, including the senatorial class, which gave the emperor unchallenged control over senate membership. The emperor also had the power to interpret laws and to set precedents. In addition, the emperor controlled the religious institutions , since, as emperor, he was always Pontifex Maximus , and a member of each of
1856-473: The city in place of the absent king. The king also had two Quaestors as general assistants, while several other officers assisted the king during treason cases. In war, the king occasionally commanded only the infantry, and delegated command over the cavalry to the commander of his personal bodyguards, the Tribune of the Celeres. The king sometimes deferred to precedent, often simply out of practical necessity. While
1920-647: The city. In the Western Empire, one hundred seems to have been a common number, but in the East five hundred was customary, on the model of the Athenian Boule. However, by the fourth century, curial duties had become onerous, and it was difficult to fill all the posts; often candidates had to be nominated. The emperor Constantine exempted Christians from serving in the curiae, which led to many rich pagans claiming to be priests in order to escape these duties. The concept of
1984-462: The civil liberties of all Roman citizens. In times of military emergency, a Roman Dictator was appointed for a term of six months. Constitutional government dissolved, and the Dictator became the absolute master of the state. The Dictator then appointed a Master of the Horse to serve as his most senior lieutenant. Often the Dictator resigned his office as soon as the matter that caused his appointment
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2048-404: The comitium. That building burned down in 52 BC when the supporters of the murdered Publius Clodius Pulcher used it as a pyre to cremate his body. There has been a meeting house for the people of Rome through most of Rome's history. This one likely began as a temple. There may have been a small shrine to the god Vulcan from the earliest period, a stone altar with a marble stele inscribed with
2112-607: The constitutional balance of power shifted from the executive (the Roman king ) to the Roman Senate. When the Roman Republic was founded in 509 BC, the powers that had been held by the king were transferred to the Roman consuls , of which two were to be elected each year. Magistrates of the republic were elected by the people of Rome , and were each vested with a degree of power called "major powers" ( maior potestas ). Dictators had more "major powers" than any other magistrate , and after
2176-416: The curia as a governing body, or the court where such a body met, carried on into medieval times, both as a secular institution, and in the church. In medieval times, a king's court was frequently known as the curia regis , consisting of the king's chief magnates and councilors. In England, the curia regis gradually developed into Parliament . In France, the curia regis or Conseil du Roi developed in
2240-401: The curiae continued to meet at the Curiae Veteres due to specific religious obligations. In the Roman Empire a town council was known as a curia, or sometimes an ordo , or boule . The existence of such a governing body was the mark of an independent city. Municipal curiae were co-optive, and their members, the decurions , sat for life. Their numbers varied greatly according to the size of
2304-498: The dictator was the censor , and then the consul , and then the praetor , and then the curule aedile , and then the quaestor . Any magistrate could obstruct (" veto ") an action that was being taken by a magistrate with an equal or lower degree of magisterial powers. By definition, plebeian tribunes and plebeian aediles were technically not magistrates since they were elected only by the plebeians , and as such, they were independent of all other powerful magistrates . During
2368-544: The dictator. Following this reconstruction, the building came to be called the Curia Cornelia . A generation after Sulla enlarged the senate from 300 members to 600, Julius Caesar increased its membership to 900, necessitating the construction of a larger meeting house. Shortly before his death in 44 BC, Caesar began the construction of a new building, which became known as the Curia Julia . This structure covered most of
2432-416: The early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical. The traditional magistracies that survived the fall of the republic were the consulship, praetorship , plebeian tribunate , aedileship , quaestorship , and military tribunate . Mark Antony abolished the offices of dictator and Master of the Horse during his consulship in 44 BC, while
2496-411: The emperor held the same grade of military command authority as did the chief magistrates (the Roman consuls and proconsuls) under the republic. However, the emperor was not subject to the constitutional restrictions that the old consuls and proconsuls had been subject to. Eventually, he was given powers that, under the republic, had been reserved for the Roman Senate and the Roman assemblies including
2560-404: The emperor. Imperial Consuls could preside over the senate, could act as judges in certain criminal trials, and had control over public games and shows. The Praetors also lost a great deal of power, and ultimately had little authority outside of the city. The chief Praetor in Rome, the urban praetor, outranked all other Praetors, and for a brief time, they were given power over the treasury. Under
2624-453: The empire, the plebeian tribunes remained sacrosanct, and, in theory at least, retained the power to summon, or to veto, the senate and the assemblies. Augustus divided the college of Quaestors into two divisions, and assigned one division the task of serving in the senatorial provinces, and the other the task of managing civil administration in Rome. Under Augustus, the Aediles lost control over
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2688-512: The four major priesthoods. Under the empire, the citizens were divided into three classes, and for members of each class, a distinct career path was available (known as the cursus honorum ). The traditional magistracies were only available to citizens of the senatorial class. The magistracies that survived the fall of the republic were (by their order of rank per the cursus honorum ) the consulship, praetorship, plebeian tribunate, aedileship, quaestorship, and military tribunate. If an individual
2752-468: The king could unilaterally declare war, for example, he typically wanted to have such declarations ratified by the popular assembly. The period between the death of a king, and the election of a new king, was known as the interregnum . During the interregnum , the senate elected a senator to the office of Interrex to facilitate the election of a new king. Once the Interrex found a suitable nominee for
2816-538: The kingship, he presented this nominee to the senate for an initial approval. If the senate voted in favor of the nominee, that person stood for formal election before the People of Rome in the Curiate Assembly (the popular assembly). After the nominee was elected by the popular assembly, the senate ratified the election by passing a decree. The Interrex then formally declared the nominee to be king. The new king then took
2880-412: The making of wills. The Pontifex Maximus may have presided over these ceremonies. The assembly probably possessed much greater authority before the establishment of the comitia centuriata , which gradually assumed many of the curiate assembly's original functions. Since the Roman Kingdom , the meeting-house of the Roman senate was known as the curia. The original meeting place was said to have been
2944-518: The markets, and over public games and shows. Quaestors usually assisted the consuls in Rome, and the governors in the provinces with financial tasks. Though they technically were not magistrates, the Plebeian Tribunes and the Plebeian Aediles were considered to be the representatives of the people. Thus, they acted as a popular check over the senate (through their veto powers), and safeguarded
3008-601: The offices of Interrex and Roman censor were abolished shortly thereafter. The executive magistrates of the Roman Kingdom were elected officials of the ancient Roman Kingdom . During the period of the Roman Kingdom, the Roman King was the principal executive magistrate. He was the chief executive, chief priest, chief lawgiver , chief judge, and the sole commander-in-chief of the army. His powers rested on law and legal precedent, and he could only receive these powers through
3072-468: The original groupings of the citizenry, eventually numbering 30, and later every Roman citizen was presumed to belong to one. While they originally probably had wider powers, they came to meet for only a few purposes by the end of the Republic : to confirm the election of magistrates with imperium, to witness the installation of priests , the making of wills , and to carry out certain adoptions . The term
3136-460: The original structure after fire destroyed the converted temple. It may have held historic significance as the location of an Etruscan mundus and altar. The Lapis Niger , a series of large black marble slabs, was placed over the altar (known as the Volcanal ) where a series of monuments was found opposite the Rostra . This curia was enlarged in 80 BC by Lucius Cornelius Sulla during his renovations of
3200-469: The original temple was destroyed by fire, it was replaced by a new meeting house by Tullus Hostilius , the third King of Rome (traditionally reigned 673–642 BC). The Curia Hostilia stood on the north end of the Comitium , where the comitia curiata and other Roman assemblies met, and was oriented along the four cardinal points . After more than 500 years of service, the building was restored and enlarged by
3264-463: The plebeian tribunes under the old republic) gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, while the proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or Proconsuls, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical. By virtue of his proconsular powers,
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#17328444431163328-404: The political process of an election. In practice, he had no real restrictions on his power. When war broke out, he had the sole power to organize and levy troops, to select leaders for the army, and to conduct the campaign as he saw fit. He controlled all property held by the state, had the sole power to divide land and war spoils, was the chief representative of the city during dealings with either
3392-492: The republic, local curiae were established in Italian and provincial municipia and coloniae . In imperial times , local magistrates were often elected by municipal senates, which also came to be known as curiae. By extension, the word curia came to mean not just a gathering, but also the place where an assembly would gather, such as a meeting house. In Roman times, curia had two principal meanings. Originally it applied to
3456-413: The right to declare war, to ratify treaties, and to negotiate with foreign leaders. The emperor's degree of Proconsular power gave him authority over all of Rome's military governors, and thus, over most of the Roman army. The emperor's tribunician powers gave him power over Rome's civil apparatus, as well as the power to preside over, and thus to dominate, the assemblies and the senate. When an emperor
3520-475: The senate house into the church of Sant'Adriano al Foro , preserving the structure at its full height. In 1923, the church and an adjacent convent were bought by the Italian government. The building was further restored from 1935 to 1937, removing various medieval additions, to reveal the original Roman architecture. The Curiae Veteres was the earliest sanctuary of the thirty curiae. It is discussed by both Varro and by Tacitus , who mentions it as one point of
3584-555: The transition from republic to the Roman empire, the constitutional balance of power shifted from the Roman Senate back to the executive (the Roman Emperor ). Theoretically, the senate elected each new emperor; in practice each emperor chose his own successor, though the choice was often overruled by the army or civil war. The powers of an emperor (his imperium ) existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his legal standing. The two most significant components to an emperor's imperium were
3648-745: The twelfth century, with the term gradually becoming applied to a judicial body, and falling out of use by the fourteenth century. In the Roman Catholic Church, the administrative body of the Holy See is known as the Roman Curia . It is through this Curia that the Roman Pontiff conducts the business of the Church as a whole. Among older religious orders , the governing council of the Superior General or Regional Superior and his or her assistants
3712-428: The wards of the comitia curiata . However, over time the name became applied to the senate house, which in its various incarnations housed meetings of the Roman senate from the time of the kings until the beginning of the seventh century AD. The most important curiae at Rome were the 30 that together made up the comitia curiata. Traditionally ascribed to the kings, each of the three tribes established by Romulus ,
3776-433: The year, one Consul was superior in rank to the other Consul, and this ranking flipped every month, between the two Consuls. Praetors administered civil law, presided over the courts, and commanded provincial armies. Another magistrate, the Censor, conducted a census , during which time they could appoint people to the senate. Aediles were officers elected to conduct domestic affairs in Rome, and were vested with powers over
3840-470: Was demolished, but the precise date is not known. In AD 94, the Curia Julia was rebuilt along Caesar's original plan by the emperor Domitian , who also restored the former orientation of the Curia Hostilia . The building was damaged by fire during the reign of Carinus in 283, and again restored under his successor, Diocletian . The Roman Senate is last mentioned in AD 600. In 630, Pope Honorius I transformed
3904-403: Was not of the senatorial class, he could run for one of these offices if he was allowed to run by the emperor, or otherwise, he could be appointed to one of these offices by the emperor. During the transition from republic to empire, no office lost more power or prestige than the consulship, which was due, in part, to the fact that the substantive powers of republican Consuls were all transferred to
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#17328444431163968-410: Was presided over by a curio ( pl. : curiones ), who was always at least 50 years old, and was elected for life. The curio undertook the religious affairs of the curia. He was assisted by another priest, known as the flamen curialis . When the 30 curiae gathered to make up the comitia curiata , they were presided over by a curio maximus , who until 209 BC was always a patrician. Originally,
4032-423: Was resolved. When the Dictator's term ended, constitutional government was restored. The last ordinary Dictator was appointed in 202 BC. After 202 BC, extreme emergencies were addressed through the passage of the decree senatus consultum ultimum ("ultimate decree of the senate"). This suspended civil government, declared martial law , and vested the consuls with Dictatorial powers. The executive magistrates of
4096-410: Was vested with the tribunician powers, his office and his person became sacrosanct, and thus it became a capital offense to harm or to obstruct the emperor. The emperor also had the authority to carry out a range of duties that, under the republic, had been performed by the Roman censors. Such duties included the authority to regulate public morality ( Censorship ) and to conduct a census . As part of
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