The following is a list of works by Bede .
165-498: At the end of Bede's most famous work, the Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , Bede lists his works. His list includes several books that have not survived to the present day; it also omits a few works of his which he either omitted or which he wrote after he finished the Historia . His list follows, with an English translation given; the title used to describe the work in this article
330-500: A Frankish ceremony in his consecration of churches later in his life, as well as in his employment of Frankish masons to build his churches. Wilfrid would also have learned of the Rule of Saint Benedict in Gaul, as Columbanus' monasteries followed that monastic rule. After Wilfrid's return to Northumbria in about 658, Cenwalh , King of Wessex , recommended Wilfrid to Alhfrith , Oswiu's son, as
495-442: A cast of saints rather than rude warriors; a mastery of historical technique incomparable for its time; beauty of form and diction; and, not least, an author whose qualities of life and spirit set a model of dedicated scholarship." Goffart also feels that a major theme of the Historia is local, Northumbrian concerns, and that Bede treated matters outside Northumbria as secondary to his main concern with northern history. Goffart sees
660-682: A church at Melrose on a pagan site. Contemporaries said of him that he was the first native bishop to "introduce the Catholic way of life to the churches of the English". He did not neglect his pastoral duties in his diocese, making visits throughout the diocese to baptise and perform other episcopal functions, such as consecrating new churches. Some of the monasteries in his diocese were put under his protection by their abbots or abbesses, who were seeking someone to help protect their endowments. In ruling over such monasteries, Wilfrid may have been influenced by
825-515: A church in an abandoned Roman fort at Reculver . When Theodore, the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury, arrived in England in 669 it was clear that something had to be done about the situation in Northumbria. Ceadda's election to York was improper, and Theodore did not consider Ceadda's consecration to have been valid. Consequently, Theodore deposed Ceadda, leaving the way open for Wilfrid, who
990-495: A cleric well-versed in Roman customs and liturgy. Alhfrith was a sub-king of Deiria under his father's rule, and the most likely heir to his father's throne as his half-brothers were still young. Shortly before 664 Alhfrith gave Wilfrid a monastery he had recently founded at Ripon, formed around a group of monks from Melrose Abbey , followers of the Irish monastic customs . Wilfrid ejected
1155-545: A close companion. Wilfrid introduced the Rule of Saint Benedict into the monasteries he founded. It appears likely that he was the first to introduce the Benedictine Rule into England, as evidence is lacking that Augustine 's monastery at Canterbury followed the Rule . He also was one of the first Anglo-Saxon bishops to record the gifts of land and property to his church, which he did at Ripon. Easter tables, used to calculate
1320-422: A consensus text from the earliest manuscripts, Bertram Colgrave counted 32 places where there was an apparent error of some kind. However, 26 of these are to be found within a transcription from an earlier source, and it is apparent by checking independent copies of those sources that in such cases Bede copied the mistake into his own text. Manuscripts written before 900 include: Copies are sparse throughout
1485-640: A contributing factor in Wilfrid's expulsion from York in 678. Kirby believes that Ecgfrith felt Wilfrid was promoting Oswald's branch of the Northumbrian royal family over his own. One of Wilfrid's protégés, Willibrord, became a missionary to the Frisians in 695, perhaps inspired by Wilfrid's example. Willibrord may have felt it expedient to leave Northumbria, where he was known as one of Wilfrid's followers. Wilfrid's network of monasteries extended across at least three of
1650-508: A council, which declared that the King of Northumbria should follow the earlier papal decrees restoring Wilfrid to his see. Wilfrid was disconcerted to find that the papal court spoke Greek, and his biographer noted that Wilfrid was displeased when the pope discussed the appeal with advisers in a language Wilfrid could not understand. The pope also ordered another council to be held in Britain to decide
1815-609: A few months before he was expelled to make way for Aldfrith's son Osred , to whom Wilfrid acted as spiritual adviser. Wilfrid may have been one of Osred's chief supporters, along with Oswiu's daughter Abbess Ælfflæd of Whitby, and the nobleman Beornhæth . Once Osred was secure on the throne Wilfrid was restored to Ripon and Hexham in 706. When Bosa of York died, Wilfrid did not contest the decision to appoint John of Beverley to York. This appointment meant John's transfer from Hexham, leaving Wilfrid free to perform episcopal functions at Hexham, which he did until his death. Sometime after
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#17328383260531980-487: A full account of his conflict with Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury , or his ambition and aristocratic lifestyle. Only the existence of other sources such as the Life of Wilfrid make it clear what Bede discreetly avoids saying. The omissions are not restricted to Wilfrid; Bede makes no mention at all of the English missionary Boniface , though it is unlikely he knew little of him; the final book contains less information about
2145-546: A letter of introduction to pass to her cousin, King Eorcenberht , to ensure that Wilfrid was received by the king. While in Kent, Wilfrid's career was advanced by Eanflæd's cousin Hlothere , who was later the King of Kent from 673 to 685. The Kentish court included a number of visiting clergymen at that time, including Benedict Biscop , a noted missionary. Wilfrid appears to have spent about
2310-605: A mention of Wilfrid in one of Bede's letters. A poetical Vita Sancti Wilfrithi by Frithegod written in the 10th century is essentially a rewrite of Stephen's Vita , produced in celebration of the movement of Wilfrid's relics to Canterbury. Wilfrid is also mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , but as the Chronicle was probably a 9th-century compilation, the material on Wilfrid may ultimately have derived either from Stephen's Vita or from Bede. Another, later, source
2475-509: A monastic rather than secular ministry, and Thacker argues that Bede's treatment of St Cuthbert is meant to make Cuthbert a role-model for the role of the clergy advocated by Gregory the Great. The historian Walter Goffart says of the Historia that many modern historians find it a "tale of origins framed dynamically as the Providence-guided advance of a people from heathendom to Christianity;
2640-511: A monk on the island of Lindisfarne. The monastery on the island had recently been founded by Aidan , who had been instrumental in converting Northumbria to Christianity. At Lindisfarne Wilfrid is said to have "learned the whole Psalter by heart and several books". Wilfrid studied at Lindisfarne for a few years before going to the Kentish king's court at Canterbury in 652, where he stayed with relatives of Queen Eanflæd. The queen had given Wilfrid
2805-686: A number of small kingdoms. Traditionally the English people were thought to have been divided into seven kingdoms, but modern historiography has shown that this is a simplification of a much more confused situation. A late 7th-century source, the Tribal Hidage , lists the peoples south of the Humber river; among the largest groups of peoples are the West Saxons (later Wessex ), the East Angles and Mercians (later
2970-553: A question mark over Wilfrid's appointment as bishop. Before Wilfrid's return Oswiu had appointed Ceadda in his place, resulting in Wilfrid's retirement to Ripon for a few years following his arrival back in Northumbria. After becoming Archbishop of Canterbury in 668, Theodore of Tarsus resolved the situation by deposing Ceadda and restoring Wilfrid as the Bishop of Northumbria. For the next nine years Wilfrid discharged his episcopal duties, founded monasteries, built churches, and improved
3135-559: A reaction to Stephen's Vita Sancti Wilfrithi , and that Stephen's work was written as part of a propaganda campaign to defend a "Wilfridian" party in Northumbrian politics. Some historians, including James Fraser , find that a credible view, but others such as Nick Higham are less convinced of Bede's hostility to Wilfrid. Wilfrid was born in Northumbria around 633. James Fraser argues that Wilfrid's family were aristocrats from Deira, pointing out that most of Wilfrid's early contacts were from that area. A conflict with his stepmother when he
3300-583: A short time in the kingdom of the Middle Angles and at Wessex, but soon took refuge in Sussex with King Æthelwealh of Sussex . Wilfrid spent the next five years preaching to, and converting the pagan inhabitants of Sussex, the South Saxons. He also founded Selsey Abbey , on an estate near Selsey of 87 hides , given to Wilfrid by Æthelwealh, king of the South Saxons. Bede attributes Wilfrid's ability to convert
3465-473: A source problematic; despite its shortcomings however, the Vita is the main source of information on Wilfrid's life. It views the events in Northumbria in the light of Wilfrid's reputation and from his point of view, and is highly partisan. Another concern is that hagiographies were usually full of conventional material, often repeated from earlier saints' lives, as was the case with Stephen's work. It appears that
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#17328383260533630-438: A time he acted as administrator of the see of Lindisfarne after Cuthbert's death in 687. In 691, the subdivision issue arose once more, along with quarrels with King Aldfrith over lands, and attempts were made to make Wilfrid either give up all his lands or to stay confined to Ripon. A proposal to turn Ripon into a bishopric was also a source of dispute. When no compromise was possible Wilfrid left Northumbria for Mercia, and Bosa
3795-414: A year in Kent, but the exact chronology is uncertain. Wilfrid left Kent for Rome in the company of Benedict Biscop, another of Eanflæd's contacts. This is the first pilgrimage to Rome known to have been undertaken by English natives, and took place some time between 653 and 658. According to Wilfrid's later biographer, Stephen of Ripon, Wilfrid left Biscop's company at Lyon , where Wilfrid stayed under
3960-440: Is a hagiography, intended to show Wilfrid as a saintly man, and to buttress claims that he was a saint. The Vita is selective in its coverage, and gives short shrift to Wilfrid's activities outside of Northumbria. Two-thirds of the work deals with Wilfrid's attempts to return to Northumbria, and is a defence and vindication of his Northumbrian career. Stephen's work is flattering and highly favourable to Wilfrid, making its use as
4125-666: Is also given, for easier reference. In addition, the following works are listed below but are not mentioned by Bede: Commentary on Acts Retractation Commentary on the Apocalypse Commentary on the Catholic Epistles Collectaneum on the Pauline Epistles Commentary on Ezra and Nehemiah Commentary on Genesis This exists in two forms; an early version in two books, and a later, revised version in four books. The work comments on
4290-556: Is based on the wording used in the founding charters resembling wording used by Wilfrid in other charters, not on any concrete statements that Wilfrid was involved. In 686 Wilfrid was recalled to Northumbria after the death of Ecgfrith in battle with the Picts. During the 680s Theodore had created two more dioceses in Northumbria, at Ripon, and at Abercorn in the Pictish kingdom, but both were short-lived. After Ecgfrith's death, Theodore wrote to
4455-431: Is good; if it records evil of wicked men, the devout reader is encouraged to avoid all that is sinful and perverse." One of the most famous sections is the parable of the sparrow. In 627 King Edwin of Northumbria was converted to Christianity. In Bede's account, the king held a meeting of his council to discuss acceptance of the new religion. The chief pagan priest, Coifu, declared that he had not had as much favour from
4620-582: Is held to have been transferred to Hexham. Wilfrid became involved in the missionary efforts to the Frisians , which he had started in 678 during his stay in Frisia. Wilfrid helped the missionary efforts of Willibrord , which were more successful than his own earlier attempts. Willibrord was a monk of Ripon who was also a native of Northumbria. Wilfrid was present at the exhumation of the body of Queen Æthelthryth at Ely Abbey in 695. He had been her spiritual adviser in
4785-715: Is in prose and was composed in about 721. It is in part based on an earlier life of St Cuthbert, anonymous but probably written by a monk of Lindisfarne . Martyrology Ecclesiastical History of the English People Ecclesiastical History of the English People (Old English version) History of the Abbots of Wearmouth and Jarrow Homilies Bede's list of his works refers to two books of homilies, and these are preserved. In addition, innumerable homilies exist that have been attributed to him; in most cases
4950-455: Is in verse and was probably composed between 705 and 716. The first printed edition was by Canisius, in his Antiquae Lectiones , which appeared between 1601 and 1604. Laistner lists twenty manuscripts, including one fragment; a 20th-century edition that includes a discussion of nineteen of the manuscripts is Werner Jaager, Bedas metrische Vita Sancti Cuthberti (1935). Life of St. Cuthbert (prose) Bede wrote two lives of St Cuthbert; this one
5115-404: Is independent of it and so the two are a valuable check on correctness. They are thought to have both derived from an earlier manuscript, marked "c2" in the diagram, which does not survive. A comparison of K and c2 yields an accurate understanding of the original c-text, but for the first three books, which are not in K, it is sometimes impossible to know if a variant reading in C and O represents
List of works by Bede - Misplaced Pages Continue
5280-417: Is no doubt that Bede did believe in miracles, but the ones he does include are often stories of healing, or of events that could plausibly be explained naturally. The miracles served the purpose of setting an example to the reader, and Bede explicitly states that his goal is to teach morality through history, saying "If history records good things of good men, the thoughtful reader is encouraged to imitate what
5445-452: Is no longer accepted, and debate centres on how far it owes its origins to the patronage of Alfred and/or his associates. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , the earliest tranche of which was composed/compiled around the same time as the translation was made, drew heavily on the Historia , which formed the chronological framework of the early parts of the Chronicle. The Historia Ecclesiastica
5610-536: Is no textual evidence to support this. There is no other indication of the date of composition. As with the commentary on Habakkuk, Bede draws on the work of Jerome and on Augustine 's City of God . De Locis Sanctis Life of St. Anastasius There are no surviving manuscripts of this work, though one did survive as late as the 15th century. Life of St. Felix An adaptation into prose of four poems on St Felix by Paulinus of Nola. Life of St. Cuthbert (verse) Bede wrote two lives of St Cuthbert; this one
5775-499: Is on the conflict between the pre-Schism Roman Rite and Celtic Christianity . It was composed in Latin , and is believed to have been completed in 731 when Bede was approximately 59 years old. It is considered one of the most important original references on Anglo-Saxon history, and has played a key role in the development of an English national identity . The Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , or An Ecclesiastical History of
5940-502: Is over the precise date of Easter , which he writes about at length. It is here, and only here, that he ventures some criticism of St Cuthbert and the Irish missionaries, who celebrated the event, according to Bede, at the wrong time. In the end he is pleased to note that the Irish Church was saved from error by accepting the correct date for Easter. Bede's stylistic models included some of
6105-609: Is spurred on to imitate the good". It also was no part of Bede's purpose to describe the kings who did not convert to Christianity in the Historia . In 725 Bede wrote The Reckoning of Time ( De Temporum Ratione ), using something similar to the anno Domini era (BC/AD dating system) created by the monk Dionysius Exiguus in 525, continuing to use it throughout Historia Ecclesiastica , becoming very influential in causing that era to be adopted thereafter in Western Europe. Specifically, he used anno ab incarnatione Domini (in
6270-585: Is the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi written by Eadmer , a 12th-century Anglo-Norman writer and monk from Canterbury. This source is highly influenced by the contemporary concerns of its writer, but does attempt to provide some new material besides reworking Bede. Many historians, including the editor of Bede's works, Charles Plummer , have seen in Bede's writings a dislike of Wilfrid. The historian Walter Goffart goes further, suggesting that Bede wrote his Historia as
6435-519: Is the need to minimize the conflict between Wilfrid and Theodore of Tarsus , the Archbishop of Canterbury , who was involved in many of Wilfrid's difficulties. The Historia Ecclesiastica includes many accounts of miracles and visions. These were de rigueur in medieval religious narrative, but Bede appears to have avoided relating the more extraordinary tales; and, remarkably, he makes almost no claims for miraculous events at his own monastery. There
6600-437: Is unknown. The native Picts, according to the medieval writer Bede, were converted in two stages, initially by native Britons under Ninian , and subsequently by Irish missionaries. The main sources for knowledge of Wilfrid are the medieval Vita Sancti Wilfrithi , written by Stephen of Ripon soon after Wilfrid's death, and the works of the medieval historian Bede, who knew Wilfrid during the bishop's lifetime. Stephen's Vita
6765-556: The Kingdom of Strathclyde , survived as an independent power into the 10th century in the area which became modern-day Dunbartonshire and Clydesdale . To the north-west of Strathclyde lay the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata , and to the north-east a small number of Pictish kingdoms. Further north still lay the great Pictish kingdom of Fortriu , which after the Battle of Dun Nechtain in 685 came to be
List of works by Bede - Misplaced Pages Continue
6930-498: The Rule was being referred to. Shortly afterwards Wilfrid was ordained a priest by Agilbert , Bishop of Dorchester in the kingdom of the Gewisse, part of Wessex. Wilfrid was a protégé of Agilbert, who later helped in Wilfrid's consecration as a bishop. The monk Ceolfrith was attracted to Ripon from Gilling Abbey , which had recently been depopulated as a result of the plague. Ceolfrith later became Abbot of Wearmouth-Jarrow during
7095-496: The Vita Sancti Wilfrithi was not well known in the Middle Ages, as only two manuscripts of the work survive. Bede also covers Wilfrid's life in his Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum , but this account is more measured and restrained than the Vita . In the Historia , Bede used Stephen's Vita as a source, reworking the information and adding new material when possible. Other, more minor, sources for Wilfrid's life include
7260-470: The liturgy . However his diocese was very large, and Theodore wished to reform the English Church, a process which included breaking up some of the larger dioceses into smaller ones. When Wilfrid quarrelled with Ecgfrith , the Northumbrian king, Theodore took the opportunity to implement his reforms despite Wilfrid's objections. After Ecgfrith expelled him from York, Wilfrid travelled to Rome to appeal to
7425-498: The "Celtic" party at Whitby, or been trained by those who were. Eata had also been ejected from Ripon by Wilfrid. The new bishops were unacceptable to Wilfrid, who claimed they were not truly members of the Church because of their support for the "Celtic" method of dating Easter, and thus he could not serve alongside them. Another possible problem for Wilfrid was that the three new bishops did not come from Wilfrid's monastic houses nor from
7590-424: The "Celtic" tradition, political pressures may have influenced his decision to call a council, as well as fears that if dissent over the date of Easter continued in the Northumbrian church it could lead to internal strife. The historian Richard Abels speculates that the expulsion of Eata from Ripon may have been the spark that led to the king's decision to call the council. Regional tensions within Northumbria between
7755-578: The 10th century and for much of the 11th century. The greatest number of copies of Bede's work was made in the 12th century, but there was a significant revival of interest in the 14th and 15th centuries. Many of the copies are of English provenance, but also surprisingly many are Continental. The first printed copy of the Historia Ecclesiastica appeared from the press of Heinrich Eggestein in Strasbourg , probably between 1475 and 1480. A defect in
7920-454: The 670s, and had helped the queen become a nun against the wishes of her husband King Ecgfrith of Northumbria. The queen had joined Ely Abbey, where she died in 679. The ceremony in 695 found that her body had not decayed, which led to her being declared a saint. Wilfrid's testimony as to the character and virginity of Æthelthryth was recorded by Bede. In about 700, Wilfrid appealed once more to Pope Sergius I over his expulsion from York, and
8085-569: The Abbess of Whitby, Cedd , a bishop, and Colmán of Lindisfarne , the Bishop of Lindisfarne . Wilfrid was chosen to present the Roman position to the council; he also acted as Agilbert's interpreter, as the latter did not speak the local language. Bede describes Wilfrid as saying that those who did not calculate the date of Easter according to the Roman system were committing a sin. Wilfrid's speech in favour of adopting Roman church practices helped secure
8250-474: The Anglo-Saxons. The second book begins with the death of Gregory the Great in 604, and follows the further progress of Christianity in Kent and the first attempts to evangelise Northumbria. These encountered a setback when Penda , the pagan king of Mercia, killed the newly Christian Edwin of Northumbria at the Battle of Hatfield Chase in about 632. The setback was temporary, and the third book recounts
8415-525: The Celtic method, and that was the date observed by King Oswiu. His wife Eanflæd and a son, Alhfrith, celebrated Easter on the Roman date, which meant that while one part of the royal court was still observing the Lenten fast, another would be celebrating with feasting. Oswiu called a church council held at Whitby Abbey in 664 in an attempt to resolve this controversy . Although Oswiu himself had been brought up in
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#17328383260538580-703: The Continent, and in Bede's day the monastery was a renowned centre of learning. For the period prior to Augustine's arrival in 597, Bede drew on earlier writers, including Orosius , Eutropius , Pliny , and Solinus . He used Constantius 's Life of Germanus as a source for Germanus 's visits to Britain. Bede's account of the Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain is drawn largely from Gildas 's De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae . Bede would also have been familiar with more recent accounts such as Eddius Stephanus 's Life of Wilfrid , and anonymous Lives of Gregory
8745-615: The Elizabethan Archbishop of Canterbury, also utilized the Historia , and his works were used by both Protestant and Catholic sides in the Wars of Religion. Some historians have questioned the reliability of some of Bede's accounts. One historian, Charlotte Behr, asserts that the Historia's account of the arrival of the Germanic invaders in Kent should be considered as current myth, not history. Historian Tom Holland writes that "When, in
8910-482: The English People , is Bede's best-known work, completed in about 731. The first of the five books begins with some geographical background and then sketches the history of England, beginning with Julius Caesar 's invasion in 55 BC. A brief account of Christianity in Roman Britain , including the martyrdom of St Alban , is followed by the story of Augustine 's mission to England in 597, which brought Christianity to
9075-603: The Great and Cuthbert . He also drew on Josephus 's Antiquities , and the works of Cassiodorus , and there was a copy of the Liber Pontificalis in Bede's monastery. Bede had correspondents who supplied him with material. Albinus , the abbot of the monastery in Canterbury , provided much information about the church in Kent, and with the assistance of Nothhelm , at that time a priest in London, obtained copies of Gregory
9240-517: The Great and illustrates it in his work by showing how Christianity brought together the native and invading races into one church. Farmer cites Bede's intense interest in the schism over the correct date for Easter as support for this argument, and also cites the lengthy description of the Synod of Whitby, which Farmer regards as "the dramatic centre-piece of the whole work." The historian Alan Thacker wrote in 1983 that Bede's works should be seen as advocating
9405-459: The Great's correspondence from Rome relating to Augustine's mission. Almost all of Bede's information regarding Augustine is taken from these letters, which includes the Libellus responsionum , as chapter 27 of book 1 is often known. Bede acknowledged his correspondents in the preface to the Historia Ecclesiastica ; he was in contact with Daniel , the Bishop of Winchester, for information about
9570-541: The Irish model of a group of monasteries all ruled by one person, sometimes while holding episcopal office. Wilfrid was criticised for dressing his household and servants in clothing fit for royalty. He was accompanied on his travels by a retinue of warriors, one of whom, while at York, Wilfrid sent to abduct a young boy who had been promised to the church but whose family had changed their mind. Wilfrid also educated young men, both for clerical and secular careers. In 677 or 678, Wilfrid and Ecgfrith quarrelled, and Wilfrid
9735-644: The Kingdom of Mercia), and the Kingdom of Kent . Smaller groups who at that time had their own royalty but were later absorbed into larger kingdoms include the peoples of Magonsæte , Lindsey, Hwicce , the East Saxons , the South Saxons, the Isle of Wight, and the Middle Angles . Other even smaller groups had their own rulers, but their size means that they do not often appear in the histories. There were also native Britons in
9900-578: The Pictish regions is provided by the establishment for the Picts in 681 of a diocese centred on Abercorn , in the old territory of the British kingdom of Gododdin. The grants of land to Wilfrid west of the Pennines testify to Northumbrian expansion in that area. The Vita Sancti Wilfrithi claims that Wilfrid had ecclesiastical rule over Britons and Gaels. In 679, while Wilfrid was in Rome, he claimed authority over "all
10065-501: The Picts and Northumbrians, but disapproved of the failure of the Welsh to evangelize the invading Anglo-Saxons. Bede was a partisan of Rome, regarding Gregory the Great, rather than Augustine, as the true apostle of the English. Likewise, in his treatment of the conversion of the invaders, any native involvement is minimized, such as when discussing Chad of Mercia 's first consecration, when Bede mentions that two British bishops took part in
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#173283832605310230-454: The Roman calculation for the date of Easter should be adopted, and that bishops should act only in their own dioceses. During the middle 670s Wilfrid acted as middleman in the negotiations to return a Merovingian prince, Dagobert II , from his exile in Ireland to Gaul. Wilfrid was one of the first churchmen in Northumbria to use written charters as records of gifts to his churches. He ordered
10395-410: The Roman method for calculating the date of Easter should be adopted. His success prompted the king's son, Alhfrith , to appoint him Bishop of Northumbria. Wilfrid chose to be consecrated in Gaul because of the lack of what he considered to be validly consecrated bishops in England at that time. During Wilfrid's absence Alhfrith seems to have led an unsuccessful revolt against his father, Oswiu , leaving
10560-540: The Selsey area and Wilfrid built his cathedral church near the entrance to Pagham Harbour , believed to be what is now Church Norton . Cædwalla sent Wilfrid to the Isle of Wight , which was still pagan, with the aim of converting the inhabitants. The king also gave Wilfrid a quarter of the land on the island as a gift. In 688, the king relinquished his throne and went on a pilgrimage to Rome to be baptised, but died shortly after
10725-536: The Song of Songs De tabernaculo De templo Salomonis Composed not long before 731. This work discusses the passage in 1 Kings 3:1 to 7:51 in which Solomon builds a temple. Bede was here extending a long tradition of commentary on the temple in patristic literature. Commentary on Tobit Laistner suggests that this may have been written at about the same time as De templo Salmonis , since in both Bede stresses allegorical interpretation; however, he comments that there
10890-510: The South Saxons to his teaching them how to fish, and contrasts it with the lack of success of the Irish monk Dicuill. Bede also says that the Sussex area had been experiencing a drought for three years before Wilfrid's arrival, but miraculously when Wilfrid arrived, and started baptising converts, rain began to fall. Wilfrid worked with Bishop Erkenwald of London, helping to set up the church in Sussex. Erkenwald also helped reconcile Wilfrid and Theodore before Theodore's death in 690. The mission
11055-522: The Whitby decision left Northumbria, some going to Ireland and others to Iona. After the supporters of the Celtic dating had withdrawn following the Council of Whitby, Wilfrid became the most prominent Northumbrian cleric. As a result, and because of his performance at Whitby, Wilfrid was elected to a bishopric in Northumbria about a year after the council. It is unclear where his diocese was located, although he
11220-415: The abbot, Eata, because he would not follow the Roman customs; Cuthbert , later a saint, was another of the monks expelled. Wilfrid introduced the Rule of Saint Benedict into Ripon, claiming that he was the first person in England to make a monastery follow it, but this claim rests on the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi and does not say where Wilfrid became knowledgeable about the Rule , nor exactly what form of
11385-400: The aim of all his scholarship, a belief common among historians in the past, is no longer accepted by most scholars. The Historia Ecclesiastica has given Bede a high reputation, but his concerns were different from those of a modern writer of history. His focus on the history of the organization of the English church, and on heresies and the efforts made to root them out, led him to exclude
11550-400: The attribution is spurious but there may be additional homilies of Bede beyond those in the main two books that survive. It is unclear whether the homilies were ever actually preached, or were instead intended for devotional reading. They are organized around particular dates in the church calendar, with forty of them dealing with either Christmas or Easter. The remaining ten are concerned with
11715-475: The borders of Northumbria and Mercia. As a result, there are noticeable gaps in his coverage of Mercian church history, such as his omission of the division of the huge Mercian diocese by Theodore in the late 7th century. Bede's regional bias is apparent. There were clearly gaps in Bede's knowledge, but Bede also says little on some topics that he must have been familiar with. For example, although Bede recounts Wilfrid's missionary activities, he does not give
11880-403: The c-text and m-text are as follows. The letters under the "Version" column are identifying letters used by historians to refer to these manuscripts. With few exceptions, Continental copies of the Historia Ecclesiastica are of the m-type, while English copies are of the c-type. Among the c-texts, manuscript K includes only books IV and V, but C and O are complete. O is a later text than C but
12045-514: The cathedral's roof was on the point of collapse; he had it repaired and covered in lead, and had glass set in the windows. The historian Barbara Yorke says of Wilfrid at this time that he "seems to have continued a campaign against any survival of 'Irish errors' and distrusted any communities that remained in contact with Iona or other Irish religious houses which did not follow the Roman Easter". He also worked to combat pagan practices, building
12210-523: The ceremony. Wilfrid was probably influential in Cædwalla's decision to be baptised in Rome. During his time in Sussex Wilfrid was reconciled with Archbishop Theodore; the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi says that Theodore expressed a desire for Wilfrid to succeed him at Canterbury. Wilfrid may have been involved in founding monasteries near Bath as well as in other parts of Sussex, but the evidence backing this
12375-469: The charge from a monk named Plegwin. This letter is Bede's response to Plegwin; he justifies his work and asks Plegwin to deliver the letter to a monk named David so that it could be read to Wilfred. The letter was first published in Dublin in 1664 by Sir James Ware . Five manuscripts survive. Letter to Acca: "de eo quod ait Isaias" This letter was first published in 1843 by J. A. Giles , in his edition of
12540-422: The church in his own day than could be expected. A possible explanation for Bede's discretion may be found in his comment that one should not make public accusations against church figures, no matter what their sins; Bede may have found little good to say about the church in his day and hence preferred to keep silent. It is clear that he did have fault to find; his letter to Ecgberht contains several criticisms of
12705-649: The church. The Historia Ecclesiastica has more to say about episcopal events than it does about the monasteries of England. Bede does shed some light on monastic affairs; in particular, he comments in book V that many Northumbrians are laying aside their arms and entering monasteries "rather than study the arts of war. What the result of this will be the future will show." This veiled comment, another example of Bede's discretion in commenting on current affairs, could be interpreted as ominous given Bede's more specific criticism of quasi-monasteries in his letter to Ecgberht, written three years later. Bede's account of life at
12870-460: The citation itself gives a date, but the letter has been assigned to Wilfrid's exile under Aldfrith in the 690s. During his stay in Mercia Wilfrid acted as bishop with the consent of King Æthelred. Information on Wilfrid's life at this time is meagre, as the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi says little of this period. He is generally considered to have been Bishop of Leicester until about 706, when he
13035-437: The clergy. Bede is silent on the subject of Wilfrid's monastic status, although Wilfrid probably became a monk during his time in Rome, or afterwards while he was in Gaul. Some historians, however, believe that Wilfrid was never a monk. While in Gaul, Wilfrid absorbed Frankish ecclesiastical practices, including some aspects from the monasteries founded by Columbanus . This influence may be seen in Wilfrid's probable adoption of
13200-478: The communities where the bishops' seats were based. This was contrary to the custom of the time, which was to promote bishoprics from within the locality. Wilfrid's deposition became tangled up in a dispute over whether or not the Gregorian plan for Britain, with two metropolitan sees, the northern one set at York, would be followed through or abandoned. Wilfrid seems to have felt that he had metropolitan authority over
13365-509: The complete works of Bede. Giles used the only known manuscript, Paris B.N. 2840. Letter to Acca: "de mansionibus filiorum Israhel" As with the previous letter to Acca, the first publication was in J.A. Giles' 1843 edition of Bede's works. There are two manuscripts of this letter; it appears in Paris B.N. 2840, and also in a manuscript now in Zurich. Letter to Helmwald Bede's letter to Helwmald
13530-478: The consecration, thus invalidating it. No information is presented on who these two bishops were or where they came from. Also important is Bede's view of the conversion process as an upper-class phenomenon, with little discussion of any missionary efforts among the non-noble or royal population. Another view, taken by historian D. H. Farmer, is that the theme of the work is "the progression from diversity to unity". According to Farmer, Bede took this idea from Gregory
13695-507: The continent, and ended up in Frisia according to some historians. Others state that he intended to journey via Frisia to avoid Neustria , whose Mayor of the Palace , Ebroin , disliked Wilfrid. He wintered in Frisia, avoiding the diplomatic efforts of Ebroin, who according to Stephen attempted to have Wilfrid killed. During his stay, Wilfrid attempted to convert the Frisians, who were still pagan at that time. Wilfrid's biographer says that most of
13860-472: The controversy between the British and Anglo-Saxon church over the correct method of obtaining the Easter date. One of the important themes of the Historia Ecclesiastica is that the conversion of Britain to Christianity had all been the work of Irish and Italian missionaries, with no efforts made by the native Britons. This theme was developed from Gildas' work, which denounced the sins of the native rulers during
14025-549: The correct date to celebrate Easter, were brought in from Rome where the Dionysiac Easter tables had been recently introduced. He set up schools and became a religious advisor to the Northumbrian queen Æthelthryth , first wife of Ecgfrith . Æthelthryth donated the land at Hexham where Wilfrid founded a monastery and built a church using some recycled stones from the Roman town of Corbridge . When Wilfrid arrived in York as bishop
14190-512: The court of the Anglo-Saxon kings includes little of the violence that Gregory of Tours mentions as a frequent occurrence at the Frankish court. It is possible that the courts were as different as their descriptions make them appear but it is more likely that Bede omitted some of the violent reality. Bede states that he wrote the work as an instruction for rulers, in order that "the thoughtful listener
14355-481: The creation of a listing of all benefactions received by Ripon, which was recited at the dedication ceremony. Wilfrid was an advocate for the use of music in ecclesiastical ceremonies. He sent to Kent for a singing master to instruct his clergy in the Roman style of church music, which involved a double choir who sang in antiphons and responses. Bede says that this singing master was named Æddi (or Eddius in Latin) and had
14520-449: The date of completion of the Historia Ecclesiastica , with the latest entry dated 766. No manuscripts earlier than the twelfth century contain these entries, except for the entries for 731 through 734, which do occur in earlier manuscripts. Much of the material replicates what is found in Simeon of Durham 's chronicle; the remaining material is thought to derive from northern chronicles from
14685-462: The dating problem, such as the decline of Oswiu's preeminence among the other English kingdoms and the challenge to that position by Mercia, were also factors. Wilfrid attended the synod, or council, of Whitby, as a member of the party favouring the continental practice of dating Easter, along with James the Deacon , Agilbert, and Alhfrith. Those supporting the "Celtic" viewpoint were King Oswiu, Hilda ,
14850-436: The death of King Ecgfrith in fighting the Picts at Nechtansmere in 685. Bede attributes this defeat to God's vengeance for the Northumbrian attack on the Irish in the previous year. For while Bede is loyal to Northumbria he shows an even greater attachment to the Irish and their missionaries , whom he considers to be far more effective and dedicated than their rather complacent English counterparts. His final preoccupation
15015-455: The decision. His opponents in Northumbria excommunicated him, but the papacy upheld Wilfrid's side, and he regained possession of Ripon and Hexham , his Northumbrian monasteries. Wilfrid died in 709 or 710. After his death, he was venerated as a saint. Historians then and now have been divided over Wilfrid. His followers commissioned Stephen of Ripon to write a Vita Sancti Wilfrithi (or Life of Saint Wilfrid ) shortly after his death, and
15180-429: The diocesan bishops. Wilfrid returned to England after the council via Gaul. According to Stephen of Ripon, after the death of Dagobert II, Ebroin wished to imprison Wilfrid, but Wilfrid miraculously escaped. In 680 Wilfrid returned to Northumbria and appeared before a royal council. He produced the papal decree ordering his restoration, but was instead briefly imprisoned and then exiled by the king. Wilfrid stayed for
15345-497: The discrepancies between the two sources. One is that Alhfrith wished the seat to be at York, another is that Wilfrid was bishop only in Deira, a third supposes that Wilfrid was never bishop at York and that his diocese was only part of Deira. At that time the Anglo-Saxon dioceses were not strictly speaking geographical designations, rather they were bishoprics for the tribes or peoples. Wilfrid refused to be consecrated in Northumbria at
15510-427: The earlier copy, and Bede had asked for Ceolwulf's approval; this correspondence with the king indicates that Bede's monastery had excellent connections among the Northumbrian nobility. Divided into five books (totalling about 400 pages), the Historia covers the history of England, ecclesiastical and political, from the time of Julius Caesar to the date of its completion in 731. The first twenty-one chapters cover
15675-465: The eclipse of the "Celtic" party in 664, although most Irish churches did not adopt the Roman date of Easter until 704, and Iona held out until 716. Many of the Irish monasteries did not observe the Roman Easter, but they were not isolated from the continent; by the time of Whitby the southern Irish were already observing the Roman Easter date, and Irish clergy were in contact with their continental counterparts. Those monks and clergy unable to accept
15840-537: The eighth century. The Historia was translated into Old English sometime between the end of the ninth century and about 930; although the surviving manuscripts are predominantly in the West Saxon dialect , it is clear that the original contained Anglian features and so was presumably by a scholar from or trained in Mercia . The translation was once held to have been done by King Alfred of England , but this attribution
16005-465: The end of the work, Bede added a brief autobiographical note; this was an idea taken from Gregory of Tours ' earlier History of the Franks . Bede's work as hagiographer , and his detailed attention to dating were both useful preparations for the task of writing the Historia Ecclesiastica . His interest in computus , the science of calculating the date of Easter, was also useful in the account he gives of
16170-458: The feast days of saints. The homilies are thought to be among Bede's later works, dating perhaps to the late 720s. Thirty-four of them were included in a widely disseminated anthology of readings put together in Charlemagne 's reign by Paul the Deacon . It is possible that Bede composed these homilies to complement the work of Gregory the Great , who had assembled his own collection of homilies:
16335-587: The first twenty chapters of Genesis and the first ten verses of the twenty-first chapter. Commentary on the Prayer of Habakkuk It is not known when Bede composed this commentary. Bede dedicated the work to "his dearly beloved sister and virgin of Christ", but gives no further clues to the dedicatee's identity. Bede's commentary draws on the work of Jerome and on Augustine 's City of God . Commentary on Luke Commentary on Mark Commentary on Proverbs Quaestiones XXX Commentary on Samuel Commentary on
16500-424: The generations that followed Alfred , a united kingdom of England came to be forged, it was Bede's history that provided it with a sense of ancestry that reached back beyond its foundation." Manuscripts of the Historia Ecclesiastica fall generally into two groups, known to historians as the "c-type" and the "m-type". Charles Plummer , in his 1896 edition of Bede, identified six characteristic differences between
16665-459: The growth of Christianity in Northumbria under kings Oswald and Oswy . The climax of the third book is the account of the Council of Whitby , traditionally seen as a major turning point in English history. The fourth book begins with the consecration of Theodore as Archbishop of Canterbury , and recounts Wilfrid 's efforts to bring Christianity to the kingdom of Sussex . The fifth book brings
16830-461: The hands of Anglo-Saxon bishops. Deusdedit had died shortly after Whitby, and as there were no other bishops in Britain whom Wilfrid considered to have been validly consecrated he travelled to Compiègne , to be consecrated by Agilbert, the Bishop of Paris . During his time in Gaul Wilfrid was exposed to a higher level of ceremony than that practised in Northumbria, one example of which is that he
16995-517: The history of the church in Wessex, and also wrote to the monastery at Lastingham for information about Cedd and Chad . Bede also mentions an Abbot Esi as a source for the affairs of the East Anglian church, and Bishop Cynibert for information about Lindsey. The historian Walter Goffart argues that Bede based the structure of the Historia on three works, using them as the framework around which
17160-514: The invasions, with the elaboration by Bede that the invasion and settlement of Britain by the Angles and Saxons was God's punishment for the lack of missionary effort and the refusal to accept the Roman date for celebrating Easter. Although Bede discusses the history of Christianity in Roman Britain, it is significant that he ignores the missionary work of St Patrick . He writes approvingly of Aidan and Columba , who came from Ireland as missionaries to
17325-417: The issue, and ordered the attendance of Bosa, Berhtwald and Wilfrid. On his journey back to England Wilfrid had a seizure at Meaux , but he had returned to Kent by 705. Aldfrith died soon after Wilfrid's arrival back in England. The new king, Eadwulf , had been considered one of Wilfrid's friends, but after his accession to the throne he ordered Wilfrid to stay out of Northumbria. Eadwulf's reign lasted only
17490-519: The king or success in his undertakings as many other men even though no one had served the gods more faithfully, so he saw that they had no power and he would convert to Christianity. Then a leading councillor spoke: Bede apparently had no informant at any of the main Mercian religious houses. His information about Mercia came from Lastingham , now in North Yorkshire , and from Lindsey , a province on
17655-417: The kingdoms of England in his day. They included Hexham, Ripon, Selsey, and Oundle , as well as possibly Peterborough , Brixworth , Evesham , Wing , and Withington . At his monasteries and dioceses he built churches in a style akin to that of the continent and Rome, travelling between them with a large entourage of up to 120 followers. He made many contacts and friends, not only in Northumbria and
17820-614: The lands Wilfrid used to found Hexham Abbey, and the historian N. J. Higham argues that they had been part of the queen's dower lands , which, when Ecgfrith remarried, his new queen wanted to recover. The historian Eric John feels that Wilfrid's close ties with the Mercian kingdom also contributed to his troubles with Egfrith, although John points out that these ties were necessary for Wilfrid's monastic foundations, some of which were in Mercia. Wilfrid not only lost his diocese, he lost control of his monasteries as well. Theodore took advantage of
17985-509: The letter to Albinus he wrote to accompany a copy of the Historia Ecclesiastica , and the Epistle to Egbert . The first five letters below are the ones Bede mentioned; they are given in the same order that Bede describes them. Letter to Plegwin One of Bede's works on chronology, De temporibus , led to him being accused of heresy in front of Wilfred , the bishop of York; Bede was not present but heard of
18150-555: The medieval historian Bede also wrote extensively about him. Wilfrid lived ostentatiously, and travelled with a large retinue. He ruled a large number of monasteries, and claimed to be the first Englishman to introduce the Rule of Saint Benedict into English monasteries. Some modern historians see him mainly as a champion of Roman customs against the customs of the British and Irish churches , others as an advocate for monasticism . During Wilfrid's lifetime Britain and Ireland consisted of
18315-499: The model for his history of the Anglo-Saxon church. Bede quoted his sources at length in his narrative, as Eusebius had done. Bede also appears to have taken quotes directly from his correspondents at times. For example, he almost always uses the terms "Australes" and "Occidentales" for the South and West Saxons respectively, but in a passage in the first book he uses "Meridiani" and "Occidui" instead, as perhaps his informant had done. At
18480-444: The mostly favourable outcome was that Agatho wished for Wilfrid's support and testimony that the English Church was free of the monothelete heresy. Although Wilfrid did not win a complete victory, he did secure a papal decree limiting the number of dioceses in England to 12. Wilfrid also secured the right for his monasteries of Ripon and Hexham to be directly supervised by the pope, preventing any further interference in their affairs by
18645-591: The new Northumbrian king, Aldfrith , to allow Wilfrid's return. Aldfrith agreed to do so, but in 691 he expelled Wilfrid again. Wilfrid went to Mercia, where he helped missionaries and acted as bishop for the Mercian king. Wilfrid appealed to the papacy about his expulsion in 700, and the pope ordered that an English council should be held to decide the issue. This council, held at Austerfield in South Yorkshire in 702, attempted to confiscate all of Wilfrid's possessions, and so Wilfrid travelled to Rome to appeal against
18810-486: The new archbishop of Canterbury, and the decision of the council was that Wilfrid should be deprived of all his monasteries but Ripon, and that he should cease to perform episcopal functions. When Wilfrid continued his appeal to the papacy, his opponents had him and his supporters excommunicated . On his way to Rome Wilfrid stopped in Frisia to visit Willibrord. Following Wilfrid's arrival in Rome Pope John VI held
18975-437: The new king of Northumbria, Aldfrith, and to Æthelred , king of Mercia and the Abbess of Whitby, Ælfflæd, suggesting that an agreement be made allowing Wilfrid's return to Northumbria. Aldfrith agreed, Wilfrid returned to the north, and Bosa was removed from York. Wilfrid did not recover the whole of his previous bishopric however, as Hexham and Lindisfarne remained separate sees. Wilfrid appears to have lived at Ripon, and for
19140-613: The nobles converted, but the success was short-lived. After Frisia, he stopped at the court of Dagobert II in Austrasia, where the king offered Wilfrid the Bishopric of Strasbourg , which Wilfrid refused. Once in Italy, Wilfrid was received by Perctarit , a Lombard king, who gave him a place at his court. Pope Agatho held a synod in October 679, which although it ordered Wilfrid's restoration and
19305-465: The northern part of Britain, Ireland and the islands, which are inhabited by English and British peoples, as well as by Gaelic and Pictish peoples". Wilfrid did not attend the Council of Hertford held in September 672, but he did send representatives. Among the council's resolutions was one postponing a decision on the creation of new dioceses, which affected Wilfrid later. Another ruling confirmed that
19470-597: The northern part of England, but Theodore never acknowledged that claim, instead claiming authority over the whole of the island of Britain. Wilfrid went to Rome after his expulsion to appeal against Theodore and Ecgfrith's decisions, the first Englishman to challenge a royal or ecclesiastical decision by petitioning the papacy. On the way he stopped at the court of Aldgisl , the Frisian king in Utrecht for most of 678. Wilfrid had been blown off course on his trip from England to
19635-540: The original state of the c-text, or is a variation only found in c2. One long chapter, book I chapter 27, is also found in another manuscript, Rh. 95 at the Zürich Zentralbibliothek; this is another witness to the c-text and appears to be independent of c2, and so is useful as a further cross-check on the c-text. The m-text depends largely on manuscripts M and L, which are very early copies, made not long after Bede's death. Both seem likely to have been taken from
19800-448: The original, though this is not certain. Three further manuscripts, U, E, and N, are all apparently the descendants of a Northumbrian manuscript that does not survive but which went to the continent in the late 8th century. These three are all early manuscripts, but are less useful than might be thought, since L and M are themselves so close to the original. The text of both the m-type and c-type seems to have been accurately copied. Taking
19965-534: The papacy. Pope Agatho ruled in Wilfrid's favour, but Ecgfrith refused to honour the papal decree and instead imprisoned Wilfrid on his return to Northumbria before exiling him. Wilfrid spent the next few years in Selsey , now in West Sussex , where he founded an episcopal see and converted the pagan inhabitants of the Kingdom of Sussex to Christianity. Theodore and Wilfrid settled their differences, and Theodore urged
20130-545: The passage was a spurious interpolation, and the letter is now accepted as genuine. Many manuscripts are now known; Laistner lists over thirty. Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum The Ecclesiastical History of the English People ( Latin : Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum ), written by Bede in about AD 731, is a history of the Christian Churches in England , and of England generally; its main focus
20295-476: The patronage of Annemund , the archbishop. Stephen says that Annemund wanted to marry Wilfrid to the archbishop's niece, and to make Wilfrid the governor of a Frankish province, but that Wilfrid refused and continued on his journey to Rome. There he learned the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter , and studied the Roman practice of relic collecting. He developed a close friendship with Boniface Consiliarius during his time in Rome. After an audience with
20460-616: The period of Irish settlement, Irish missionaries were active in Britain. Christianity had only recently arrived in some of these kingdoms. Some had been converted by the Gregorian mission , a group of Roman missionaries who arrived in Kent in 597 and who mainly influenced southern Britain. Others had been converted by the Hiberno-Scottish mission, chiefly Irish missionaries working in Northumbria and neighbouring kingdoms. A few kingdoms, such as Dál Riata, became Christian but how they did so
20625-403: The pope referred the issue back to a council in England. In 702 King Aldfrith held a council at Austerfield that upheld Wilfrid's expulsion, and once more Wilfrid travelled to Rome to appeal to the pope. The Vita Sancti Wilfrithi gives a speech, supposedly delivered by Wilfrid there, in defence of Wilfrid's record over the previous 40 years. The council was presided over by Berhtwald ,
20790-475: The pope, Wilfrid returned to Lyon. Stephen of Ripon says that Wilfrid stayed in Lyon for three years, leaving only after the archbishop's murder. However, Annemund's murder took place in 660 and Wilfrid returned to England in 658, suggesting that Stephen's chronology is awry. Stephen says that Annemund gave Wilfrid a clerical tonsure , although this does not appear to mean that he became a monk, merely that he entered
20955-422: The rebellion happened shortly after Whitby, perhaps while Wilfrid was in Gaul for his consecration. Because Oswiu knew that Alhfrith had been a supporter of Wilfrid's, Oswiu prevented Wilfrid's return, suspecting Wilfrid of supporting his rivals. That Ceadda was supported by Oswiu, and Wilfrid had been a supporter of Oswiu's son, lends further credence to the theory that Alhfrith's rebellion took place while Wilfrid
21120-463: The return of the monasteries to his control, also directed that the new dioceses should be retained. Wilfrid was given the right to replace any bishop in the new dioceses to whom he objected. The council had been called to deal with the Monothelete controversy , and Wilfrid's concerns were not the sole focus of the council. In fact, the historian Henry Chadwick thought that one reason Wilfrid secured
21285-556: The same authors from whom he drew the material for the earlier parts of his history. His introduction imitates the work of Orosius, and his title is an echo of Eusebius's Historia Ecclesiastica . Bede also followed Eusebius in taking the Acts of the Apostles as the model for the overall work: where Eusebius used the Acts as the theme for his description of the development of the church, Bede made it
21450-613: The secular history of kings and kingdoms except where a moral lesson could be drawn or where they illuminated events in the church. In the early Middle Ages, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle , Historia Brittonum , and Alcuin 's Versus de patribus, regibus et sanctis Eboracensis ecclesiae all drew heavily on the text. Likewise, the later medieval writers William of Malmesbury , Henry of Huntingdon , and Geoffrey of Monmouth used his works as sources and inspirations. Early modern writers, such as Polydore Vergil and Matthew Parker ,
21615-500: The situation to implement decrees of some councils on dividing up large dioceses. Theodore set up new bishoprics from Wilfrid's diocese, with seats at York , Hexham, Lindisfarne, and one in the region of Lindsey . The Lindsey see was quickly absorbed by the Diocese of Lichfield , but the other three remained separate. The bishops chosen for these sees, Eata at Hexham, Eadhæd at Lindsey, and Bosa at York, had all either been supporters of
21780-473: The story of the English, but to advance his views on politics and religion. In political terms he is a partisan of his native Northumbria , amplifying its role in English history over and above that of Mercia , its great southern rival. He takes greater pains in describing events of the seventh century, when Northumbria was the dominant Anglo-Saxon power than the eighth, when it was not. The only criticism he ventures of his native Northumbria comes in writing about
21945-541: The story up to Bede's day, and includes an account of missionary work in Frisia , and of the conflict with the British church over the correct dating of Easter. Bede wrote a preface for the work, in which he dedicates it to Ceolwulf , king of Northumbria. The preface mentions that Ceolwulf received an earlier draft of the book; presumably, Ceolwulf knew enough Latin to understand it, and he may even have been able to read it. The preface makes it clear that Ceolwulf had requested
22110-456: The strongest power in the northern half of Britain. The Irish had always had contacts with the rest of the British Isles, and during the early 6th century they emigrated from the island of Ireland to form the kingdom of Dál Riata, although exactly how much conquest took place is a matter of dispute with historians. It also appears likely that the Irish settled in parts of Wales, and even after
22275-417: The surname Stephen. Traditionally historians have identified Æddi as Stephen of Ripon, author of the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi , which has led to the assumption that the Vita was based on the recollections of one of Wilfrid's long-time companions. Recent scholarship has come to believe that the Vita was not authored by the singing master, but by someone who joined Wilfrid in the last years of Wilfrid's life, not
22440-769: The text allows the identification of the manuscript Eggestein used; it subsequently appeared in a catalogue of the Vienna Dominicans of 1513. Eggestein had also printed an edition of Rufinus 's translation of Eusebius 's Ecclesiastical History , and the two works were reprinted, bound as a single volume, on 14 March 1500 by Georg Husner, also of Strasbourg. Another reprint appeared on 7 December 1506, from Heinrich Gran and S. Ryman at Haguenau . A Paris edition appeared in 1544, and in 1550 John de Grave produced an edition at Antwerp . Two reprints of this edition appeared, in 1566 and 1601. In 1563, Johann Herwagen included it in volume III of his eight-volume Opera Omnia , and this
22605-452: The text. Colgrave points out that the addition of a couple of annals is a simple alteration for a copyist to make at any point in the manuscript history; he also notes that the omission of one of Oswald's miracles is not the mistake of a copyist, and strongly implies that the m-type is a later revision. Some genealogical relationships can be discerned among the numerous manuscripts that have survived. The earliest manuscripts used to establish
22770-430: The three main sections of the work were structured. For the early part of the work, dealing with the time up to the Gregorian mission of Augustine of Canterbury , Goffart asserts that Bede used Gildas 's De excidio . The second section, detailing the Gregorian mission, was framed on the anonymous Life of Gregory the Great written at Whitby. The last section, describing events after the Gregorian mission, Goffart says
22935-590: The three years from 665 to 668 as abbot of the monastery at Ripon. He occasionally performed episcopal functions in Mercia and Kent, but never did so north of the river Humber . The historian James Fraser argues that Wilfrid may not have been allowed to return to Northumbria and instead went into exile at the Mercian court, but most historians have argued that Wilfrid was at Ripon. Wilfrid's monasteries in Mercia may date from this time, as King Wulfhere of Mercia gave him large grants of land in Mercia. Wilfrid may have persuaded King Ecgberht of Kent in 669 to build
23100-580: The time of the incarnation of the Lord). However, the latter was not very influential—only this isolated use was repeated by other writers during the rest of the Middle Ages . The first extensive use of "BC" (hundreds of times) occurred in Fasciculus Temporum by Werner Rolevinck in 1474, alongside years of the world ( anno mundi ). Some early manuscripts contain additional annalistic entries that extend past
23265-549: The time period before the mission of Augustine ; compiled from earlier writers such as Orosius , Gildas , Prosper of Aquitaine , the letters of Pope Gregory I and others, with the insertion of legends and traditions. After 596, documentary sources that Bede took pains to obtain throughout England and from Rome are used, as well as oral testimony, which he employed along with critical consideration of its authenticity. The monastery at Jarrow had an excellent library. Both Benedict Biscop and Ceolfrith had acquired books from
23430-448: The time the medieval chronicler and writer Bede was a monk there. Bede hardly mentions the relationship between Ceolfrith and Wilfrid, but it was Wilfrid who consecrated Ceolfrith a priest and who gave permission for him to transfer to Wearmouth-Jarrow. The Roman churches and those in Britain and Ireland (often called "Celtic" churches) used different methods to calculate the date of Easter. The church in Northumbria had traditionally used
23595-414: The translation of the relics of Oswald of Northumbria to Bardney Abbey by Osthryth between 675 and 679, Wilfrid, along with Hexham Abbey, began to encourage and promote the cult of the dead king. Barbara Yorke sees this advocacy as a major factor in the prominence given to Oswald in Bede's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum . Historian D. P. Kirby regards Wilfrid's championing of Oswald as being
23760-452: The two manuscript types. For example, the c-type manuscripts omit one of the miracles attributed to St Oswald in book IV, chapter 14, and the c-type also includes the years 733 and 734 in the chronological summary at the end of the work, whereas the m-type manuscripts stop with the year 731. Plummer thought that this meant the m-type was definitely earlier than the c-type, but this has been disputed by Bertram Colgrave in his 1969 edition of
23925-545: The two sets of homilies only have one reading in common, and that reading is one which Gregory had indicated needed further attention. Bede lists five letters in the list he gives of his works in the Historia Ecclesiastica , as follows: "Item librum epistolarum ad diversos: quarum de sex aetatibus saeculi una est; de mansionibus filiorum Israhel una; una de eo quod ait Isaias; 'et claudentur ibi in carcerem et post dies multos visitabantur'; de ratione bisexti una; de aequnioctio iuxta Anatolium una". Two additional letters are known:
24090-563: The two traditional divisions, Bernicia and Deira, appear to have played a part, as churchmen in Bernicia favoured the Celtic method of dating and those in Deira may have leaned towards the Roman method. Abels identifies several conflicts contributing to both the calling of the council and its outcome, including a generational conflict between Oswiu and Alhfrith and the death of the Archbishop of Canterbury, Deusdedit . Political concerns unrelated to
24255-419: The west, in modern-day Wales and Cornwall , who formed kingdoms including those of Dumnonia , Dyfed , and Gwynedd . Between the Humber and Forth the English had formed into two main kingdoms, Deira and Bernicia, often united as the Kingdom of Northumbria. A number of Celtic kingdoms also existed in this region, including Craven , Elmet , Rheged , and Gododdin . A native British kingdom, later called
24420-400: The writing of the Historia as motivated by a political struggle in Northumbria between a party devoted to Wilfrid, and those opposed to Wilfrid's policies. Much of the "current" history in the Historia is concerned with Wilfrid , who was a bishop in Northumbria and whose stormy career is documented not only in Bede's works but in a Life of Wilfrid . A theme in Bede's treatment of Wilfrid
24585-426: The year from the incarnation of the Lord) or anno incarnationis dominicae (in the year of the incarnation of the Lord). He never abbreviated the term like the modern AD. Bede counted anno Domini from Christ's birth, not from Christ's conception . Within this work, he was the first writer to use a term similar to the English before Christ . In book I chapter 2 he used ante incarnationis dominicae tempus (before
24750-531: Was about 14 years old drove Wilfrid to leave home, probably without his father's consent. Wilfrid's background is never explicitly described as noble, but the king's retainers were frequent guests at his father's house, and on leaving home Wilfrid equipped his party with horses and clothes fit for a royal court. Queen Eanflæd became Wilfrid's patroness following his arrival at the court of her husband, King Oswiu. She sent him to study under Cudda, formerly one of her husband's retainers, but by that time in about 648
24915-510: Was an English bishop and saint . Born a Northumbrian noble, he entered religious life as a teenager and studied at Lindisfarne , at Canterbury , in Francia , and at Rome; he returned to Northumbria in about 660, and became the abbot of a newly founded monastery at Ripon . In 664 Wilfrid acted as spokesman for the Roman position at the Synod of Whitby , and became famous for his speech advocating that
25080-563: Was blown ashore on the Sussex coast, the inhabitants of which were at that time pagan. On being attacked by the locals, Wilfrid's party killed the head priest before refloating their ship and making their escape. The historian Marion Gibbs suggests that after this episode Wilfrid visited Kent again, and took part in the diplomacy related to Wigheard 's appointment to the see of Canterbury. Wilfrid may also have taken part in negotiations to persuade King Cenwalh of Wessex to allow Agilbert to return to his see. Denied episcopal office, Wilfrid spent
25245-426: Was carried to his consecration ceremony on a throne supported by nine bishops. Wilfrid delayed his return from Gaul, only to find on his arrival back in Northumbria that Ceadda had been installed as bishop in his place. The reason for Wilfrid's delay has never been clear, although the historians Eric John and Richard Abels theorise that it was caused by Alhfrith's unsuccessful revolt against Oswiu. They suggest that
25410-534: Was considered the "bishop of the Northumbrian peoples"; Bede records that Wilfrid's diocese was contiguous with the area ruled by Oswiu. The diocese was restricted to north of the Humber, however. Wilfrid may also have sought to exercise some ecclesiastical functions in the Pictish kingdom , as he is accorded the title "bishop of the Northumbrians and the Picts" in 669. Further proof of attempted Northumbrian influence in
25575-446: Was considered to be Alhfrith's bishop. The Vita Sancti Wilfrithi states that, nominated by both Oswiu and Alhfrith, he was made bishop at York , and that he was a metropolitan bishop , but York at that time was not a Metropolitan Diocese . Bede says that Alhfrith alone nominated Wilfrid, and that Oswiu subsequently proposed an alternative candidate, "imitating the actions of his son". Several theories have been suggested to explain
25740-517: Was copied often in the Middle Ages, and about 160 manuscripts containing it survive. About half of those are located on the European continent, rather than in the British Isles. Most of the 8th- and 9th-century texts of Bede's Historia come from the northern parts of the Carolingian Empire. This total does not include manuscripts with only a part of the work, of which another 100 or so survive. It
25905-461: Was expelled from his see. Abbess Hilda of Whitby was a leader in a faction of the Northumbrian church that disliked Wilfrid, and her close ties with Theodore helped to undermine Wilfrid's position in Northumbria. Another contributory factor in Wilfrid's expulsion was his encouragement of Æthelthryth's entry into a nunnery; he had personally given her the veil, the ceremony of entering a nunnery, on her retirement to Ely Abbey. Æthelthryth had donated
26070-448: Was finally installed in his see in 669, the first Saxon to occupy the see of York. Wilfrid spent the next nine years building churches, including at the monastery at Hexham, and attending to diocesan business. He continued to exercise control over his monastic houses of Ripon and Hexham while he was bishop. Oswiu's death on 15 February 670 eliminated a source of friction and helped to assure Wilfrid's return. While at York, Wilfrid
26235-464: Was in Gaul. Stephen of Ripon reported that Wilfrid was expelled by " Quartodecimans ", or those who supported the celebration of Easter on the 14th day of the Jewish month Nisan , whether or not this was a Sunday. However, as the Irish church had never been Quartodecimans, Stephen in this instance was constructing a narrative to put Wilfrid in the best light. During his return to Northumbria Wilfrid's ship
26400-582: Was in turn reprinted in 1612 and 1688. Michael Sonnius produced an edition in Paris in 1587, including the Historia Ecclesiastica in a collection of other historical works; and in 1587 Johann Commelin included it in a similar compilation, printed at Heidelberg . In 1643, Abraham Whelock produced at Cambridge an edition with the Old English text and the Latin text in parallel columns, the first in England. Wilfrid Wilfrid ( c. 633 – 709 or 710)
26565-431: Was jeopardised when King Æthelwealh died during an invasion of his kingdom by Cædwalla of Wessex . Wilfrid previously had contact with Cædwalla, and may have served as his spiritual advisor before Cædwalla's invasion of Sussex. After Æthelwealh's death and Cædwalla's accession to the throne of Wessex, Wilfrid became one of the new king's advisors, and the king was converted. Cædwalla confirmed Æthelwealh's grant of land in
26730-401: Was modelled on Stephen of Ripon 's Life of Wilfrid . Most of Bede's informants for information after Augustine's mission came from the eastern part of Britain, leaving significant gaps in the knowledge of the western areas, which were those areas likely to have a native Briton presence. The Ecclesiastical History has a clear polemical and didactic purpose. Bede sets out not just to tell
26895-430: Was printed for the first time between 1474 and 1482, probably at Strasbourg . Modern historians have studied the Historia extensively, and a number of editions have been produced. For many years, early Anglo-Saxon history was essentially a retelling of the Historia , but recent scholarship has focused as much on what Bede did not write as what he did. The belief that the Historia was the culmination of Bede's works,
27060-545: Was published in 1980 in the CCSL series, edited by C.W. Jones. An English translation by Faith Wallis appeared in 1999. Letter to Wicthede Bede's letter to Wicthede was first printed in Hervagius's 1563 folio editions of Bede's works, but the manuscript Hervagius used included a reference to the year 776. It was argued on this basis that the letter was not by Bede, but subsequently a comparison with other manuscripts determined that
27225-598: Was returned to York. Something of the reception to Wilfrid's expulsion can be picked up in a Latin letter which has survived only in an incomplete quotation by William of Malmesbury in his Gesta pontificum Anglorum . We have it on William's authority that the letter was written by Aldhelm of Malmesbury and addressed to Wilfrid's abbots. In it, Aldhelm asks the clergymen to remember the exiled bishop "who, nourishing, teaching, reproving, raised you in fatherly love" and appealing to lay aristocratic ideals of loyalty, urges them not to abandon their superior. Neither William nor
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