A libellus (plural libelli ) in the Roman Empire was any brief document written on individual pages (as opposed to scrolls or tablets), particularly official documents issued by governmental authorities.
52-490: The term libellus has particular historical significance for the libelli that were issued during the reign of Emperor Decius to citizens to certify performance of required pagan sacrifices in order to demonstrate loyalty to the authorities of the Roman Empire . During later periods libelli were issued as certificates of indulgence, in which the confessors or martyrs interceded for apostate Christians. The word libellus
104-459: A 4th-century early Christian and advisor to Roman Emperor Constantine the Great , described the emperor's demise as following: He was suddenly surrounded by the barbarians, and slain, together with great part of his army; nor could he be honoured with the rites of sepulture, but, stripped and naked, he lay to be devoured by wild beasts and birds, a fit end for the enemy of God . D. S. Potter rejects
156-404: A certain day (the date would vary from place to place and the order may have been that the sacrifice had to be completed within a specified period after a community received the edict). When they sacrificed they would obtain a certificate ( libellus ) recording the fact that they had complied with the order. That is, the certificate would testify the sacrificant's loyalty to the ancestral gods and to
208-627: A number of prominent Christians (including Pope Fabian ) were put to death. In the last year of his reign, Decius co-ruled with his son Herennius Etruscus , until they were both killed by the Goths in the Battle of Abritus . Trajanus Decius was born Gaius Messius Quintus Decius Valerinus at Budalia , Illyricum , near Sirmium in Pannonia Inferior . Decius was one of the first among a long succession of Roman emperors ( Illyrian emperors ) to originate from
260-457: A sacrifice for the emperor and the Empire's well-being by a specified date risked torture and execution. A number of prominent Christians did, in fact, refuse to make a sacrifice and were killed in the process, including Pope Fabian himself in 250, and "anti-Christian feeling[s] led to killings at Carthage and Alexandria." However, towards the end of the second year of Decius' reign, "the ferocity of
312-399: A swamp. It seems that Cniva was a skilled tactician and that he was very familiar with the surrounding terrain. Jordanes and Aurelius Victor claim that Herennius Etruscus was killed by an arrow during a skirmish before the battle but his father addressed his soldiers as if the loss of his son did not matter. He allegedly said, "Let no one mourn. The death of one soldier is not a great loss to
364-648: A traitor who was responsible for the loss of so many soldiers from their ranks. Decius was the first Roman emperor to die in battle against a foreign enemy. The Decian persecution was the first organized persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire and served as the basis for the Diocletianic Persecution , the last major persecution of Christians in the Empire. The later telling of the Seven Sleepers , about seven Christian youths from Ephesus who fled
416-556: A tribal coalition under Cniva crossed the Roman Danube frontier, probably advancing in two columns. Whether these were consisted only of Goths is rather unlikely so the name "Scythians" by which the Greek sources called them (a geographical definition) seems more appropriate. It is quite possible that other people of Germanic and Sarmatian origin (like Bastarnae , Taifals , and Hasdingian Vandals ), perhaps Roman deserters as well, had joined
468-425: A vivid picture of the demoralizing effects of the plague and Cyprian moralized the event in his essay De mortalitate . In Carthage, the "Decian persecution", unleashed at the onset of the plague, sought out Christian scapegoats. Decius' edicts were renewed under Valerian in 253 and repealed under his son, Gallienus , in 260–261. The barbarian incursions into the Empire were becoming more daring and frequent whereas
520-524: Is a Latin diminutive form of the ordinary word liber (meaning " book "), from which we get the English word library . Literally, it means "little book". Sometimes the word was used to describe what we would call: essays , tracts , pamphlets , or petitions . In the year 250, in an attempt to promote traditional Roman pietas and unify the Empire, the Emperor Decian decreed that everyone, (excepting
572-549: The Battle of Forum Terebronii occurred near Abritus (modern Razgrad ) in the Roman province of Moesia Inferior in the summer of 251. It was fought between the Romans and a federation of Gothic and Scythian tribesmen under the Gothic king Cniva . The Roman army was soundly defeated, and Roman emperors Decius and Herennius Etruscus , his son, were both killed in battle. It was one of
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#1732848814630624-724: The Decian persecution . Four libelli were found among the thousands of papyri at the archaeological site near Oxyrhynchus in Egypt ( P. Oxy. 658 , P. Oxy. 1464 , P. Oxy. 2990 and P. Oxy. 3929 ). A number of these certificates still exist and one discovered in Egypt reads: Participating in pagan sacrifices was a sin for Christians and punished by excommunication , because the New Testament forbade Christians to participate in " idol feasts". However, not participating made one liable to arrest by
676-560: The Plague of Cyprian with its devastating effects, and the chaotic situation in the East with the Sassanian invasions left Gallus with a very bad reputation amongst the later Roman historians. However, D. S. Potter suggests that, before the defeat at Abritus, the situation was not so serious that the available Roman forces would not be able to manage the invasions. Therefore, it is Decius' bad conduct which
728-621: The Shipka Pass ) to save Philippopolis. This time Decius' army was taken by surprise while resting at Beroe /Augusta Traiana. The Romans were heavily defeated in the ensuing Battle of Beroe . Decius was forced to withdraw his army to the north at Oescus, leaving Cniva ample time to ravage Moesia and finally capture Philippopolis in the summer of 251, in part with the help of its commander, a certain Titus Julius Priscus who had proclaimed himself Emperor. It seems that Priscus, after receiving
780-584: The battle of Abritus , in which the Goths fought with the courage of despair, under the command of Cniva, took place during the second week of June 251 on swampy ground in the Ludogorie (region in northeastern Bulgaria which merges with Dobruja plateau and the Danube Plain to the north) near the small settlement of Abritus or Forum Terebronii (modern Razgrad ). Jordanes records that Decius' son Herennius Etruscus
832-464: The Colosseum, which had been damaged by lightning strikes. In late 249, Decius had issued one of the most remarkable Roman imperial edicts. From the numerous surviving texts from Egypt, recording the act of sacrifice, it appears that the edict itself was fairly clear: All the inhabitants of the empire were required to sacrifice before the magistrates of their community "for the safety of the empire" by
884-551: The Danube provinces, often referred to as Illyricum. Unlike some of his immediate imperial predecessors such as Philip the Arab or Maximinus Thrax who did not have extensive administrative experience before assuming the throne, Decius was a distinguished senator who had served as suffect consul in 232, had been governor of Moesia and Germania Inferior soon afterwards, served as governor of Hispania Tarraconensis between 235 and 238, and
936-600: The Decian persecution by hiding in a cave (walled up by Decius) and sleeping for almost 300 years, emerged. The Quranic account, captured in Al-Kahf ("The Cave") surah (chapter), has led to the Persian saying of ahd-e daqyānus ("age of Decius") or daqyānus referring to ancient times or a person with outdated views. When something is old and outdated, people say, "this belongs to the age of Decius." Battle of Abritus Year of
988-541: The Empire was facing a serious economic crisis in Decius' time. During his brief reign, Decius engaged in important operations against the Goths , who crossed the Danube to raid districts of Moesia and Thrace . This is the first considerable occasion that the Goths ;– who would later come to play such an important role – appear in the historical record. The Goths under King Cniva were surprised by
1040-527: The Jews), must sacrifice and burn incense to the gods in the presence of a magistrate, and obtain a signed document witnessed by the officials attesting to this. The libellus was the statement of the individual of his/her loyalty to the Empire, the fact that they had rendered the required sacrifice, plus a request for the officials to countersign as witnesses. "Forty-six such certificates have been published, all dating from this same year [250 AD]." This coincides with
1092-466: The King himself crossed the Danube at Oescus then headed eastwards to Novae , where he was repelled by the provincial governor (and future emperor) Trebonianus Gallus . Then the invaders headed south to plunder Nicopolis ad Istrum where Decius defeated them but not decisively. After these initial setbacks, the barbarians moved southwards through Haemus mountain and Decius pursued them (likely through
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#17328488146301144-457: The Republic". However, other sources state that Herennius died with his father. Decius' forces initially defeated their opponents in the front line, but made the fatal mistake of pursuing their fleeing enemy into the swamp, where they were ambushed and completely routed under a barrage of Gothic missiles. The immense slaughter that ensued marked one of the most catastrophic defeats in the history of
1196-495: The Roman Empire. Decius died in the midst of the chaos and slaughter, buried under the mud. The bodies of Decius and Herennius were never found. The Goths captured Decius' treasury of tons of gold coins and many weapons which have since been discovered in many locations across Gothic territories. Zonaras vividly narrates how: He and his son and a large number of Romans fell into the marshland; all of them perished there, none of their bodies to be found, as they were covered by
1248-563: The Roman authorities. A warrant to arrest a Christian ( P. Oxy. 3035 ) was also found at Oxyrhynchus, this too has been dated precisely—to the year 256. The grounds for this arrest are not documented, however, and it predates the persecution under the emperor Valerian by about a year. The lapsi of Carthage persuaded certain Confessors of the Faith who had remained faithful in the face of torture and imprisonment to send letters of recommendation in
1300-695: The Six Emperors (238) Reign of Gordian III (238–244) Reign of Philip the Arab (244–249) Reign of Decius (249–251) Reign of Trebonianus Gallus (251–253) Reign of Aemilianus (253) Reign of Valerian and Gallienus (253–260) Reign of Gallienus (260–268) Reign of Claudius Gothicus (268–270) Reign of Aurelian (270–275) Reign of Tacitus (275-276) Reign of Probus (276-282) Reign of Carus (282-283) Reign of Carinus (283-285) The Battle of Abritus also known as
1352-508: The [anti-Christian] persecution had eased off, and the earlier tradition of tolerance had begun to reassert itself." Christians bore the brunt of the persecution and never forgot the reign of Decius, whom they remembered as "that fierce tyrant". In June 251 Decius died alongside his co-emperor Herennius Etruscus in the Battle Abrittus against the Goths; their successors Trebonianus Gallus and Hostilian rescinded Decius's decree, ending
1404-532: The aggressive tribes of the region. Second and more important, there were continuous movements of new peoples since the time of Emperor Severus Alexander . Decius may also have taken with him troops from the Danube frontier, in order to depose Philip in 249. He probably had with him three legions: legio XIV Gemina from Carnuntum , legio IV Flavia Felix from Singidunum , and legio VII Claudia from Viminacium and/or their vexillationes . The resultant military vacuum would inevitably attract invaders. In 250
1456-426: The barbarians across the Danube, died through treachery at Abritus after reigning two years. ... Very many report that the son had fallen in battle while pressing an attack too boldly; that the father however, has strenuously asserted that the loss of one soldier seemed to him too little to matter. And so he resumed the war and died in a similar manner while fighting vigorously. One literary tradition claims that Decius
1508-436: The consumption of sacrificial food and drink as well as the names of the officials who were overseeing the sacrifice. According to D. S. Potter, Decius did not try to impose the superiority of the Roman pantheon over any other gods. It is very probable that the edict was an attempt to legitimize his position and to respond to a general unease provoked by the passing of the Roman millennium. While Decius himself may have intended
1560-566: The dangers and difficulties attached to the office at such a time, declined the responsibility. The invasion of the Goths and Decius' death put an end to the abortive attempt. During his reign, he proceeded with several building projects in Rome, including the Thermae Decianae (Baths of Decius in the Aventine), which were completed in 252 and survived through to the 16th century; Decius also repaired
1612-458: The edict as a way to reaffirm his conservative vision of the Pax Romana and to reassure Rome's citizens that the empire was still secure, it nevertheless sparked a "terrible crisis of authority as various Christian bishops and their flocks reacted to it in different ways." Measures were first taken demanding that the bishops and officers of the church make a sacrifice for the emperor. The sacrifice
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1664-565: The emperor while besieging Nicopolis on the Danube; the Goths fled through the difficult terrain of the Balkans , but then doubled back and surprised the Romans near Beroë (modern Stara Zagora ), sacking their camp and dispersing the Roman troops ( Battle of Beroe ). The Goths then moved to attack Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv ), which fell into their hands. The governor of Thrace, Titus Julius Priscus , declared himself emperor under Gothic protection in opposition to Decius but Priscus's challenge
1716-519: The general Trebonianus Gallus , intending to defeat the invaders and recover the booty. Decius had lost a force of auxiliary soldiers due to their "wrongdoing", according to Dexippus. Archaeology has revealed the presence of three legions at the battle. In either June, July, or August of 251, the Roman army engaged the forces under Cniva near Abritus. The strengths of the belligerent forces are unknown, but we know that Cniva divided his forces into three units, with one of these parts concealed behind
1768-574: The invaders. However, the name of the king is indeed Gothic and probably genuine. Meanwhile, the Carpi invaded Dacia, eastern Moesia Superior , and western Moesia Inferior. The first column of Cniva's army, a detachment of about 20,000 or so likely led by the chieftains Argaith and Gunteric, besieged Marcianopolis , without success it seems. Then they probably headed south to besiege Philippopolis (now Plovdiv in Bulgaria). Cniva's main column of 70,000 under
1820-485: The mud. A 6th-century Byzantine scholar, Zosimus , also described the total massacre of Decius' troops and the fall of the pagan emperor: "Proceeding therefore incautiously in an unknown place, he and his army became entangled in the mire, and under that disadvantage were so assailed by the missiles of the Barbarians, that not one of them escaped with life. Thus ended the life of the excellent emperor Decius." Lactantius ,
1872-604: The name of the dead martyrs (libella pacis/"letters of peace") to the bishop endorsing the position that those who had lapsed be restored to communion with the Church. Bishop Cyprian debated whether the threat of the death penalty mitigated the sin of having communion with idols, leaving room for forgiveness and restoration to the Christian community. Decius Gaius Messius Quintus Trajanus Decius ( c. 201 – June 251), known as Trajan Decius or simply Decius ,
1924-437: The news of the defeat at Beroe, thought that the Goths would spare him and the city. He was wrong and was probably killed when the city fell. Then some of Cniva's forces began returning to their homeland, laden with booty and captives, among them many of senatorial rank. In the meantime, Decius had returned with his re-organized army, consisting of 80,000 men according to Dexippus , accompanied by his son Herennius Etruscus and
1976-471: The persecution after approximately eighteen months. At this time, there was a second outbreak of the Antonine Plague , which at its height from 251 to 266, took the lives of 5,000 daily in Rome. This outbreak is referred to as the " Plague of Cyprian " ( Cyprian was the bishop of Carthage , where both the plague and the persecution of Christians were especially severe). Cyprian's biographer Pontius gave
2028-487: The region for the next two decades. The new Roman emperor Trebonianus Gallus was forced to allow the Goths to return home with their loot and prisoners. The barbarians would not be expelled from Roman territory until 271. The long-debated location of Abritus was thought to be 1 km (0.62 mi) east of the city of Razgrad after excavations by T. Ivanov in 1969 and 1971. However recent work has shown it took place about 15 km (9.3 mi) northwest of Abritus, in
2080-406: The story of Zosimus about Treboniannus Gallus who supposedly conspired with the enemies of Romans for delivering Decius' army into the Gothic trap since it seems impossible that, afterwards, the shattered Roman legions proclaimed emperor a traitor who was responsible for the loss of so many soldiers from their ranks. Another strong point against Gallus' treason is the fact that he adopted Hostilian ,
2132-539: The troops proclaim him emperor. Philip advanced against him and was killed at Verona , Italy , in September 249. The Senate then recognized Decius as emperor, giving him the attribute Traianus in reference to Emperor Trajan . According to the Byzantine historian Zosimus , Decius was clothed in purple and forced to undertake the [burdens of] government, despite his reluctance and unwillingness. Decius' political program
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2184-453: The valley of the river Beli Lom , to the south of the village of Dryanovets near the site known locally as "Poleto" (the Field). This is evidenced by the large number of Roman coins and arms including swords, shields, spears, armour, greaves, and even military tentpoles found by archaeologists and local residents on the site which must be the last Roman camp. For example, in 1952 a pottery vessel
2236-610: The worst defeats suffered by the Roman Empire against the Germanic tribes , rated by the Roman historian Ammianus Marcellinus as on par with the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest in 9, the Marcomannic invasion of Roman Italy in 170, and the Battle of Adrianople in 378. The defeat was a disaster for Rome. The emperors' deaths led to more political instability at home; and the loss of the army allowed repeated barbarian incursions in
2288-425: The younger son of Decius, after returning to Rome. Gallus , who became emperor upon Decius' death, negotiated a treaty with the Goths under duress, which allowed them to keep their booty and return to their homes on the other side of the Danube. It is also possible that he agreed to pay an annual tribute in return for the Goths' promise to respect Roman territory. This humiliating treaty, the contemporary spread of
2340-520: Was Roman emperor from 249 to 251. A distinguished politician during the reign of Philip the Arab , Decius was proclaimed emperor by his troops after putting down a rebellion in Moesia . In 249, he defeated and killed Philip near Verona and was recognized as emperor by the Senate afterwards. During his reign, he attempted to strengthen the Roman state and its religion, leading to the Decian persecution , where
2392-460: Was urban prefect of Rome during the early reign of Emperor Philip the Arab. Around 245, Philip entrusted Decius with an important command on the Danube. By the end of 248 or 249, Decius was sent to quell the revolt of Pacatian and his troops in Moesia and Pannonia; some modern historians see this rebellion as a reflection of emerging Balkan separatism. After the collapse of the revolt, Decius let
2444-402: Was "on behalf of" (Latin pro ) the emperor, not to the emperor, since a living emperor was not considered divine . Certificates were issued to those who satisfied the commissioners during the persecution of Christians under Decius. Forty-six such certificates have been published, all dating from 250, four of them from Oxyrhynchus . Anyone, including Christian followers, who refused to offer
2496-420: Was betrayed by his successor, Trebonianus Gallus, who was involved in a secret alliance with the Goths, but this cannot be substantiated and was most likely a later invention since Gallus felt compelled to adopt Decius' younger son, Gaius Valens Hostilianus, as joint emperor even though the latter was too young to rule in his own right. It is also unlikely that the shattered Roman legions would proclaim as emperor
2548-587: Was focused on the restoration of the strength of the State, both militarily opposing the external threats, and restoring the public piety with a program of renovation of the state religion . Either as a concession to the Senate, or perhaps with the idea of improving public morality, Decius endeavoured to revive the separate office and authority of the censor . The choice was left to the Senate, who unanimously selected Valerian (the future emperor). But Valerian, well aware of
2600-490: Was found at ‘Poleto’ containing about 30 aurei in mint condition dating from Gordian III to Trajan Decius. Soon after Decius ascended to the throne in 249, barbarian tribes invaded the Roman provinces of Dacia , Moesia Superior , and Moesia Inferior . Two factors had contributed to growing unrest in the area north of the Danube. First, Decius' predecessor Philip the Arab had refused to continue payments, initiated by Emperor Maximinus Thrax in 238, of annual subsidies to
2652-404: Was killed by an arrow early in the battle, and to cheer his men Decius exclaimed, "Let no one mourn; the death of one soldier is not a great loss to the republic." Nevertheless, Decius' army was entangled in the swamp and annihilated in this battle, while he himself was killed on the field of battle. As the historian Aurelius Victor relates: The Decii (i.e., Decius and his son), while pursuing
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#17328488146302704-400: Was rendered moot when he was killed soon afterwards. Then the invaders began returning to their homeland, laden with booty and captives, among them many of senatorial rank. In the meantime, Decius had returned with his re-organized army, accompanied by his son Herennius Etruscus and the general Trebonianus Gallus , intending to defeat the invaders and recover the booty. The final engagement,
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