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121-556: The Basilica Julia was built on the site of the earlier Basilica Sempronia (170 BC) along the south side of the Forum, opposite the Basilica Aemilia . It was initially dedicated in 46 BC by Julius Caesar , with building costs paid from the spoils of the Gallic War , and was completed by Augustus , who named the building after his adoptive father. The ruins which have been excavated date to

242-413: A heroon possibly dedicated to the unknown founder of the city, based on the retrieved artifacts , which included eight bronze vases (i.e. six hydriai and two amphoras ). Other proposed interpretations of the structure included a Nymph sanctuary, the cenotaph of the founder of Sybaris , or a Chthonian sanctuary; however, as very little written records are available from the considered period,

363-459: A scanning electron microscope in the dental calculi of three female individuals from the Early Bronze Age. Furthermore, the analysis of the teeth of 28 females and one male from the same period, revealed evidence of activity-induced dental modifications that are consistent with yarn production, or weaving preparation, of small-diameter threads , which were repeatedly pulled across

484-480: A thwart , seated on a coil of hemp ? . One of the earliest authors from the Roman Republic to mention industrial hemp was satirist Gaius Lucilius , in the 2nd century B.C., who referenced thomices , an ancient greek word used to indicate lightly twisted ropes obtained from rough hemp and broom , out of which cords were made. The plant was later mentioned by Marcus Terentius Varro in his De re rustica ,

605-515: A volcanic crater about 2.07 km (1.29 mi) wide. This land reclamation project was carried out to remove the rotting fumes, as well as to prevent further outbreaks of the mosquito-borne malaria by reducing the local habitat of the Anopheles mosquito . Nevertheless, from the 17th century onwards, the hemp cultivation area in Campania steadily increased to include the southern part of

726-609: A cargo of six balls of wool and a small quantity of hemp. According to Pliny, Roman farmers would sow hemp seeds during spring and harvest the ripe hemp seeds after the autumn equinox , after which they were dried in the sun, or the wind, or by the smoke of a fire, while the hemp plants were plucked after the vintage , to be then peeled and cleaned. Moreover, according to the De re rustica by contemporary agricultural writer Lucius Columella , hemp plants require either rich , manured , and well-watered soil , or alternatively soil that

847-649: A clear consequence of the cultivation of hemp by the Romans, although the pre-Roman trends can be attributed to natural sources , and possibly to anthropogenic sources as well. Later peaks in the pollen records from central Italy also show clear evidence of hemp cultivation during the Medieval period . In terms of the earliest evidence of the processing of hemp for the production of strings and fabrics in Italy, three micro-fragments of what appear to be hemp fibers were detected through

968-421: A feeling of warmth and increase thirst . Moreover, if consumed in large quantities, these small cakes would affect the head by emitting a warm and toxic vapor, which produced torpor or sluggishness ; while it was also customary for the Romans to offer guests hemp seeds as a promoter of hilarity . Similarly, it has been hypothesized that Pliny probably referenced cannabis when mentioning gelotophyllis (i.e.

1089-450: A moderate supply of various kinds of ropes. The decline of this industry began when the local farmers started to switch to more profitable crops, while the few remaining artisan families continued their trade by sourcing hemp from Campania, until the last ropemakers left the Cave in 1984 due to the risk of collapse . And I will extol hemp and the true culture of such a noble shoot , that in

1210-557: A noteworthy center for the processing of hemp in Campania felix was located in Misenum , particularly for the production of hemp cordage for the ships in its important port. Most notably, refugees from Miseno eventually brought this trade to Frattamaggiore , which they reportedly founded around 850 A.D. after their hometown was raided and razed by the Saracens . After the fall of Rome, one of

1331-628: A powder of marvellous virtue, which he had gotten in the Levant from a great prince, who averred that 'twas wont to be used by the Old Man of the Mountain, when he would send any one to or bring him from his paradise, and that, without doing the recipient any harm, 'twould induce in him, according to the quantity of the dose, a sleep of such duration and quality that, while the efficacy of the powder lasted, none would deem him to be alive. Note. Excerpt translated from

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1452-569: A reconstruction of the Basilica by the Emperor Diocletian , after a fire in 283 AD destroyed the earlier structure. The first iteration of the Basilica Julia was begun around 54 BC by Julius Caesar , though it was left to his heir Augustus to complete the construction and name it in honor of his adoptive father. The basilica was built over the remains of two important Republican structures:

1573-456: A result, public water retting sites were established in Montagnana, Este , and Cologna Veneta, while appointed magistrates were charged with monitoring the implementation of the relevant laws. After the establishment of hemp fields in the area around Padua during the second half of the 15th century, Venice became independent from other countries for its strategic supplies. From the beginning,

1694-752: A specific licence issued by the authorities . After the victory of the Holy League against the Ottoman Empire at the Battle of Lepanto on 7 October 1571, the Venetian Senate charged the Arsenal with the upkeep of 100 thin galleys and 12 galleasses for the purpose of rapid deployment . Nevertheless, the heavy crisis of the late 16th century dealt a significant blow to the Venetian shipbuilding industry, leaving

1815-574: A stone-cutter. The Chevalier Frédenheim also undertook excavations between November, 1788 and March, 1789; Frédenheim dismantled much of the remaining colored marble pavement and removed many architectural fragments. The site was excavated by Pietro Rosa in 1850 who reconstructed a single marble column and travertine supports. In 1852 segments of concrete vaulting with stuccowork coffering was unearthed but later destroyed in 1872. [REDACTED] Media related to Basilica Julia (Rome) at Wikimedia Commons Basilica Sempronia The Basilica Sempronia

1936-613: A total area of about 2,635 m (28,363 sq ft) and a thickness ranging between 2 mm (0.08 in) and 4 mm (0.16 in), while the rigging ropes are currently made of both Manila hemp and nylon. Another noteworthy site for the production of ropes in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was located near the Ear of Dionysius in Syracuse, Sicily, where the wide humid spaces within

2057-401: A total of 84 pillars. The hemp was primarily used to manufacture cordage and sails for the Venetian fleet at low costs, but it was also used for caulking ship hulls . The ropes could also be sold at a lower price to foreign ships transiting at the port, thus making it competitive in the international market at the time, although sales from the Arsenal to private third parties required

2178-562: A variety of shops, leading the belief that the land once owned by Scipio was inherited by Tiberius in 184 BC upon Scipio's death, as Tiberius was married to his daughter, Cornelia Africana . In 54 BC, the Basilica Sempronia was demolished by Julius Caesar in order to build his Basilica Julia . Hemp in the Papal States The cultivation of cannabis in Italy has a long history dating back to Roman times , when it

2299-469: A winding rope connecting the wheel to several interchangeable wooden cylinders of different dimensions, depending on the final size of the rope to be produced, which were located a few meters away. The rotating wheel would make such cylinders spin, and they could be used to either twist a twine (with a single cylinder), or intertwine three or four strings (with multiple cylinders) to produce different types of rope. Several other tools were used to keep

2420-508: A work on agriculture written in 37 B.C., where hemp is listed together with other plants used for their fibers, namely flax , reeds , palm , and bulrushes . In the 1st century A.D., Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder described in his Naturalis Historia the cultivation and use of cannabis plants in the Roman Empire , both for industrial and medical purposes, while hemp is also mentioned in

2541-463: Is level , moist , and deeply worked . Ancient Romans would plant six hemp seeds per pes quadratus (0.0876 m ; 0.943 sq ft) toward the end of February however, if the weather was rainy, sowing could be done up to the spring equinox without harming the crop. One of the last Roman authors to mention hemp was Palladius in his Opus agriculturae , a treatise written around the late 4th – early 5th century A.D., which essentially repeats what

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2662-409: Is mentioned in catalogues from the 12th through the 15th centuries. Other parts of the basilica were sectioned off in the medieval period for the use of different trades. The marble workers, or marmorarii , took up most of the remaining space not occupied by the church in the 11th century for re-fashioning and selling marble architectural ornaments; the eastern aisle was occupied by the rope-makers and

2783-407: Is more water resistant than flax fiber. Furthermore, hemp seeds have been used for food for several centuries , especially by the poorer social classes, since they were inexpensive, rich in nutrients , and available even during droughts. In fact, several centuries-old Italian recipes use cannabis sativa as the main ingredient , and these recipes include: So he selected from among his drugs

2904-560: The Constitutiones Augustales , which included provisions to protect populated places in the Kingdom from the decomposition fumes emanating from the maceration basins . In particular, the provisions ordered that no one should be permitted to soak flax or hemp in water within a mile of any city or near a Castrum so that the quality of the air may not, as we have learned for certain, be corrupted by it , while anyone violating

3025-519: The Grotta dei Cordari (i.e. Cave of the Ropemakers) have been used as ropewalks for centuries. The ropemakers of Syracuse formed their own guild , and in 1577 they were granted their own church, which subsequently became known as San Nicolò ai Cordari . At the time, the local hemp cultivation was significantly developed and profitable, and the produced fibers were in part used by the cordari to provide

3146-651: The Albano and Nemi lakes . The presence of cannabis pollen grains in sediments dated to the early Holocene suggests that the plant could have been introduced earlier, or that an indigenous hemp population may have already been present in the area before its domestication during the Bronze Age . Other prehistoric sites where sediment cores revealed the presence of hemp include the Great Lake of Monticchio , in Basilicata ; and

3267-636: The Annone and Alserio lakes in Lombardy , from 5000 B.C. onwards. Furthermore, while the sites where hemp pollen has been found are currently scarce for the Bronze Age, they increase in number for the Iron Age , especially during the centuries of Roman domination. In regard to the sediment cores from central Italy, humulus pollen values increase during the mid Holocene , while hemp pollen grains become more frequent at

3388-473: The Basilica Sempronia , which was demolished by Caesar to make way for the new basilica, and pre-dating both, the house of Scipio Africanus , Rome's legendary general. The Basilica Sempronia was built in 169 BC by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus and required the demolition of the house of Africanus and a number of shops to make room. The first Basilica Julia burned in 9 AD, shortly after completion, but it

3509-737: The Black Sea to the Republic of Genoa , Venice further imported hemp mainly from Emilia , and to a lesser extent the Marches , Piedmont , and the Middle East, while also incentivizing its own domestic production. In the Republic of Venice , industrial cannabis was a state monopoly whose price was fixed for public uses, while both its hoarding and exportation were prohibited, and its maceration and storage were strictly regulated. The strategic importance of

3630-552: The Carthaginians would make an infusion potent enough to give fighting men " Dutch courage " is less certain . Tun' mare transilias? Tibi torta cannabe fulto coena sit in transtro? Note. Apostrophe from the Satura V by Persius, directed at Lucius Annaeus Cornutus , attesting the use of hemp ropes in Roman ships , meaning Would you bound over the sea ? Would you have your dinner on

3751-621: The Decamerone by Boccaccio, which references the use of hashish among the Assassins. One of the earliest mentions of the use of hashish in the Italian literature can be found in Il Milione , an account of Venetian merchant and explorer Marco Polo 's travels through Asia between 1271 and 1295, that was written down by Pisan romance writer Rusticiano , with whom Marco Polo shared his prison cell in

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3872-448: The Kingdom of Naples , to manufacture high-quality cordage from hemp as part of the local shipyard , which was founded in 1773 by royal decree of King Ferdinand IV of Naples . Two notable examples of Royal Italian Navy ships that were later built at said shipyard, and also supplied by the associated ropeyard, were the training ships RNS Cristoforo Colombo and Amerigo Vespucci . The RNS Cristoforo Colombo , launched in 1928,

3993-636: The Republic of Genoa , after his capture during the War of Curzola of 1295–1299. In the travelogue , the two authors talk about the Old Man of the Mountain , in reference to Persian leader Hasan-i Sabbah , who founded the Nizari Ismaili state in 1090 after taking control of the mountain fortress of Alamut ; and the Order of Assassins , of which Hasan-i Sabbah was the first Grand Master , and whose very name derives from

4114-456: The Ruralia commoda , which includes a section on the cultivation of industrial cannabis at the time. In the treatise, hemp is described as having the same nature as flax, namely requiring similar air and soil, although the latter does not need to be ploughed as much. Nevertheless, for the production of ropes, the seeds must be planted in rich soil, to increase the resulting yield, while the sparser

4235-552: The Sabine territory to be particularly tall. In regard to woven fabrics , archaeological excavations at Pompeii , in Campania felix (i.e. part of what is now Campania), unearthed samples of hemp textiles that had been preserved by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 A.D., reportedly including cloth sandals made of hemp, although linen was generally preferred in Antiquity for

4356-557: The Tana hemp house on 7 July 1302, as part of the first enlargement of the Arsenal, to localize the storage of hemp and the production of ropes. Located on the southern side of the Arsenal, the elongated ropewalks were later reconstructed between 1579 and 1585 under architect Antonio da Ponte , resulting in a 317 m (1,040 ft) long and 21 m (68.9 ft) wide building divided into three aisles by two rows of 6 m (19.7 ft) tall and 1 m (3.3 ft) wide brick columns, for

4477-761: The Tana hemp house. The used raw hemp was mainly imported through trade agreements from the Don river delta , on the Azov Sea , where the Venetians established several trading posts , whose importance is attested by the fact that the Tana hemp house most likely derived its name from Tanais , the ancient greek name for both the Don river and the Greek colony on its delta . Nevertheless, to maintain favorable prices and ensure steady supplies , especially after losing their trading posts on

4598-533: The Teutons were a major factor in the spread of the cultivation of hemp throughout Europe. Another proposed theory is that hemp may have been introduced into the continent by the earliest incursions of the Aryans into Thrace and Western Europe, although no evidence of its presence was found in the lake dwellings of Switzerland and northern Italy . Still other sources attribute the introduction of hemp into Italy to

4719-469: The Vicus Tuscus to the east. The ground floor was divided into five east–west aisles inside, with the central aisle forming a large hall that measured 82x18 meters, sheltered by a three-story high roof. The adjoining aisles to the north and south of the central hall were divided by marble-faced brick columns which supported concrete arcades; the columns in turn supported the upper level of the basilica, which

4840-532: The Visdomini alla Tana , who were elected by the Major Council, and one of the required checks was that the ropes produced for vessels had to be made from exactly 1,098 twisted hemp strings. When needed, the rope would be taken out of storage through dedicated holes, and cut at the required size, rather than already being produced at standardized lengths, while the fiber of any leftover would be repurposed. After

4961-554: The agricultural policy project that allowed for this outcome was a joint venture between the public and private sectors, which gave rise to a hybrid organization by which the State determined cultivation procedures, quantities, and price, while the private land owners provided the fields and manpower. As a result of the widespread control exercised by the State, the hemp production in the Domini di Terraferma eventually became an exstension of

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5082-594: The arrivals of both the Scythians and the Illyrians between the 10th and the 8th centuries B.C. while, by the 6th and 5th centuries B.C., hemp cultivation was present throughout Italy . In any case, the oldest evidence of the presence of cannabis and humulus in central Italy dates back to the Late Glacial , long before the development of agriculture in western Eurasia , as inferred from sediment cores extracted from

5203-559: The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 A.D., and the concurrent migration period lasting between the 4th and 6th centuries A.D., detailed information on the cultivation of hemp in Italy before 1000 A.D. is scarce, even though its processing for industrial and commercial purposes is well attested during that period. Nevertheless, cannabis cultivation across the Italian peninsula must have been severely limited, particularly between

5324-627: The fall of the Republic of Venice in 1797, with the arrival of Napoleon , the Tana hemp house ended its centuries-old activity, to be then turned into a warehouse , while it has more recently been used as an exhibition center during the Venice Biennale since 1980. The production of ropes was instead moved to the Corte dei Cordami (i.e. Cordage Courtyard) on the island of Giudecca , where hawsers were still being twisted in open-air ropewalks, and activities continued there up until 1995. The legacy of

5445-425: The lower demand for hemp products at the time. In 2018, excavations on the eastern bank of the ancient Natiso cum Turro river of Aquileia , in the area of Venetia et Histria that is now Friuli-Venezia Giulia , revealed the first system of basins from the Roman world that is known to have been used for the maceration of hemp, as inferred from archaeobotanical and archaeo-palynological studies of

5566-467: The main Mediterranean ritual organic matters (e.g. honey, olive oil, and wine), it could not be attributed to a possible local heroic cult ; while the fact that the pollen mainly came from male cannabis plants ruled out the use of said plants for intoxicating purposes. Instead, the presence of cannabis could be attributed to environmental contamination, whether during the processing of the content (if

5687-513: The site . The long and shallow pools were dated between the late 2nd – 3rd A.D. and the late 3rd – early 4th century A.D.; they were delimited by parapets made of clay , sand , and tiny pebbles ; and they were coated with thin layers of cocciopesto for waterproofing . Similarly to more recent water retting procedures , the harvested stalks of cannabis sativa were bundled into sheaves and then submerged into either stagnant or running water by tying them to dedicated poles, to extract

5808-461: The spinning phase. While using scutching tools with ever-finer teeth, the finest of which could have a teeth spacing as small as 1 mm (0.04 in), the artisans would gradually separate the different fibers based on their qualities, including their robustness and color. The spinning mechanism consisted in a large rotating wooden wheel , placed vertically and firmly fixed to the ground, equipped with laterally protruding rods that supported

5929-459: The 13th and 14th centuries. In fact, since the Middle Ages, hemp became the only fiber used in rope manufacturing and later, since the 16th century, a fundamental material for the construction of sails; and the substantial increase in the demand from arsenals drove up the price of hemp and incentivized its cultivation. The large quantities of hemp needed for the shipbuilding industry also led to

6050-475: The 13th century, as attested in an official document from the civil authorities of Montagnana , which in 1290 prohibited the drying of the processed hemp in public places , to protect passers-by from its foul odor. Conversely, the mass production of naval ropes, cables , and hawsers from hemp at the Venetian Arsenal commenced between 1303 and 1322, when the first corderia was established, known as

6171-580: The 1st century, it also was used for sessions of the Centumviri ( Court of the Hundred ), who presided over matters of inheritance. In his Epistles , Pliny the Younger describes the scene as he pleaded for a senatorial lady whose 80-year-old father had disinherited her ten days after taking a new wife. Suetonius states that Caligula greatly enjoyed showering the crowd in the forum below with money while standing on

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6292-594: The 4th and 8th centuries A.D. , considering that as much as two-thirds of the countryside was reportedly left in a state of almost complete abandon . The mass cultivation of industrial cannabis in Medieval Italy started during the High Middle Ages , with the demographic and agricultural recoveries , the emergence of the textile industry , the rise of Medieval communes and the Maritime Republics , and

6413-490: The Arsenal with a halved reserve of galleys in 1633. According to contemporary estimates, an 800- botti ship in 1586 required around 24 t (23.6 long tons) of hemp to supply its shrouds and cordage; while the hemp used for sails, ropes, and shrouds, represented 30% of the total cost of a galley in 1600. In addition to the state-controlled production aimed at the needs of the Navy, private enterprises were also established for

6534-513: The Arsenal. Conversely, the Emilian model , which was typical of the provinces of Bologna and Ferrara , was strongly export-oriented and it was based on the mezzadria farming system by which, for instance, Bolognese landowners could relegate most of the production costs and risks to the farmers, while also keeping for themselves the largest share of the profits. From the 18th century onwards, hemp production in Italy established itself as one of

6655-429: The Basilica Julia was undertaken by the Urban Prefect Gabinius Vettius Probianus in 416 AD, who also relocated several Greek statues by the sculptors Polykleitos and Timarchus for display near the center of the façade. The inscribed bases of these statues recording the restoration still survive. The Basilica Julia was partially destroyed in 410 AD when the Visigoths sacked Rome and the site slowly fell into ruin over

6776-402: The Tana [...] is the security of our galleys and ships and similarly of our sailors and capital. Note. Declaration attributed to the Venetian Senate, on the strategic importance of hemp ropes for the naval strength of the Republic. In the context of the heavy losses suffered by the Venetian Navy at the Battle of Curzola on 9 September 1298, the Major Council approved the construction of

6897-443: The aforementioned fairs also attracted merchants from the rest of the Italian states , Dalmatia , and Greece ; while the Maritime Republics on the Tyrrhenian Sea supplied their arsenals with both raw and woven hemp from the ports of Naples and Amalfi . Under Frederick II, the exportation of hemp was subjected to the jus exiturae (i.e. right of exit), that is an exit tariff equal to 3 grana for every 100 canes of hemp; while

7018-475: The area around Aquileia, found usage in Antiquity in the maceration of both hemp and flax, which were then used in the production of cordage and fishing nets, in the manufacture of wool blend fabrics, as well as in the processing of both wool and wool products. In Italia, different parts of the hemp plants were used for various culinary purposes , in particular Pliny mentions hemp seeds being stored in pots for later use and lasting for as much as one year, while

7139-423: The basilica revealed that it was most likely constructed using tufa blocks, as was common in buildings of the time. Weak areas in the building may have been reinforced with travertine blocks, and the entire facade would most likely have been covered in stucco to hide the masonry as well as decorate it. The roof would have resembled those of temples and would have been made of wooden trusses and beams. The exterior of

7260-428: The centuries. The marble was especially valuable in the medieval and early modern eras for burning into lime , a material used to make mortar. The remnants of kilns on the site, which were found in early excavations, confirmed that most of the building's components were destroyed in this way. Part of the remains of the basilica were converted into a church, generally identified as that of Santa Maria de Cannapara which

7381-457: The coastal seabed of the Central Adriatic region, from a time when these sites would have been above sea level . Traces of hemp pollen have also been found in several Neolithic sites in anthropogenic contexts , which would indicate the probable cultivation of the plant during that period. These include three Middle Neolithic (i.e. 4500–4000 B.C.) sites in the areas of Piacenza , Parma , and Forlì in Emilia-Romagna; as well as other sites near

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7502-400: The cultivation and trade of hemp by the Romans in the peninsula , namely a sepulchral inscription uncovered in Bovolenta and dated between the 2nd and 3rd centuries A.D., that mentions the cannabetum (i.e. an area reserved to hemp cultivation); and a lead tag uncovered in the area around Altinum , in Venetia , and dated between the 1st century B.C. and the 1st century A.D., that labelled

7623-454: The decree would be brought to the royal court and have their macerated goods confiscated . In regard to the disposal of any waste from the retting process, the provisions also stipulate that any filth that make a stench should be thrown a quarter of a mile out of the district or into the sea or river by the persons to whom they belong , while anyone doing otherwise would have to pay the royal court as much as one augustalis , depending on

7744-440: The dental calculi of 27 individuals buried in a Roman necropolis, which was discovered in 2015 near Passo Corese , in Lazio . The studied fragments, most likely hemp fibers, were identified through observations made under optical microscope , which were then cross-referenced with the available laboratory collections of fibers, literature data, as well as the particular cultural and chronological context. The proposed reasons for

7865-412: The development of hemp cultivations in the territories of Polesine , Vicenza , Belluno , and Treviso . In fact, while Venice was never able to completely remove the need for hemp supplies from Bologna , the project did give hemp cultivation a stable role in the Veneto agriculture from the 18th century onwards, with the creation of an agro-industrial chain. The manufacture of cordage in our house of

7986-480: The emergence of dedicated supply chains , with groups of merchants providing investments and organizing the transport of the fiber; as well as of specialized productions, with the hemp produced for arsenals acquiring specific characteristics when compared to the hemp intended for the general population. Between 1304 and 1309, Bolognese jurist and landowner Pietro de' Crescenzi compiled an agricultural treatise entitled De agricultura vulgare , alternatively known as

8107-467: The establishment of annual fairs in the towns of Sulmona , Capua , Lucera , Bari , Taranto , Cosenza , Lanciano , and L'Aquila , on the occasions of their respective patron saints and lasting several days. At the time, the Kingdom of Sicily exported on average a third of its crops, which included hemp; and its maritime trade reached most notably the Byzantine Empire , Egypt , Spain , and France . Furthermore, in addition to local attendees,

8228-419: The fiber. According to studies carried out in Venetia , hemp cultivation in the Upper Adriatic region was not intensive , rather it was either the result of self-sufficiency policies or, if it occurred on a larger scale, a complementary sector to the local wool industry, which was well developed in Aquileia at the time. In addition, sulphurous waters from hot springs , such as those that can be found in

8349-399: The find attests to the likelihood that the earliest introduction of hemp in Britain came by Roman agency. The hemp fiber was mainly used by the Romans to produce ropes , sheets , wickers , and nets ; in particular Pliny mentions three Alabandica varieties to be the best ones to be used for hunting nets , the variety cultivated in Mylasa to be the second best, and the hemp grown in

8470-622: The first notable large-scale productions of hemp in Italy was established in the Emirate of Sicily starting from the 9th century, during the Arab domination . Cannabis cultivation in southern Italy continued during the Middle Ages , particularly for the production of textiles, with the establishment of renowned workshops under King Roger II of Sicily , which produced purple and golden fabrics , as well as textiles made from wool, hemp, and linen, for both local and foreign customers. To regulate and increase both manufacturing and commerce, Emperor Frederick II promulgated several measures, including

8591-417: The fronts and sides of the individuals' upper incisors and canines . All the examined individuals were buried in an ancient cemetery located in Gricignano di Aversa , in southern Italy , and traces of hemp were also found attached to a metal blade, possibly the remains of a fabric sheath , in the tomb of an adult male within the same site. These findings show the importance that hemp fabrics had in

8712-545: The increase of their trade in the Mediterranean Sea . For instance, while linen was the main material used in sail production throughout Antiquity, to be then replaced by fustians (i.e. a mixed fiber of cotton and wool ) during the Early Middle Ages , the greater resistance of hemp made it better suited for the new sailing structures required for the ships of ever-increasing tonnage that were being built between

8833-451: The kernels of pine nuts were taken with pepper and honey in palm wine . In 2019, a scientific study was published which aimed at reconstructing the lifestyle of a Roman Imperial community, that lived between the 1st and 3rd centuries A.D. near the ancient town of Cures , in Sabinum . As part of the ethnobotanical evidence, 11 micro-residues of Cannabaceae plant tissue were recovered from

8954-553: The leaves of laughter), which he said grew along the Borysthenes river, in Scythia , as well as in Bactria , an ancient country located in the northeastern part of modern-day Afghanistan , or at least in the general area of central Asia. According to Pliny, if these leaves were taken in myrrh and wine , all kinds of phantoms would beset the mind, causing a laughter that persisted until

9075-772: The local needs for fabrics and ropes. Known as canapa in Italian , the historical ubiquity of hemp is reflected in the different variations of the name given to the plant in the various regions, including canape , càneva , canava , and canva (or canavòn for female plants) in northern Italy; canapuccia and canapone in the Po Valley ; cànnavo in Naples ; cànnavu in Calabria ; cannavusa and cànnavu in Sicily ; cànnau and cagnu in Sardinia . The mass cultivation of industrial cannabis for

9196-659: The manufacture of hemp yarns , ropes, and textiles, which became the subject of significant trade over time. As an example, the Morosini family oversaw a large trade network by the end of the 15th century, through which the patricians exported significant quantities of textiles, including hemp fabrics, all over the Mediterranean and the Near East . In particular, from the emporium that the Morosini established in Aleppo , such products could reach

9317-459: The markets of Damascus , Beirut , Famagosta , and Nicosia , among others. At the hemp house , the hemp fiber would arrive in large square bales , already macerated and dry, and it would be forcefully slammed against a wooden pole, equipped with metal rods, to complete the breakage of the stalk. The remaining woody fragments would then be removed using comb -like tools of different shapes for both coarser and finer combing , in preparation for

9438-530: The modern-day Province of Caserta , and most of the former Province of Naples , including the sides of Mount Vesuvius. Furthermore, according to an economic census compiled under King Joachim-Napoleon , during the French rule of the Kingdom of Naples between 1806 and 1815, hemp fields were mainly located in the fertile Volturno river basin , between the comuni of Capua, Caserta , Maddaloni , and Aversa ; while significant exports of hemp from Naples towards

9559-455: The most important industries at an international level , with the most productive areas being located in Emilia-Romagna , Campania , and Piedmont . The well renowned and flourishing Italian hemp sector continued well after the unification of the country in 1861, only to experience a sudden decline during the second half of the 20th century , with the introduction of synthetic fibers and

9680-402: The oil traces are indeed from hemp), the deposition of the vases and the sealing of the room, or possibly more recently during the excavation , storage, and handling of the archaeological find. Although the oil processing hypothesis is unlikely due to the fact that hemp oil would have been produced from the seeds of female plants, airborne pollen contamination from a local cultivation area before

9801-531: The once-thriving hemp rope industry, as well as many other related activities, is attested in the toponyms of several streets in Venice. The cultivation of hemp in southern Italy dates back to the Roman Empire, although the earliest records of its presence in the region attest that King Hiero II of Syracuse bought hemp from Gaul in the 3rd century B.C., to produce cordage for his vessels. During Roman times,

9922-403: The organic content of the vases constitutes the primary source of knowledge regarding the purpose of the sacellum . In 2023, a scientific research paper was published regarding the detection of a significant quantity of cannabis pollen inside some of the hydriai, as well as of oil traces that were compatible with hemp oil . As the analyzed organic content of the vases was not consistent with

10043-467: The organizational structure of the Arsenal. In order to further protect its domestic production, the Venetian Republic ended up imposing heavy import duties on hemp fiber in the second half of the 16th century, and eventually banned its importation altogether. Even though such measures received significant criticism due to their various repercussions on both trade and industries, they also resulted in

10164-466: The presence of hemp fibers in the analyzed dental calculi include their possible inhalation during hemp processing activities; the ingestion of food and beverages whose ingredients had been preserved in hemp sacks; and the intake of hemp exudates and extracts for therapeutic purposes. Canapa, lino, e lenta, prima semenza. Note. Umbrian proverb from Valnerina on the importance of hemp, meaning Hemp, flax, and lentil , first among seeds . After

10285-580: The price of 30 canes of hemp was reported equal to 3 tarì and 8 grana , in a 1290 expenses register from the household of King Charles II of Naples . La canapa per l'Annunziata, o seminata o nata. Note. Proverb on the sowing period for hemp, meaning The hemp for the Annunciation , either sown or born , with the Feast of the Annunciation being celebrated on 25 March. In 1231, Frederick II promulgated

10406-540: The production of canvas , sails , and clothing. In 1992, further textile samples were recovered from a lead sarcophagus that belonged to an upper-class elderly woman , who lived between the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., and was buried in a Roman necropolis located in Albintimilium , in the coastal area of Liguria that now constitutes the Region of the same name . Based on morphological and morphometrical analyses ,

10527-491: The production of hemp fiber in Italy really took off during the period of the Maritime Republics and the Age of Sail , due to its strategic importance for the naval industry. In particular, two main economic models were implemented between the 15th and 19th centuries for the cultivation of hemp, and their primary differences essentially derived from the diverse relationships between landowners and hemp producers. The Venetian model

10648-584: The quantity of the illegal waste . After significant public protests , King Charles II of Anjou decreed the closure and reclamation of several maceration sites around Naples in 1300 and 1306, even though the Royal coffers significantly benefited from renting state-owned wetlands and canals for the retting of both flax and hemp. Similar reclamation projects followed during the Angevin and Aragonese periods , until King Alfonso I of Aragon permanently moved

10769-475: The raw material for shipbuilding is also attested by its exemption from tariffs , as well as by several deliberations and provisions from both the Venetian Judiciary and Senate , that were aimed at the protection and promotion of hemp cultivation in the mainland . In particular, after its expansion into the Venetian hinterland at the beginning of the 15th century, the Republic started investing in

10890-588: The recovered fibers were later identified as most likely being fragments of cannabis sativa , although a slight chance was recognized that they could actually belong to low quality linen. In terms of the extension of hemp cultivation in Italia , precise information is not available besides a few unverified archaeological data and the hemp variety mentioned by Pliny, which was grown in the area of Reate , in Sabinum . Nevertheless, two important epigraphic sources attest to

11011-456: The region at the time, as well as clear gender-based role divisions in the manufacturing of fibers. In 1954, a now-famous hypogaeum was excavated by Italian archaeologist Pellegrino Claudio Sestieri in the Ancient Greek colony of Poseidonia , Magna Graecia , in the area of modern-day Capaccio Paestum . Dated to the late 6th century B.C., the underground structure was identified as

11132-491: The rest of Europe were recorded around 1840. The legacy of the once-flourishing industry of hemp cultivation and processing in the area is attested in the toponyms of several streets and towns around Naples, while the comuni of Arzano and San Marco Evangelista even show a hemp plant in their coats of arms . The oldest corderia that is still operating in Italy was established in 1796 in Castellammare di Stabia , in

11253-469: The retting sites to the shallow Agnano lake , about 8 km (4.97 mi) west of Naples. Moreover, the Miano - Agnano highway, known as Via dei Canapi (i.e. Hemp street), was constructed to facilitate the transport of hemp between the fields North of Naples and the maceration sites at the lake, while also avoiding population centers. Despite two temporary bans, the first one during the plague of 1656 and

11374-581: The roof of the Basilica Julia. It was the favorite meeting place of the Roman people. This basilica housed public meeting places and shops, but it was mainly used as a law court. On the pavement of the portico, there are diagrams of games scratched into the white marble. One stone, on the upper tier of the side facing the Curia , is marked with an eight by eight square grid on which games similar to chess or checkers could have been played. The last recorded restoration of

11495-412: The roof would have been covered in tiles to protect the roof from the elements, and the interior would have been coffered to lessen the weight and finished in stucco. The Basilica Sempronia was built in 169 BC by Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus , a Roman political figure who was chosen censor at the time of the basilica's creation. It was built over an area that once held the house of Scipio Africanus and

11616-447: The room was closed is possible, with male hemp plants usually flowering earlier than female ones . Other potential causes also include a contemporary symbolic use of hemp plants, and the possible use of hemp textiles to decorate the room, since male plants were the preferred source of fiber. In 1969, the remains of two Punic ships from the 3rd century B.C. were discovered off the shore of Isola Lunga , not far from Lilybaion , on

11737-400: The rope always tightly stretched, while also sustaining its weight along the ropewalk; to avoid hand contact with the rope during twisting; and to keep it constantly lubricated , thus preventing any damage from friction -related heat. Afterwards, the rope was soaked overnight, since the water would cause the twisted fibers to stick together, which would therefore increase the compactness of

11858-489: The rope. As a final touch, an iron mesh would subsequently be used to rub the rope, to remove the last few remaining streaks, while a stretch of coarse rope would be rolled up and run around the rope for a final smoothing and polishing . The produced ropes would then be safely stored, thus creating strategic stockpiles that would allow the Republic to remain independent from external suppliers during wartime. These stockpiles were overseen by three magistrates , known as

11979-468: The satires of Persius and Juvenal . As the Roman territories expanded, the cultivation and use of cannabis plants spread to various parts of both Italy and the wider European continent . As an example, several pieces of rope tentatively identified as made of hemp were found within the well of a Roman fort in Dunbartonshire , Caledonia , which was occupied during the period 140–180 A.D., and

12100-659: The second one following the death of one of the sons of Viceroy Gaspar de Bracamonte from an infection in Pozzuoli in 1663, retting activities continued in the Phlegraean Fields until the second half of the 19th century, when they became unprofitable. Subsequently, the Agnano lake was decontaminated and drained between 1866 and 1870, with its surface at the time spanning between 90 ha (0.9 km ; 0.3 sq mi) and 130 ha (1.3 km ; 0.5 sq mi) within

12221-411: The seeds are planted, the more ramified the grown plants will be. Conversely, for the production of textiles such as cloth sacks , sheets, or shirts, the soil does not need to be as rich, while the seeds must be more densely sowed, to obtain plants without branches, which are more suitable for such products . Moreover, hemp fiber is described as necessary for the production of fishing nets , since it

12342-503: The side of the basilica facing the Via Sacra , and there is also access from a taller flight of steps (the ground being lower here) at the end of the basilica facing the Temple of Castor and Pollux . The earliest excavations of the Basilica Julia in the late 15th and 16th centuries were destructive, their main purpose being to recover valuable travertine and marble for re-use. In 1496, travertine

12463-622: The stalks and branches were used as vegetables. Most notably, a recipe for cannabis-based food intended to be consumed at wedding receptions can be found in the De re culinaria , a collection of Roman cookery recipes thought to have been compiled in the 5th century A.D., and whose authorship is unclear. In terms of the contemporary beliefs on cannabis plants and the effects of their personal use , according to Pliny, wild hemp first grew in woods and had darker and rougher leaves, while its seeds were said to cause impotence . The juice derived from it

12584-533: The start of the war on drugs, and only recently it is slowly experiencing a resurgence . The family of Cannabaceae includes the two genera of cannabis and humulus , with the former believed to be native exclusively to Asia, while the latter also to Europe. In particular, while humulus naturally dispersed from Asia to Europe without human agency , cannabis is commonly thought to have been spread by humans once its multiple uses, most importantly those involving its fiber, had been discovered and developed by

12705-589: The stems were always found in association with food , in the presumed area of the ship's kitchen, it was postulated that cannabis could have been consumed by the Punic oarsmen possibly for its supposed mind-focusing abilities . Such postulation was based on a 1972 study on the use of the drug by Jamaican workmen , which states that almost without exception users maintain that ganja enhances their ability to perform manual labour, and they regularly consume ganja with this objective ; however, Dr. Frost recognized that whether

12826-408: The territory of Montagnana already in 1412, with the establishment of a warehouse where the locally produced hemp would be stored, prior to its transportation to Venice. Moreover, the patricians Nicolò Tron and Giovanni Moro were sent in 1455 to the districts of Montagnana and Cologna Veneta , to oversee the necessary hydraulic projects for the construction of several hemp maceration sites. As

12947-514: The transition between the Neolithic and the Copper Age , with concentrations increasing and becoming more common only from the Bronze Age onwards. In addition, the sediment records show an increase in the human influence on the local vegetation , with hemp pollen values starting to rise from about 3000 cal BP (i.e. 1050 B.C.) onwards, and reaching their earliest peak during the 1st century A.D., as

13068-478: The various cultures . At present, cannabis sativa is classified as an archaeophyte alien species for Italy, with sporadic wild occurrences being attributed to escaped plants , which are non-naturalized and distinct from the wild oriental varieties. According to Greek historian and geographer Herodotus , the Scythians brought hemp from Central Asia to Europe during their migrations around 1500 B.C., while

13189-778: The western coast of Carthaginian Sicily . The two ships are believed to have been sunk during the First Punic War of 264–241 B.C., specifically at the Battle of the Aegates of 10 March 241 B.C., which was fought between the Carthaginian and Roman fleets . In 1971, a team led by the Cypriot-English pioneer of underwater archaeology Honor Frost uncovered from the site a few baskets that contained distinctive yellowish stems , no more than 3 cm (1.18 in) in length, which were later identified as similar to cannabis sativa . As

13310-665: The word hashshāshīn (i.e. hashish users). Both the drug and the Old Man were later referenced in the Decamerone , a collection of short stories written by Florentine poet and Renaissance humanist Giovanni Boccaccio in 1353. Se la luna xe in colore, el canego more. Note. Venetian proverb from the popular tradition , meaning If the Moon is in color , the hemp dies . The cultivation of industrial cannabis in Veneto dates back to at least

13431-470: Was a full-rigged three-masted tall ship that had twenty-six sails made from textile hemp, for a total area of about 2,500 m (26,910 sq ft), while the rigging ropes were made of both hemp and Manila hemp . The slightly larger twin ship NS Amerigo Vespucci , launched in 1931 and still in operation with the Italian Navy to the present day, has twenty-four sails made from textile hemp, for

13552-637: Was a structure in the Roman Forum during the Republican period. It was one of four basilicas to make up the original Roman Forum alongside the Basilica Porcia , Basilica Aemilia , and Basilica Opimia , and was the third built. Although excavations have revealed remains of the basilica as well as the structures that originally stood in its place, none of them are visible from the Roman Forum. Excavation of

13673-485: Was also attested by contemporary Greek physician and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides in his De Materia Medica , a pharmacopoeia that mainly focuses on medicinal plants . In regard to the recreational use of cannabis in the Roman Empire , 2nd century Greek physician and philosopher Claudius Galenus wrote that it was customary in Italia to serve small cannabis-based cakes for dessert, whose seeds would reportedly create

13794-465: Was based on a state monopoly system, by which the farmers had to sell the harvested hemp to the Arsenal at an imposed price, in order to ensure preferential, regular, and advantageous supplies of the raw material for the navy, as a matter of national security . Such system was particularly developed in the southern part of the province of Padua , which was under the direct control of the administrators of

13915-451: Was called the Cannaparia as a result. In the 16th century, the long-buried site of the Basilica was used as a burial ground for patients of the adjacent Ospedale della Consolazione . The building consists now only of a rectangular area, levelled off and raised about one metre above ground level, with jumbled blocks of stone lying within its area. A row of marble steps runs full length along

14036-568: Was mined from the ruins to build the façade of the Palazzo Torlonia , the Roman palace of Cardinal Adriano Castellesi . There were also excavations in 1500, 1511–12, and 1514, as well as a destructive excavation in 1742 which uncovered the portion of the Cloaca Maxima which runs underneath the basilica. In the process the Giallo antico yellow marble which covered the floor was stripped and sold to

14157-522: Was primarily used to produce hemp ropes, although pollen records from core samples show that Cannabaceae plants were present in the Italian peninsula since at least the Late Pleistocene , while the earliest evidence of their use dates back to the Bronze Age . For a long time after the fall of Rome in the 5th century A.D., the cultivation of hemp, although present in several Italian regions, mostly consisted in small-scale productions aimed at satisfying

14278-563: Was reconstructed, enlarged, and rededicated to Augustus' adoptive sons Gaius and Lucius in 12 AD. The Basilica was restored after a fire in 199 AD by Septimius Severus , and later reconstructed by the Emperor Diocletian after another fire in 283 AD. The Basilica is bordered on its short sides by two important ancient roads which led from the Tiber to the Forum: the Vicus Jugarius to the west, and

14399-694: Was reported by Columella on cannabis cultivation. In terms of articles of commerce, useful information on the price of both hemp and hemp-derived products can be found in the Edict on Maximum Prices , issued in 301 A.D. by Emperor Diocletian , which established price caps equal to 80 denarii per modius (8.73 L; 1.92 imp gal ) of hemp seeds, and 4 denarii per libra (372.5 g; 131.4 oz ) of processed hemp, while it increased to 6 and 8 denarii for ropes and strings, respectively. These maximum prices were relatively modest when compared to more expensive products, such as flax seeds, linen, and wool , which attests to

14520-541: Was used as a public gallery. The floor of the central hall was paved in colorful polychrome marble slabs, contrasting with the plain white marble of the adjoining aisles. The Basilica's façade as it appeared after the Augustan restoration was two stories high and arcaded, with engaged Carrara marble columns decorating the piers between the arches on both levels. The Basilica housed the civil law courts and tabernae (shops), and provided space for government offices and banking. In

14641-664: Was used to drive out worms and other creatures that could enter the ears, although it would cause headache as a side effect , and it was said to be so potent that it was able to coagulate water when it was poured into it. Furthermore, when the hemp juice was mixed with water and then drunk by beasts of burden , it was said to be able to regulate their bowels . In regard to medical properties, hemp roots boiled in water were thought to ease cramped joints , gout , and similar violent pains, while they could also be applied raw to burns , but they would be changed before getting dry. The ability of boiled cannabis roots to lessen inflammation

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