189-400: Sanggau Regency ( Chinese : 桑高 ; Hakka : Sîang-ngau) is a regency in the north-central section of West Kalimantan province of Indonesia. On 18 December 2003, the regency's eastern portion was split off to create a new regency called Sekadau , leaving Sanggau with an area of 12,857.7 km (5,000 sq mi). As of the 2020 census , Sanggau Regency had a population of 484,836;
378-484: A city . As a regency, it is headed by a democratically elected regent. The heads of districts are directly appointed by the regent with the recommendation of the regency secretary. Executive power lies with the regent and vice regent, and legislative function is exercised by the regency's parliament. On the provincial level, Sanggau Regency is part of the 6th West Kalimantan electoral district, along with Sekadau Regency, which together send eight out of 65 representatives to
567-464: A nucleus that has a vowel (which can be a monophthong , diphthong , or even a triphthong in certain varieties), preceded by an onset (a single consonant , or consonant + glide ; a zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a coda consonant; a syllable also carries a tone . There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where
756-457: A subject–verb–object word order , and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the topic–comment construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of classifiers and measure words , another trait shared with neighboring languages such as Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of serial verb construction , pronoun dropping , and
945-527: A tropical rainforest climate with heavy to very heavy rainfall year-round. The wettest months generally are November and December with average rainfall on as many as 20 days while the driest is usually August with average of 5 days rainfall. The regency's highest annual rainfall is also during November, which is around 416 mm (16.4 in) and the lowest is during August which may be as low as 60 mm (2.4 in). Sanggau Regency consists of fifteen districts ( kecamatan ). The areas and populations as of
1134-505: A Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language. Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The Hanyu Da Zidian , a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including oracle bone versions. The Zhonghua Zihai (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions and
1323-595: A Shanghai resident may speak both Standard Chinese and Shanghainese ; if they grew up elsewhere, they are also likely fluent in the dialect of their home region. In addition to Standard Chinese, a majority of Taiwanese people also speak Taiwanese Hokkien (also called 台語 ; 'Taiwanese' ), Hakka , or an Austronesian language . A speaker in Taiwan may mix pronunciations and vocabulary from Standard Chinese and other languages of Taiwan in everyday speech. In part due to traditional cultural ties with Guangdong , Cantonese
1512-412: A bill which would have severely curtailed presidential authority, Suharto had him removed from his position as MPRS chairman in 1969 and forced his early retirement from the military in 1972. In 1967, generals Hartono Rekso Dharsono , Kemal Idris , and Sarwo Edhie Wibowo (dubbed "New Order Radicals") opposed Suharto's decision to allow participation of existing political parties in elections in favour of
1701-462: A central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with language identity. The Chinese government's official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is 方言 ; fāngyán ; 'regional speech', whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called 地点方言 ; 地點方言 ; dìdiǎn fāngyán ; 'local speech'. Because of
1890-770: A colonel, he led the Garuda Brigade in suppressing the Makassar uprising , a rebellion of former colonial soldiers who supported the Dutch-established State of East Indonesia and its federal entity, the United States of Indonesia . During his year in Makassar , Suharto became acquainted with his neighbours, the Habibie family, whose eldest son BJ Habibie was later Suharto's vice-president, and went on to succeed him as president. In 1951–1952, Suharto led his troops in defeating
2079-597: A compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early Qing dynasties operated using a koiné language known as Guanhua , based on the Nanjing dialect of Mandarin. Standard Chinese is an official language of both the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China (Taiwan), one of the four official languages of Singapore , and one of
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#17328487213292268-679: A concept similar to corporatism . The government formed various civil society groups to unite the populace in support of government programs. For instance, the government created the Indonesian Civil Servants Corps ( Korps Pegawai Republik Indonesia or KORPRI ) in November 1971 as union of civil servants to ensure their loyalty, organized the FBSI ( Federasi Buruh Seluruh Indonesia ) as the only legal labour union in February 1973, and established
2457-700: A corresponding increase in the number of homophones . As an example, the small Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary lists six words that are commonly pronounced as shí in Standard Chinese: In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is. The 20th century Yuen Ren Chao poem Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced shi . As such, most of these words have been replaced in speech, if not in writing, with less ambiguous disyllabic compounds. Only
2646-508: A deep distaste for both Islamic and communist radicalism. Between 1956 and 1959, he served in the important position of commander of Diponegoro Division based in Semarang , responsible for Central Java and Yogyakarta provinces. His relationship with prominent businessmen Liem Sioe Liong and Bob Hasan , which extended throughout his presidency, began in Central Java, where he was involved in
2835-512: A field commander. In the early years of the war, he organized local armed forces into Battalion X of Regiment I; Suharto was promoted to Major and became Battalion X's leader. The arrival of the Allies, under a mandate to return the situation to the status quo ante bellum , quickly led to clashes between Indonesian republicans and Allied forces, i.e. returning Dutch and assisting British forces. Suharto led his Division X troops to halt an advance by
3024-585: A founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) in August 1967. This organization is designed to establish a peaceful relationship between Southeast Asian countries free from conflicts such as the ongoing Vietnam War . In 1974, the neighbouring colony of Portuguese Timor descended into civil war after the withdrawal of Portuguese authority following the Carnation Revolution , whereby
3213-784: A full-scale invasion of the colony on 7 December 1975 followed with its official annexation as Indonesia's 27th province of East Timor in July 1976. The "encirclement and annihilation" campaigns of 1977–1979 broke the back of Fretilin control over the hinterlands, although continuing guerrilla resistance caused the government to maintain a strong military force in the half-island until 1999. An estimated minimum of 90,800 and maximum of 213,600 conflict-related deaths occurred in East Timor during Indonesian rule (1974–1999) ; namely, 17,600–19,600 killings and 73,200 to 194,000 'excess' deaths from hunger and illness; Indonesian forces were responsible for about 70% of
3402-606: A key member of the Movement and close family friend of Suharto. According to Latief's later testimony, the conspirators assumed Suharto to be a Sukarno-loyalist; hence Latief went to inform him of the impending kidnapping plan to save Sukarno from treacherous generals, upon which Suharto seemed to offer his neutrality. Upon being told of the killings, Suharto went to Kostrad headquarters just before dawn from where he could see soldiers occupying Merdeka Square. He mobilised Kostrad and RPKAD (now Kopassus ) special forces to seize control of
3591-483: A local woman, was distantly related to Hamengkubuwono V by his first concubine. Five weeks after Suharto's birth, his mother suffered a nervous breakdown ; he was placed in the care of his paternal great-aunt, Kromodirjo as a result. Kertosudiro and Sukirah divorced early in Suharto's life and both later remarried. At the age of three, Suharto was returned to his mother, who had married a local farmer whom Suharto helped in
3780-576: A localised version of the Japanese bushido , or "way of the warrior", used to indoctrinate troops. This training encouraged an anti-Dutch and pro-nationalist thought, although toward the aims of the Imperial Japanese militarists. The encounter with a nationalistic and militarist ideology is believed to have profoundly influenced Suharto's own way of thinking. Suharto was posted to a PETA coastal defense battalion at Wates , south of Yogyakarta until he
3969-612: A military plot to overthrow him, a fear which he repeatedly mentioned during the next few months. On his independence day speech in August, Sukarno declared his intention to commit Indonesia to an anti-imperialist alliance with China and other communist countries and warned the army not to interfere. While Sukarno devoted his energy for domestic and international politics, the economy of Indonesia deteriorated rapidly with worsening widespread poverty and hunger, while foreign debt obligations became unmanageable and infrastructure crumbled. Sukarno's Guided Democracy stood on fragile grounds due to
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#17328487213294158-564: A millennium. The Four Commanderies of Han were established in northern Korea in the 1st century BCE but disintegrated in the following centuries. Chinese Buddhism spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese. Later, strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions were established in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, with Literary Chinese serving as
4347-490: A minor noble in the Mangkunegaran royal house of Solo. The arranged marriage was enduring and supportive, lasting until Tien's death in 1996. The couple had six children: Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana (Tutut, born 1949), Sigit Harjojudanto (born 1951), Bambang Trihatmodjo (born 1953), Siti Hediati (" Titiek Suharto ", born 1959), Hutomo Mandala Putra (Tommy, born 1962), and Siti Hutami Endang Adiningish (Mamiek, born 1964). Within
4536-460: A new unit of the newly formed Indonesian army. Based on his PETA experience, he was appointed deputy commander, and subsequently, a battalion commander when the republican forces were formally organized in October 1945. Suharto was involved in fighting against Allied troops around Magelang and Semarang and was subsequently appointed the head of a brigade as lieutenant-colonel, having earned respect as
4725-474: A non-ideological platform of "development", and aided by official government support and subtle intimidation tactics, Golkar managed to secure 62.8% of the popular vote. The March 1973 general session of newly elected MPR promptly appointed Suharto to second-term in office with Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX as vice-president. "It is not the military strength of the Communists but their fanaticism and ideology which
4914-421: A non-ideological two-party system similar to those found in many Western countries. Suharto sent Dharsono overseas as an ambassador, while Idris and Wibowo were sent to distant North Sumatra and South Sulawesi as regional commanders. Suharto's previously strong relationship with the student movement soured over the increasing authoritarianism and corruption of his administration. While many original leaders of
5103-426: A partner of major foreign power companies and forced the state-run power company, PLN , to buy electricity at inflated rates. According to one estimate from the 24 May 1999 cover story in the international issue of Time magazine , the total wealth amassed by the Suharto family over three decades in power was $ 73.24 billion. Setting aside $ 9 billion earned from interest on deposits, three-fourths of this wealth
5292-508: A policy of neutrality in the Cold War but was nevertheless quietly aligned with the Western bloc (including Japan and South Korea ) to secure support for Indonesia's economic recovery. Western countries, impressed by Suharto's strong anti-communist credentials, were quick to offer their support. Diplomatic relations with China were suspended in October 1967 due to suspicion of Chinese involvement in
5481-544: A quasi-religious cult, Suharto secured a parliamentary resolution in 1983 which obliged all organizations in Indonesia to adhere to Pancasila as a fundamental principle. He also instituted mandatory Pancasila training programs for all Indonesians, from primary school students to office workers. In practice, however, the vagueness of Pancasila was exploited by Suharto's government to justify their actions and to condemn their opponents as "anti-Pancasila". The New Order also implemented
5670-716: A result, he was given the title "Father of Development." According to Transparency International , Suharto was one of the most corrupt leaders in modern history, having embezzled an alleged US$ 15–35 billion during his rule. Suharto died in January 2008. Suharto remains a controversial and divisive figure within the Indonesian general public. Many Indonesians have praised his 31-year regime for its economic development, rapid industrialisation, and perceived political stability, while others have denounced his dictatorial rule, extensive human rights violations and corruption. Plans to award
5859-538: A secure reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear. A top-level branching into Chinese and Tibeto-Burman languages is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated. The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the Shang dynasty . As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate
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6048-511: A series of "profit-generating" enterprises conducted primarily to keep the poorly funded military unit functioning. Army anti-corruption investigations implicated Suharto in a 1959 smuggling scandal. Relieved of his position, he was transferred to the army's Staff and Command School ( Seskoad ) in the city of Bandung . While in Bandung, he was promoted to brigadier-general, and in late 1960, promoted to army deputy chief of staff. On 6 March 1961, he
6237-638: A series of currency devaluations. Industrialisation was mostly undertaken by Chinese-Indonesian companies which evolved into large conglomerates dominating the nation's economy. The largest of these conglomerates were the Salim Group led by Liem Sioe Liong (Sudono Salim) , Sinar Mas Group led by Oei Ek Tjong (Eka Tjipta Widjaja) , Astra Group led by Tjia Han Poen (William Soeryadjaya) , Lippo Group led by Lie Mo Tie (Mochtar Riady) , Barito Pacific Group led by Pang Djun Phen (Prajogo Pangestu) , and Nusamba Group led by Bob Hasan . Suharto decided to support
6426-436: A series of five-year plans, dubbed REPELITA ( Rencana Pembangunan Lima Tahun ) I to VI from 1969 to 1998. Outside the formal economy, Suharto created a network of charitable organizations (" yayasan ") run by the military and his family members, which extracted "donations" from domestic and foreign enterprises in exchange for necessary government support and permits. While some proceeds were used for charitable purposes, much of
6615-438: A series of laws regarding elections as well as the structure and duties of parliament which were passed by MPRS in November 1969 after protracted negotiations. The law provided for a parliament ( Madjelis Permusjawaratan Rakjat /MPR) with the power to elect presidents, consisting of a house of representatives ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakjat /DPR ) and regional representatives. 100 of the 460 members of DPR would be directly appointed by
6804-503: A similar way to the use of Latin and Ancient Greek roots in European languages. Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin
6993-678: A single language. However, their lack of mutual intelligibility means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a family . Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from Middle Chinese , of which the most spoken by far is Mandarin with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by Min (75 million, e.g. Southern Min ), Wu (74 million, e.g. Shanghainese ), and Yue (68 million, e.g. Cantonese ). These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with
7182-558: A strong, centralised and military-dominated government. What started as an oligarchic military dictatorship evolved into a personalistic authoritarian regime centred around him. An ability to maintain stability over a sprawling and diverse Indonesia and an avowedly anti-communist stance won him the economic and diplomatic support of the West during the Cold War . For most of his presidency, Indonesia experienced significant industrialisation, economic growth, and improved levels of education. As
7371-570: A subsidiary of the state oil company Pertamina , instantly making him a major crude-oil broker and transporter. Perta generated profits of $ 1 million per month. Most of Indonesia's toll roads were built and operated by the stateowned firm Jasa Marga , with untold markups and opportunities for skimming and theft for oligarchs as the projects were completed. In 1989, Suharto issued a decree granting his daughter Tutut 75% of profits from all toll roads her group operated jointly with Jasa Marga, driving costs up still further. Bambang positioned his group as
7560-584: A systematic cultural genocide . In 1978, the government began requiring a Letter of Proof of Citizenship of the Republic of Indonesia ( Indonesian : Surat Bukti Kewarganegaraan Republik Indonesia , or SBKRI). Although the SBKRI was legally required for all citizens of foreign descent, in practice it was generally applied only to Chinese descent. This led to difficulties for Chinese Indonesians when enrolling in state universities, applying to be civil servants, or joining
7749-610: A unified standard. The earliest examples of Old Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones dated to c. 1250 BCE , during the Late Shang . The next attested stage came from inscriptions on bronze artifacts dating to the Western Zhou period (1046–771 BCE), the Classic of Poetry and portions of the Book of Documents and I Ching . Scholars have attempted to reconstruct
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7938-563: A variety of Yue from a small coastal area around Taishan, Guangdong . In parts of South China, the dialect of a major city may be only marginally intelligible to its neighbors. For example, Wuzhou and Taishan are located approximately 260 km (160 mi) and 190 km (120 mi) away from Guangzhou respectively, but the Yue variety spoken in Wuzhou is more similar to the Guangzhou dialect than
8127-673: Is Mozes Thadeus Djaman Regional Hospital, which is located in Sanggau town. It is a public hospital owned by the regency government. Indonesia's Ministry of Health classifies it as a C-class hospital. The regency's other major hospital is the D-class Sentra Medika General Hospital, which is also located in Sanggau town. Other hospitals are located in Tayan Hulu and Sekayam Districts. Owing to demand for PCR sample tests during
8316-596: Is Taishanese. Wuzhou is located directly upstream from Guangzhou on the Pearl River , whereas Taishan is to Guangzhou's southwest, with the two cities separated by several river valleys. In parts of Fujian , the speech of some neighbouring counties or villages is mutually unintelligible. Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely based on the different evolution of Middle Chinese voiced initials: Proportions of first-language speakers The classification of Li Rong , which
8505-689: Is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in China , as well as by various communities of the Chinese diaspora . Approximately 1.35 billion people, or 17% of the global population, speak a variety of Chinese as their first language . Chinese languages form the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be dialects of
8694-443: Is also the fastest growing district with an annual population growth of 2.56% while the slowest growing district is Meliau. As with most Indonesian regions, the population is relatively young and the workforce is dominated by youths above 15 years old. In 2020, 241,987 of the regency's population are classified as part of the workforce. The 20-to-24 age group is the most populous age group in the regency in 2020. According to 2013 data,
8883-485: Is called either 华语 ; 華語 ; Huáyǔ or 汉语 ; 漢語 ; Hànyǔ ). Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools. Diglossia is common among Chinese speakers. For example,
9072-595: Is often described as a 'monosyllabic' language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing Old and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, around 90% of words consist of a single character that corresponds one-to-one with a morpheme , the smallest unit of meaning in a language. In modern varieties, it usually remains the case that morphemes are monosyllabic—in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both bound and free , such as 'seven', 'elephant', 'para-' and '-able'. Some of
9261-445: Is only about an eighth as many as English. All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words. A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned pitch accent system much like modern Japanese. A very common example used to illustrate
9450-668: Is specifically meant. However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example, 石 ; shí alone, and not 石头 ; 石頭 ; shítou , appears in compounds as meaning 'stone' such as 石膏 ; shígāo ; 'plaster', 石灰 ; shíhuī ; 'lime', 石窟 ; shíkū ; 'grotto', 石英 ; 'quartz', and 石油 ; shíyóu ; 'petroleum'. Although many single-syllable morphemes ( 字 ; zì ) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllable compounds known as 词 ; 詞 ; cí , which more closely resembles
9639-484: Is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The CC-CEDICT project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms, and names of political figures, businesses, and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD), based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries. The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary,
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#17328487213299828-484: Is the principal element of their strength. To consider this, each country in the area needs an ideology of its own with which to counter the Communists. But a national ideology is not enough by itself. The well being of the people must be improved so that it strengthens and supports the national ideology." On 5 January 1973, to allow better control, the government forced the four Islamic parties to merge into PPP ( Partai Persatuan Pembangunan /United Development Party) while
10017-419: Is thought to have been founded on 7 April 1310, which is now commemorated as the anniversary of the founding of Sanggau town, where the regency seat is located. The kingdom was led by the princess Dara Nante, who abdicated and gave the throne to her personal assistant Dakkudak. Dakkudak, who proved to be an incompetent ruler, was unable to lead the kingdom's administration. He fled the kingdom in secret, abandoning
10206-496: Is used as an everyday language in Hong Kong and Macau . The designation of various Chinese branches remains controversial. Some linguists and most ordinary Chinese people consider all the spoken varieties as one single language, as speakers share a common national identity and a common written form. Others instead argue that it is inappropriate to refer to major branches of Chinese such as Mandarin, Wu, and so on as "dialects" because
10395-497: Is used in education, media, formal speech, and everyday life—though Mandarin is increasingly taught in schools due to the mainland's growing influence. Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the Han dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a period of Chinese control that ran almost continuously for
10584-540: Is used in the Language Atlas of China (1987), distinguishes three further groups: Some varieties remain unclassified, including the Danzhou dialect on Hainan , Waxianghua spoken in western Hunan , and Shaozhou Tuhua spoken in northern Guangdong . Standard Chinese is the standard language of China (where it is called 普通话 ; pǔtōnghuà ) and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it
10773-428: Is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a diasystem encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics. The complex relationship between spoken and written Chinese is an example of diglossia : as spoken, Chinese varieties have evolved at different rates, while
10962-903: The Dwifungsi ("Dual Function") policy which enabled the military to have an active role in all levels of the Indonesian government, economy, and society. Having been appointed president, Suharto still needed to share power with various elements including Indonesian generals who considered Suharto as mere primus inter pares , and Islamic and student groups who participated in the anti-Communist purge. Suharto, aided by his "Office of Personal Assistants" ( Aspri ) clique of military officers from his days as commander of Diponegoro Division, particularly Ali Murtopo , began to systematically cement his hold on power by subtly sidelining potential rivals while rewarding loyalists with political position and monetary incentives. Having successfully stood-down MPRS chairman General Abdul Haris Nasution 's 1968 attempt to introduce
11151-684: The Qieyun rime dictionary (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by rhyme tables such as the Yunjing constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the Qieyun system. These works define phonological categories but with little hint of what sounds they represent. Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern varieties of Chinese , borrowed Chinese words in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence. The resulting system
11340-630: The 30 September Movement (diplomatic relations were only restored in 1990). Due to Suharto's destruction of the PKI, the Soviet Union embargoed military sales to Indonesia. However, from 1967 to 1970 foreign minister Adam Malik managed to secure several agreements to restructure massive debts incurred by Sukarno from the Soviet Union and other Eastern European communist states. Regionally, having ended confrontation with Malaysia in August 1966, Indonesia became
11529-477: The COVID-19 pandemic , which would previously need to be sent to Pontianak , the regency built a separate laboratory for PCR test in 2021. The regency has 1,001.14 km (622.08 miles) of roads, of which 294 km (183 miles) have not yet been paved. All roads in the regency are maintained by the regency government. The regency has 15 post offices, which are run by the state-owned Pos Indonesia . Being landlocked,
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#173284872132911718-656: The Cirebon Sultanate in Java . Mohammad Tahir II ruled Sanggau from 1860 to 1876. Tahir II made an agreement that settled the border between Sanggau and Brunei Sultanate , which later defined the modern Indonesia–Malaysia border . During Tahir II's reign, Sanggau made its first contact with the Dutch Empire . Tahir II welcomed the Dutch in the kingdom's capital and allowed them to build an outpost in Sanggau. Tahir II died in 1876 and
11907-534: The Communist Party of Indonesia and other leftist organizations. The purge spread from Jakarta to much of the rest of the country. The most widely accepted estimates are that at least 500,000 to over 1 million were killed. As many as 1.5 million were imprisoned at one stage or another. As a result of the purge, one of Sukarno's three pillars of support, the Indonesian Communist Party,
12096-525: The Korean , Japanese and Vietnamese languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies. This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of moraic structure in Japanese and the disruption of vowel harmony in Korean. Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in
12285-546: The MPRS (parliament), and Suharto replaced chiefs of the navy, air force, and the police force with his supporters, who then began an extensive purge within each service. In June 1966, the now-purged parliament passed 24 resolutions including the banning of Marxism–Leninism , ratifying the Supersemar , and stripping Sukarno of his title of President for Life. Crucially, it also resolved that if Sukarno were unable to carry out his duties,
12474-608: The MUI in 1975 to control Islamic clerics. Additionally, Suharto relied on the military to ruthlessly maintain domestic security, organized by the Kopkamtib (Operation Command for the Restoration of Security and Order) and BAKIN (State Intelligence Coordination Agency). To maintain strict control over the country, Suharto expanded the army's territorial system down to village-level, while military officers were appointed as regional heads under
12663-680: The May Fourth Movement beginning in 1919. After the fall of the Northern Song dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jurchen Jin and Mongol Yuan dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called Old Mandarin ) developed based on the dialects of the North China Plain around the capital. The 1324 Zhongyuan Yinyun was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new sanqu verse form in this language. Together with
12852-579: The National Language Unification Commission finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it 普通话 ; 普通話 ; pǔtōnghuà ; 'common speech'. The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both mainland China and Taiwan. In Hong Kong and Macau , Cantonese is the dominant spoken language due to cultural influence from Guangdong immigrants and colonial-era policies, and
13041-476: The PNI , in 1969 Suharto decided to take over control of an obscure military-run federation of NGOs called Golkar ("Functional Groups") and transform it into his electoral vehicle under the coordination of his right-hand man Ali Murtopo . The first general election was held on 3 July 1971 with ten participants; consisting of Golkar , four Islamic parties, as well as five nationalist and Christian parties. Campaigning on
13230-496: The Petition of Fifty , which criticised Suharto's use of Pancasila to silence his critics. Suharto refused to address the petitioners' concerns, and some of them were imprisoned with others having restrictions imposed on their movements. To placate demands from civilian politicians for the holding of elections, as manifested in MPRS resolutions of 1966 and 1967, Suharto government formulated
13419-403: The Supersemar letter, Suharto ordered the banning of the PKI the following day and proceeded to purge pro-Sukarno elements from the parliament, the government and military, accusing them of being communist sympathisers. The army arrested 15 cabinet ministers and forced Sukarno to appoint a new cabinet consisting of Suharto supporters. The army arrested pro-Sukarno and pro-communist members of
13608-473: The oracle bone inscriptions created during the Shang dynasty c. 1250 BCE . The phonetic categories of Old Chinese can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the Northern and Southern period , Middle Chinese went through several sound changes and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. The Qieyun , a rime dictionary , recorded
13797-591: The phonology of Old Chinese by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the Classic of Poetry and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters. Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial consonant clusters of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids. Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at
13986-799: The toll-expressway market which was monopolised by Tutut, the national car project monopolised by Bambang and Tommy, and even the cinema market, monopolised by 21 Cineplex (owned by Suharto's cousin Sudwikatmono). The family is said to control about 36,000 km of real estate in Indonesia, including 100,000 m of prime office space in Jakarta and nearly 40% of the land in East Timor. Additionally, Suharto's family members received free shares in 1,251 of Indonesia's most lucrative domestic companies (mostly run by Suharto's ethnic-Chinese cronies), while foreign-owned companies were encouraged to establish "strategic partnerships" with Suharto family companies. Meanwhile,
14175-713: The 12-volume Hanyu Da Cidian , records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised Cihai , a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases, and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific, and technical terms. The 2016 edition of Xiandai Hanyu Cidian , an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words. Suharto 2nd President of Indonesia [REDACTED] Suharto (8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008)
14364-694: The 1966 student movement ( Angkatan '66 ) were successfully co-opted into the regime, Suharto was faced with large student demonstrations challenging the legitimacy of 1971 elections (" Golput " movement), the costly construction of the Taman Mini Indonesia Indah theme park (1972), the domination of foreign capitalists ( Malari Incident of 1974), and the lack of term limits of Suharto's presidency (1978). The regime responded by imprisoning many student activists (such as future national figures Dorodjatun Kuntjoro-Jakti , Adnan Buyung Nasution , Hariman Siregar, and Syahrir ), and even sending troops to occupy
14553-471: The 2010 and 2020 censuses are given below, together with the official estimates as at mid 2023. The table also includes the locations of the district administrative centres, the number of administrative villages in each district (totaling 163 rural desa and 6 urban kelurahan - the latter all in Kapuas District), and its post code. Sanggau is a second-level administrative division that is equivalent to
14742-487: The 30 September Movement, there was a complicated process of political manoeuvres against Sukarno, including student agitation, stacking of parliament, media propaganda and military threats. In January 1966, university students under the banner of KAMI , began demonstrations against the Sukarno government voicing demands for the disbandment of the PKI and control of hyperinflation. The students received support and protection from
14931-523: The British and Malaysians. Tensions between the military and communists increased in April 1965, when Sukarno endorsed the immediate implementation of the PKI's proposal for a "fifth armed force" consisting of armed peasants and workers. However, this idea was rejected by the army's leadership as being tantamount to the PKI establishing its own armed forces. In May, the " Gilchrist Document " aroused Sukarno's fear of
15120-459: The DPR and MPR made such approval a mere formality. Combined with the DPR's infrequent sessions (it usually sat for only one session per year), Suharto was able to effectively rule by decree for most of his tenure. Suharto also proceeded with various social engineering projects designed to transform Indonesian society into a de-politicised "floating mass" supportive of the national mission of "development",
15309-542: The Dutch East Indies . During that time, the reigning sultan of Sanggau was Sultan Muhammad Arif Pakunegara. His reign only lasted for a year; he was killed by Japanese forces and replaced by pro-Japanese Sultan Marhabah Saleh. Marhabah Saleh was succeeded by Gusti Ali Akbar. The region also underwent conflict between natives and Japanese forces over forced labour, known as the Dayak Desa War . The town Meliau in Sanggau
15498-561: The Dutch T ("Tiger") Brigade on 17 May 1946. It earned him the respect of Lieutenant-Colonel Sunarto Kusumodirjo, who invited him to draft the working guidelines for the Battle Leadership Headquarters (MPP), a body created to organize and unify the command structure of the Indonesian Nationalist forces. The military forces of the still infant Republic of Indonesia were constantly restructuring. By August 1946, Suharto
15687-699: The Dutch military in 1940. Suharto finished middle school at the age of 18 and took a clerical job at a bank in Wuryantaro. He was forced to resign after a bicycle mishap tore his only working clothes. Following a spell of unemployment, he joined the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) in June 1940 and undertook basic training in Gombong near Yogyakarta. With the Netherlands under German occupation and
15876-569: The Dutch to cease the military offensive and to recommence negotiations, which eventually led to the Dutch withdrawal from the Yogyakarta area in June 1949 and to complete transfer of sovereignty in December 1949. Suharto was responsible for the takeover of Yogyakarta city from the withdrawing Dutch in June 1949. During the Revolution, Suharto married Siti Hartinah (known as Madam Tien), the daughter of
16065-443: The Dutch, who were preparing it for its own independence, separate from Indonesia. In 1965, Suharto was assigned operational command of Sukarno's Konfrontasi , against the newly formed Malaysia. Fearful that Konfrontasi would leave Java thinly covered by the army, and hand control to the 2 million-strong Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), he authorised a Kostrad intelligence officer, Ali Murtopo , to open secret contacts with
16254-461: The G30S had based themselves and where Sukarno, air force commander Omar Dhani and PKI chairman Dipa Nusantara Aidit had gathered, causing them to disperse before Suhartoist soldiers occupied the airbase on 2 October after short fighting. With the failure of the poorly organized coup, and having secured authority from the president to restore order and security, Suharto's faction was firmly in control of
16443-560: The Islamic-inspired rebellion of Battalion 426 in the Klaten area of Central Java . Appointed to lead four battalions in early 1953, he organized their participation in battling Darul Islam insurgents in northwestern Central Java and anti-bandit operations in the Mount Merapi area. He also sought to stem leftist sympathies among his troops. His experience in this period left Suharto with
16632-592: The Japanese in the aftermath of the failed February 1945 PETA Revolt in Blitar , led by Supriyadi . Two days after the Japanese surrender in the Pacific, independence leaders Sukarno and Hatta declared Indonesian independence and were appointed president and vice-president respectively of the new Republic. Suharto disbanded his regiment under orders from the Japanese command and returned to Yogyakarta. As republican groups rose to assert Indonesian independence, Suharto joined
16821-690: The Japanese pressing for access to Indonesian oil supplies, the Dutch had opened up the KNIL to large intakes of previously excluded Javanese. Suharto was assigned to Battalion XIII at Rampal, graduated from a short training course at KNIL Kaderschool in Gombong to become a sergeant, and was posted to a KNIL reserve battalion in Cisarua . Following the Dutch surrender to the invading Japanese forces in March 1942, Suharto abandoned his KNIL uniform and went back to Wurjantoro. After months of unemployment, he then became one of
17010-572: The Javanese upper class, it was considered acceptable for the wife to pursue genteel commerce to supplement the family budget, allowing her husband to keep his dignity in his official role. The commercial dealings of Tien, her children and grandchildren became extensive and ultimately undermined Suharto's presidency. In the years following Indonesian independence, Suharto served in the Indonesian National Army , primarily in Java . In 1950, as
17199-555: The Latin-based Vietnamese alphabet . English words of Chinese origin include tea from Hokkien 茶 ( tê ), dim sum from Cantonese 點心 ( dim2 sam1 ), and kumquat from Cantonese 金橘 ( gam1 gwat1 ). The sinologist Jerry Norman has estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese. These varieties form a dialect continuum , in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though
17388-490: The MPR in 1978, 1983, 1988, 1993, and 1998. Golkar won landslide majorities in the MPR at every election, ensuring that Suharto would be able to pass his agenda with virtually no opposition. Suharto took great care to make it appear that his regime appeared to observe the tenets of the constitution. On paper, the president was the "mandatory of the MPR," responsible for implementing the "Broad Lines of State Policy" (GBHN) developed by
17577-538: The MPR. Near the end of each of his terms, Suharto delivered "accountability speeches" to the MPR that outlined the achievements of his administration and demonstrated how he had adhered to the GBHN. Additionally, the president had the power to issue regulations in lieu of law, but such regulations had to be approved by the House of People's Representatives (DPR) to remain in effect. In practice, however, Golkar's landslide majorities in
17766-523: The Solution of Chinese Problem", whereby only one Chinese-language publication (controlled by the Army) was allowed to continue, all Chinese cultural and religious expressions (including the display of Chinese characters) were prohibited from public space, Chinese schools were seized and turned into Indonesian-language public schools , and the ethnic-Chinese were forced to take-up Indonesian-sounding names ; creating
17955-470: The Suharto government decided to de-regulate the banking sector to encourage savings and providing a domestic source of financing required for growth. Suharto decreed the "October Package of 1988" ( PAKTO 88 ) which eased requirements for establishing banks and extending credit; resulting in a 50% increase in the number of banks from 1989 to 1991. To promote savings, the government introduced the TABANAS program to
18144-734: The Tanjungpura Kingdom. The conflict started when Gani's daughter Dayang Seri Gemala married a noble from the Matan royal family. Gemala's husband was unfaithful to her and married again, insulting the Sanggau royal family. Gemala was brought back to Sanggau not long after. Following Gani, every ruler of Sanggau was male. Gani's reign ended in 1614 and in 1658. Bungsu changed his name to Sultan Mohammad Jamaluddin Kusumanegara. During Jamaluddin's reign, Sanggau moved its capital to its current location, Sanggau town . During this time, Sanggau formed ties with
18333-591: The Third Division ordered the attack. However, General Abdul Nasution said that Suharto took great care in preparing the "General Offensive" ( Indonesian : Serangan Umum ). Civilians sympathetic to the Republican cause within the city had been galvanised by the show of force which proved that the Dutch had failed to win the guerrilla war. Internationally, the United Nations Security Council pressured
18522-399: The abolishment of swapraja (autonomous royal regions) under the newly recognized Indonesian Republic on 2 May 1960, ending the existence of the sultanate. After fall of Suharto and the rapid decentralization that followed, on 18 December 2003 Sanggau Regency was split to create a new Sekadau Regency, reducing its size. On 26 July 2006, Sanggau Sultanate was revived by cultural figures with
18711-526: The appearance of unidentified troops around Merdeka Palace during a cabinet meeting (which Suharto had not attended) forced Sukarno to flee to Bogor Palace (60 km away) by helicopter. Three pro-Suharto generals, Major General Basuki Rahmat , Brigadier General M. Jusuf , and Brigadier General Amir Machmud went to Bogor to meet Sukarno. There, they persuaded and secured a presidential decree from Sukarno (see Supersemar ) that gave Suharto authority to take any action necessary to maintain security. Using
18900-409: The armed forces. After Sukarno gave his version of events, the MPRS concluded that he had been derelict in his duties and decided to hold another session to impeach him. On 20 February 1967, facing an increasingly untenable situation, Sukarno announced he would resign from the presidency. Later, the MPRS session stripped him of his remaining power on 12 March and named Suharto acting president . Sukarno
19089-600: The armed forces. Sumitro was an ambitious general who disliked the strong influence of Suharto's Aspri inner circle. Suharto learned that the riots were engineered by Sumitro to destabilise the government, resulting in Sumitro's dismissal and forced retirement. This incident is referred to as the Malari Incident ( Malapetaka Lima Belas Januari / Disaster of 15 January) . However, Suharto also disbanded Aspri to appease popular dissent. In 1980, fifty prominent political figures signed
19278-479: The army and Islamic and Catholic student groups convinced both Indonesian and international audiences that it was a communist coup attempt, and that the killings were cowardly atrocities against Indonesian heroes. The army in alliance with civilian religious groups, and backed by the United States and other Western powers, led a campaign of mass killings to purge Indonesian society, government, and armed forces of
19467-420: The army by 2 October (he was officially appointed army commander on 14 October). On 5 October, Suharto led a dramatic public ceremony to bury the generals' bodies. Complicated and partisan theories continue to this day over the identity of the attempted coup's organizers and their aims. The army's version, and subsequently that of the "New Order" , was that the PKI was solely responsible. A propaganda campaign by
19656-430: The army. Street fights broke out between the students and pro-Sukarno loyalists with the pro-Suharto students prevailing due to army protection. In February 1966, Sukarno promoted Suharto to lieutenant-general (and to full general in July 1966). The killing of a student demonstrator and Sukarno's order for the disbandment of KAMI in February 1966 further galvanised public opinion against the president. On 11 March 1966,
19845-431: The assistance of local government, nearly 49 years after its abolition. The sultanate was only intended for symbolic and cultural purposes, and no longer held political power. The revival ceremony was attended by several other Indonesian ceremonial monarchs such as sultan of Palembang, as well as local politicians. Sanggau Regency borders Sintang and Sekadau Regencies in the east, Malaysia in the north, Ketapang Regency in
20034-605: The boy as his own, which provided Suharto with a father-figure and a stable home in Wuryantoro. In 1931, he moved to the town of Wonogiri to attend the primary school, living first with Prawirohardjo's son Sulardi, and later with his father's relative Hardjowijono. While living with Hardjowijono, Suharto became acquainted with Darjatmo, a dukun ("shaman") of Javanese mystical arts and faith healing. The experience deeply affected him and later, as president, Suharto surrounded himself with powerful symbolic language. Difficulties in paying
20223-611: The campus of ITB ( Bandung Institute of Technology ) from January–March 1978. In April 1978, Suharto moved decisively by issuing a decree on "Normalisation of Campus Life" (NKK) which prohibited political activities on-campus not related to academic pursuits. On 15–16 January 1974, Suharto faced a significant challenge when violent riots broke out in Jakarta during a visit by the Japanese prime minister Kakuei Tanaka . Students demonstrating against increasing dominance of Japanese investors were encouraged by General Sumitro , deputy commander of
20412-451: The centre of Jakarta, capturing key strategic sites including the radio station without resistance. Suharto announced over the radio at 9:00 pm that six generals had been kidnapped by "counter-revolutionaries" and that the 30 September Movement actually intended to overthrow Sukarno. He said he was in control of the army, and that he would crush the Movement and safeguard Sukarno. Suharto issued an ultimatum to Halim Air Force Base , where
20601-399: The different spoken dialects varies, but in general, there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more polysyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which
20790-484: The difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include topolect , lect , vernacular , regional , and variety . Syllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics. They are tightly related to the morphology and also to the characters of the writing system, and phonologically they are structured according to fixed rules. The structure of each syllable consists of
20979-540: The education gap between boys and girls. Sustained support for agriculture resulted in Indonesia achieving rice self-sufficiency by 1984, an unprecedented achievement which earned Suharto a gold medal from the FAO in November 1985. In the early 1980s, Suharto government responded to the fall in oil exports due to the 1980s oil glut by successfully shifting the basis of the economy to export-oriented labour-intensive manufacturing, made globally competitive by Indonesia's low wages and
21168-484: The end of Suharto's presidency. The growth of the economy coincided with the rapid expansion of corruption, collusion, and nepotism ( Korupsi, Kolusi, dan Nepotisme / KKN ). In the early 1980s, Suharto's children, particularly Siti Hardiyanti Rukmana ("Tutut"), Hutomo Mandala Putra ("Tommy") , and Bambang Trihatmodjo, had grown into greedy adults. Their companies were given lucrative government contracts and protected from market competition by monopolies. Examples include
21357-566: The end of the syllable, developing into tone distinctions in Middle Chinese. Several derivational affixes have also been identified, but the language lacks inflection , and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and grammatical particles . Middle Chinese was the language used during Northern and Southern dynasties and the Sui , Tang , and Song dynasties (6th–10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by
21546-775: The fees for his education in Wonogiri resulted in another move back to his father in Kemusuk, where he continued studying at a lower-fee Schakel Muhammadiyah (middle school) in the city of Yogyakarta until 1938. Suharto's upbringing contrasts with that of leading Indonesian nationalists such as Sukarno in that he is believed to have had little interest in anti-colonialism , or political concerns beyond his immediate surroundings. Unlike Sukarno and his circle, Suharto had little or no contact with European colonisers. Consequently, he did not learn to speak Dutch or other European languages in his youth. He learned to speak Dutch after his induction into
21735-499: The first incarnation of Free Aceh Movement separatists under Hasan di Tiro in 1977 led to the dispatch of small special forces detachments who quickly either killed or forced the movement's members to flee abroad. Notably, in March 1981, Suharto authorised a successful special forces mission to end hijacking of a Garuda Indonesia flight by Islamic extremists at Don Mueang International Airport in Bangkok . In 1968, Suharto commenced
21924-413: The first one, 十 , normally appears in monosyllabic form in spoken Mandarin; the rest are normally used in the polysyllabic forms of respectively. In each, the homophone was disambiguated by the addition of another morpheme, typically either a near-synonym or some sort of generic word (e.g. 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable
22113-406: The five non-Islamic parties were fused into PDI ( Partai Demokrasi Indonesia /Indonesian Democratic Party). The government ensured that these parties never developed effective opposition by controlling their leadership while establishing the "re-call" system to remove any outspoken legislators from their positions. Using this system dubbed " Pancasila Democracy", Suharto was re-elected unopposed by
22302-640: The following year. He then mounted a social campaign known as " de-Sukarnoization " to reduce the former president's influence. Suharto ordered an invasion of East Timor in 1975, followed by a deadly 23-year occupation of the country and genocide . By the 1990s, the New Order's increasing authoritarianism and widespread corruption were a source of discontent and, following the 1997 Asian financial crisis which led to widespread unrest , he resigned in May 1998 . Under his " New Order " administration, Suharto constructed
22491-491: The form of a word), to indicate a word's function within a sentence. In other words, Chinese has very few grammatical inflections —it possesses no tenses , no voices , no grammatical number , and only a few articles . They make heavy use of grammatical particles to indicate aspect and mood . In Mandarin, this involves the use of particles such as 了 ; le ; ' PFV ', 还 ; 還 ; hái ; 'still', and 已经 ; 已經 ; yǐjīng ; 'already'. Chinese has
22680-427: The general approach in Indonesia is to rely on the spelling preferred by the person concerned. At the time of his birth, the standard transcription was Soeharto, and he used the original spelling throughout his life. The international English-language press generally uses the spelling "Suharto" while the Indonesian government and media use "Soeharto". Suharto was born on 8 June 1921 in a plaited-bamboo-walled house in
22869-599: The government of the People's Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976. Traditional characters are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking communities overseas . Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the Sino-Tibetan language family , together with Burmese , Tibetan and many other languages spoken in the Himalayas and the Southeast Asian Massif . Although
23058-417: The government, while the remaining seats were allocated to political organizations based on results of the general election. This mechanism ensures significant government control over legislative affairs, particularly the appointment of presidents. To participate in the elections, Suharto realised the need to align himself with a political party. After initially considering alignment with Sukarno's old party,
23247-412: The growth of a small number of Chinese-Indonesian conglomerates since they would not pose a political challenge due to their ethnic-minority status, but from his experience, he deemed them to possess the skills and capital needed to create real growth for the country. In exchange for Suharto's patronage, the conglomerates provided vital financing for his "regime maintenance" activities. In the late 1980s,
23436-535: The hamlet of Kemusuk , a part of the larger village of Godean, then part of the Dutch East Indies . The village is 15 kilometres (9 mi) west of Yogyakarta , the cultural heartland of the Javanese . Born to ethnic Javanese parents, he was the only child of his father's second marriage. His father, Kertosudiro, had two children from his previous marriage and was a village irrigation official. His mother, Sukirah,
23625-429: The highly successful family-planning program ( Keluarga Berentjana/KB ) to stem the high population growth rate and hence increasing per-capita income. A lasting legacy from this period is the spelling reform of Indonesian language decreed by Suharto on 17 August 1972. To promote assimilation of the influential Chinese-Indonesians , the Suharto government passed several laws as part of the so-called "Basic Policy for
23814-669: The holder of the Supersemar —Suharto—would become acting president. Against the wishes of Sukarno, the government ended the Konfrontasi with Malaysia and rejoined the United Nations (Sukarno had removed Indonesia from the UN in the previous year). Suharto did not seek Sukarno's outright removal at this MPRS session due to the remaining support for the president among some elements of the armed forces. By January 1967, Suharto felt confident that he had removed all significant support for Sukarno within
24003-475: The inherent conflict between its two underlying support pillars, the military and the communists. The military, nationalists, and the Islamic groups were shocked by the rapid growth of the communist party under Sukarno's protection. They feared the imminent establishment of a communist state in Indonesia. By 1965, the PKI had three million members and was particularly strong in Central Java and Bali. The party had become
24192-581: The language of administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam. Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese. Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud using what are known as Sino-Xenic pronunciations . Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into
24381-550: The late 1960s and early 1970s in the import-substitution light-manufacturing sector such as Astra Group and Salim Group . From 1967, the government secured low-interest foreign aid from ten countries grouped under the Inter-Governmental Group on Indonesia (IGGI) to cover its budget deficit. With the IGGI funds and the later jump in oil export revenue from the 1973 oil crisis , the government invested in infrastructure under
24570-516: The late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters called kanji , and kana. Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea, although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters called hanja is still required, and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of its historical colonization by France, Vietnamese now uses
24759-496: The left-wing populist Fretilin ( Portuguese : Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente ) emerged triumphant. With approval from Western countries (including from U.S. president Gerald Ford and Australian prime minister Gough Whitlam during their visits to Indonesia), Suharto decided to intervene. He claimed the move was to prevent the establishment of a communist state. After an unsuccessful attempt of covert support to Timorese groups UDT and APODETI , Suharto authorised
24948-486: The literacy rate was 92.01%, which is lower than that of neighbouring regions. The regency's population is predominantly Roman Catholic , consisting of 326,648 people in 2022. The second-largest religion is Islam with 170,052 people; this is followed by Protestantism with 59,380 people and Buddhism with 7,405 people. Sanggau Regency has 457 elementary schools, 122 junior higschools, 29 senior highschools, and 18 vocational highscools (SMK). There are 64 kindergartens in
25137-525: The local parliament. The regency is divided into five electoral districts and has 40 representatives. The last election was in 2019 and the next one is due to be held in 2024. The biggest economic sectors in Sanggau are agriculture and manufacturing. Agriculture consist of 32.10% of regency's gross regional product (GRP) in 2020 while manufacture consist of 17.33%. Other significant sectors are retail and trade with 10.35% of regency's GRP, mining with 10.96%, and construction with 6.44%. The fastest growing sector
25326-405: The manufacturing sector made up less than 10% of GDP (mostly industries related to oil and agriculture). By 1997, manufacturing had risen to 25% of GDP, and 53% of exports consisted of manufactured products. The government invested in massive infrastructure development (notably the launching of a series of Palapa telecommunication satellites); consequently, Indonesian infrastructure in the mid-1990s
25515-443: The military or police. To stabilise the economy and to ensure long-term support for the New Order, Suharto's administration enlisted a group of mostly US-educated Indonesian economists, dubbed the " Berkeley Mafia ", to formulate significant changes in economic policy. By cutting subsidies, decreasing government debt, and reforming the exchange rate mechanism, inflation was lowered from 660% in 1966 to 19% in 1969. The threat of famine
25704-424: The money was recycled as a slush fund to reward political allies and to maintain support for the New Order. In 1975, the state-owned oil company, Pertamina , defaulted on its foreign loans as a result of mismanagement and corruption under the leadership of Suharto's close ally, Ibnu Sutowo . The government bail-out of the company nearly doubled the national debt. Upon assuming power, Suharto's government adopted
25893-455: The more conservative modern varieties, usually found in the south, have largely monosyllabic words , especially with basic vocabulary. However, most nouns, adjectives, and verbs in modern Mandarin are disyllabic. A significant cause of this is phonetic erosion : sound changes over time have steadily reduced the number of possible syllables in the language's inventory. In modern Mandarin, there are only around 1,200 possible syllables, including
26082-597: The most potent political party in Indonesia. Before dawn on 1 October 1965, six army generals were kidnapped and executed in Jakarta by soldiers from the Presidential Guard, Diponegoro Division, and Brawidjaja Division. Soldiers occupied Merdeka Square including the areas in front of the Presidential Palace, the national radio station, and telecommunications centre. At 7:10 am Untung bin Syamsuri announced on
26271-425: The mutual unintelligibility between them is too great. However, calling major Chinese branches "languages" would also be wrong under the same criterion, since a branch such as Wu, itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, and could not be properly called a single language. There are also viewpoints pointing out that linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with
26460-842: The myriad of yayasan s run by the Suharto family grew even larger, levying millions of dollars in "donations" from the public and private sectors each year. In 1997, Forbes magazine listed Suharto as the fourth richest person in the world with an individual net worth of $ 16 billion, despite drawing an annual salary in his last peak year of only $ 21,000. The Suharto family owned or controlled 3.6 million hectares of prime Indonesian land, an area comparable to all of Belgium , and directly owned or had controlling equity in at least 564 companies, with no Indonesian economic sector untouched. With $ 100,000 of seed capital, Tommy Suharto got his start in 1984 at age 22. Within ten weeks his Humpuss Group already had twenty subsidiaries, which soon ballooned to sixty. A year later he acquired Perta Oil Marketing,
26649-583: The nasal sonorant consonants /m/ and /ŋ/ can stand alone as their own syllable. In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals /m/ , /n/ , /ŋ/ , the retroflex approximant /ɻ/ , and voiceless stops /p/ , /t/ , /k/ , or /ʔ/ . Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only /n/ , /ŋ/ , and /ɻ/ . The number of sounds in
26838-437: The newly formed Indonesian Army and rose to the rank of major general some time after full Indonesian independence was achieved. An attempted coup on 30 September and 1 October 1965 was countered by Suharto-led troops. The army subsequently led a nationwide violent anti-communist purge and Suharto wrested power from Indonesia's founding president, Sukarno . He was appointed acting president in 1967 and elected president
27027-582: The official estimate as at mid 2023 was 503,937 (comprising 260,982 males and 242,955 females). Alongside the Landak , Sekadau , and Sintang regencies, it is one of four West Kalimantan regencies with a predominantly Catholic populations. Local legend says the name came from that of a plant that grows around the Sekayan River, where the Sanggau Kingdom was founded in the 4th century. The Kingdom of Sanggau
27216-538: The other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including New Xiang with Southwestern Mandarin , Xuanzhou Wu Chinese with Lower Yangtze Mandarin , Jin with Central Plains Mandarin and certain divergent dialects of Hakka with Gan . All varieties of Chinese are tonal at least to some degree, and are largely analytic . The earliest attested written Chinese consists of
27405-404: The populace. The Jakarta Stock Exchange , re-opened in 1977, recorded a "bull run", due to a spree of domestic IPOs and an influx of foreign funds after the deregulation in 1990. The sudden availability of credit fuelled robust economic growth in the early 1990s, but the weak regulatory environment of the financial sector sowed the seeds of the catastrophic crisis in 1997, which eventually lead to
27594-588: The population. Using the above strategy, the plebiscite produced a unanimous decision for integration with Indonesia, which was duly noted by the United Nations General Assembly in November 1969. Real socio-economic progress sustained support for Suharto's regime across three decades. By 1996, Indonesia's poverty rate has dropped to around 11% compared with 45% in 1970. From 1966 to 1997, Indonesia recorded real GDP growth of 5.03% pa, pushing real GDP per capita upwards from US$ 806 to US$ 4,114. In 1966,
27783-400: The radio that the " 30 September Movement " had forestalled a coup attempt on Sukarno by " CIA -backed power-mad generals", and that it was "an internal army affair". The movement never made any attempt on Suharto's life. Suharto had been in Jakarta army hospital that evening with his three-year-old son Tommy who had a scalding injury. It was here that he was visited by Colonel Abdul Latief,
27972-404: The rate of change varies immensely. Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the North China Plain . Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects were spoken. Specifically, most Chinese immigrants to North America until the mid-20th century spoke Taishanese ,
28161-512: The regency has no port; there is no public airport and travel is mostly by land. The closest airport is Tebelian Airport , which is located in Sintang Regency . Perum DAMRI operates regular bus services between Pontianak and Sanggau. Online ride-hailing services have also established presences in the regency, mostly in Sanggau town. The regency has access to 4G internet services as well as fibre-optic service provided by Indihome under
28350-583: The regency. There are several higher education institutions in Sanggau. Melawi Teaching and Education College has a campus branch located close to the Malaysian border in Entikong that offers a bachelor's degree in teaching-related majors such as mathematic education and elementary school teaching. Abditama Sanggau Agriculture and Plantation Academy is located close to Sanggau town. Other institutions include Sanggau Agrobusiness Management Academy, Belitang Polytech, and
28539-552: The related subject dropping . Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences. The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers. However, Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for
28728-509: The relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as Indo-European or Austroasiatic . Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of inflection in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones. Without
28917-400: The rice paddies. In 1929, Suharto's father took him to live with his sister, who was married to an agricultural supervisor, Prawirowihardjo, in the town of Wuryantoro in a poor and low-yielding farming area near Wonogiri . Over the following two years, he was taken back to his mother in Kemusuk by his stepfather and then back again to Wuryantoro by his father. Prawirowihardjo took to raising
29106-572: The rubric of the Dwifungsi ("Dual Function") of the military. By 1969, 70% of Indonesia's provincial governors and more than half of its district chiefs were active military officers. Suharto authorised Operasi Trisula which destroyed PKI remnants trying to organize a guerrilla base in the Blitar area in 1968 and ordered several military operations that ended the communist PGRS-Paraku insurgency in West Kalimantan (1967–1972). Attacks on oil workers by
29295-448: The six official languages of the United Nations . Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin and was first officially adopted in the 1930s. The language is written primarily using a logography of Chinese characters , largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties. Since the 1950s, the use of simplified characters has been promoted by
29484-557: The slightly later Menggu Ziyun , this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects. Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety. Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the Ming and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on Mandarin varieties , known as 官话 ; 官話 ; Guānhuà ; 'language of officials'. For most of this period, this language
29673-499: The south, and Landak Regency in the west. Sanggau Regency is located in the interior of Borneo , and is divided by the Kapuas River , which is one of the longest rivers in Indonesia. Its topography is dominated by wetlands and swamps, which are generally low-lying. The regency's soil formation is dominated by podzol , which covers around 44% of the regency's area. In Toba and Meliau District, latosol soil can be found. Sanggau has
29862-624: The state-owned Pontianak State Polytech also has campus in Sanggau. The regency government has expressed interest in establishing its own state-owned polytechnic. The regency has one public library, which is managed by the regency government. In 2019, the old library building was demolished to make way for a new building. The new building was inaugurated in 2021. The regency has five hospitals including one maternity hospital, seven polyclinics, 89 puskesmas , 10 registered pharmacies, and over 640 healthcare centres. From 89 puskesmas, 18 are open 24 hours and accept inpatient care. The regency's main hospital
30051-403: The state-owned telco Telkomsel . Sanggau town also has several Wi-Fi hotspots , which were initiated by local government. In 2020, there are 337 mosques, 265 Protestant churches, 556 Catholic churches, two Hindu temples, and three Chinese Buddhist temples (Vihara) in the regency. There is an integrated border-crossing post in Entikong that has quarantine, clinic, and immigration facilities. It
30240-478: The status of National Hero to Suharto are being considered by the Indonesian government and have been debated vigorously. Like many Javanese , Suharto had only one name . Religious contexts in recent years had sometimes referred to him as Haji/Al-Haj Mohammed Suharto, but these names were neither part of his formal name nor generally used. The spelling "Suharto" reflects modern Indonesian orthography, although
30429-441: The surrender of several bands of former Dutch-organized militia ( Papoea Vrijwilligers Korps / PVK ) at large in the jungles since the Indonesian takeover in 1963 while sending Catholic volunteers under Jusuf Wanandi to distribute consumer goods to promote pro-Indonesian sentiments. In March 1969, it was agreed that the plebiscite would be channelled via 1,025 tribal chiefs, citing the logistical challenge and political ignorance of
30618-520: The territory he controlled, to generate income. In September 1948, Suharto was dispatched to meet Musso , chairman of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI) in an unsuccessful attempt at a peaceful reconciliation of the communist uprising in Madiun . In December 1948, the Dutch launched " Operation Kraai ", which resulted in the capture of Sukarno and Hatta and the capital Yogyakarta . Suharto
30807-536: The thousands of Indonesians who took the opportunity to join Japanese-organized security forces by joining the Yogyakarta police force. In October 1943, Suharto was transferred from the police force to the newly formed Japanese-sponsored militia, the Pembela Tanah Air (PETA) in which Indonesians served as officers. In his training to serve with the rank of shodancho (platoon commander) he encountered
30996-577: The throne and leaving the kingdom paralyzed. After Dakkudak's flight, the state of the kingdom is unclear until 1485, when one of Dara Nante's relatives, a princess named Dayang Mas Ratna took the throne. She moved the kingdom's capital from Labai Lawai to Mengkiang, which is close to the Sekayam river. During this time, she married Nurul Kamal, a Muslim from the Banten Sultanate . It is unclear whether Sanggau has adopted Islam at this point. Ratna's successor
31185-609: The tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still a largely monosyllabic language), and over 8,000 in English. Most modern varieties tend to form new words through polysyllabic compounds . In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic formed from different characters without the use of compounding, as in 窟窿 ; kūlong from 孔 ; kǒng ; this is especially common in Jin varieties. This phonological collapse has led to
31374-547: The traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese cí can consist of more than one character–morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more. Examples of Chinese words of more than two syllables include 汉堡包 ; 漢堡包 ; hànbǎobāo ; 'hamburger', 守门员 ; 守門員 ; shǒuményuán ; 'goalkeeper', and 电子邮件 ; 電子郵件 ; diànzǐyóujiàn ; 'e-mail'. All varieties of modern Chinese are analytic languages : they depend on syntax (word order and sentence structure), rather than inflectional morphology (changes in
31563-512: The use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese, along with the neutral tone, to the syllable ma . The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words: In contrast, Standard Cantonese has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a stop consonant were considered to be " checked tones " and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such: Chinese
31752-547: The violent deaths. Indonesia's invasion and occupation of East Timor during Suharto's presidency resulted in at least 100,000 deaths. To comply with the New York Agreement of 1962 which required a plebiscite on the integration of West Irian into Indonesia before the end of 1969, the Suharto government begin organizing for a so-called " Act of Free Choice " scheduled for July–August 1969. The government sent RPKAD special forces under Sarwo Edhie Wibowo which secured
31941-452: The words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines. Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on Chinese characters , but later replaced with the hangul alphabet for Korean and supplemented with kana syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex chữ Nôm script. However, these were limited to popular literature until
32130-508: The written language used throughout China changed comparatively little, crystallizing into a prestige form known as Classical or Literary Chinese . Literature written distinctly in the Classical form began to emerge during the Spring and Autumn period . Its use in writing remained nearly universal until the late 19th century, culminating with the widespread adoption of written vernacular Chinese with
32319-403: Was 3.89% in 2019 but decreased to 0.70% in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic and restrictions that were implemented. The unemployment rate was 3.52% and the poverty rate was 4.46%. Sannggau had a population of 408,468 at the 2010 census, 444,095 at the 2015 census and 484,836 as of the 2020 census. The regency experienced a population growth of 2.89% in 2020. The official estimate as at mid 2023
32508-459: Was 503,937. The most densely populated district was Parindu District with 68 people per square kilometre while the least densely populated was Toba District with 15 people per square kilometre. Kapuas District, where the town of Sangga, the regency seat, is located, has a population of over 90,000 people, making it the most populated district in the regency. The regency's sex ratio was 107, meaning there were 107 males for each 100 females. Toba District
32697-453: Was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the Nanjing area, though not identical to any single dialect. By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court. In the 1930s, a standard national language ( 国语 ; 國語 ; Guóyǔ ), was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation,
32886-403: Was a princess named Dayang Puasa, who was related to the royal family of the neighbouring Sintang Kingdom. During Puasa's reign, Sanggau and Sintang maintained good relations, and she consolidated power within the realm. Puasa's successor was a king named Abang Gani, the kingdom's first male ruler. During his reign, Sanggau was involved in a conflict with the Matan Kingdom, which was also known as
33075-433: Was admitted for training for chudancho (company commander) in Bogor from April to August 1944. As company commander, he conducted training for new PETA recruits in Surakarta , Jakarta , and Madiun . The Japanese surrender and Proclamation of Indonesian Independence in August 1945 occurred while Suharto was posted to the remote Brebeg area (on the slopes of Mount Wilis ) to train new NCOs to replace those executed by
33264-658: Was alleviated by the influx of USAID rice aid shipments from 1967 to 1968. With a lack of domestic capital that was required for economic growth, the New Order reversed Sukarno's economic self-sufficiency policies and opened selected economic sectors of the country to foreign investment through the 1967 Foreign Investment Law. Suharto travelled to Western Europe and Japan to promote investment in Indonesia. The first foreign investors to re-enter Indonesia included mining companies Freeport Sulphur Company / International Nickel Company . Following government regulatory frameworks, domestic entrepreneurs (mostly Chinese-Indonesians) emerged in
33453-553: Was an Indonesian military officer and the second President of Indonesia . Widely regarded as a military dictator by international observers, Suharto led Indonesia as an authoritarian regime from 1967 until his resignation in 1998 following nationwide unrest . His 31-year dictatorship is considered one of the most brutal and corrupt of the 20th century: he was central to the perpetration of mass killings against alleged communists and subsequent persecution of ethnic Chinese , irreligious people, and trade unionists. Suharto
33642-414: Was appointed to lead the Wehrkreise III , consisting of two battalions, which waged guerrilla warfare against the Dutch from the hills south of Yogyakarta . In dawn raids on 1 March 1949, Suharto's forces and local militia recaptured the city, holding it until noon. Suharto's later accounts had him as the lone plotter, although other sources say Sultan Hamengkubuwono IX of Yogyakarta, and the Panglima of
33831-406: Was born in Kemusuk , near the city of Yogyakarta , during the Dutch colonial era. He grew up in humble circumstances. His Javanese Muslim parents divorced not long after his birth, and he lived with foster parents for much of his childhood. During the Japanese occupation , Suharto served in the Japanese-organized Indonesian security forces. During Indonesia's independence struggle , he joined
34020-440: Was captured briefly by Dayaks and revolting labourers but the Japanese recaptured it on 31 August 1945. After the Japanese surrendered, the region was left in a power vacuum. Ali Akbar was supportive of the establishment of an Indonesian republic and the returning Dutch staged a coup against him using troops under the command of a Dutchman named Riekerk. Ali Akbar was replaced by Muhammad Taufik Surya Negara, whose reign lasted until
34209-544: Was considered at par with China. Suharto was keen to capitalize on such achievements to justify his presidency, and the parliament (MPR) on 9 March 1983 granted him the title of "Father of Development". Suharto government's health-care programs (such as the Puskesmas program) increased life expectancy from 47 years (1966) to 67 years (1997) while cutting infant mortality rate by more than 60%. The government's Inpres program launched in 1973 resulted in primary school enrolment ratio reaching 90% by 1983 while almost eliminating
34398-402: Was effectively eliminated by the other two, the military and political Islam. The CIA described the purge as "one of the worst mass murders of the 20th century". Sukarno continued to command loyalty from large sections of the armed forces as well as the general population, and Suharto was careful not to be seen to be seizing power in his own coup. For eighteen months following the quashing of
34587-433: Was given an additional command, as head of the army's new Strategic Reserve ( Korps Tentara I Cadangan Umum AD , later KOSTRAD ), a ready-reaction air-mobile force based in Jakarta . In January 1962, Suharto was promoted to the rank of major general and appointed to lead Operation Mandala, a joint army-navy-air force command based in Makassar . This formed the military side of the campaign to win western New Guinea from
34776-403: Was head of the 22nd Regiment of Division III (the " Diponegoro Division ") stationed in Yogyakarta. In late 1946, the Diponegoro Division assumed responsibility for the defence of the west and southwest of Yogyakarta from Dutch forces. Conditions at the time are reported by Dutch sources as miserable; Suharto himself is reported as assisting smuggling syndicates in the transport of opium through
34965-546: Was healthcare sector with an increase of 17.87% in 2020, followed by electricity and gas with an increase of 14.92%. The regency's workforce is dominated by agriculture, which employs more than 60% of the regency's working population. The regency main agricultural products are rubber, palm oil, and pepper. Other than that, the regency has a significant aquaculture sector, which produces 8,154 tons of freshwater fish in 2020. There are 75 active village cooperatives and 342 non-village cooperatives in Sanggau as of 2020. Economic growth
35154-433: Was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries. The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan, Sino-Japanese words account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half
35343-434: Was placed under house arrest in Bogor Palace ; little more was heard from him, and he died in June 1970. On 27 March 1968, the MPRS appointed Suharto for a full five-year term as president. Suharto promoted his "New Order", as opposed to Sukarno 's "Old Order", as a society based on the Pancasila ideology. After initially being careful not to offend sensitivities of Islamic scholars who feared Pancasila might develop into
35532-566: Was renovated in 2016 and has since become a tourist attraction. Sanggau town has several public parks such as Sanggau Permai Park, Kehati Green Park, and Sabang Merah Park. A stadium named Indoor Bujang Malaka Sport Complex is also located in Sanggau town. Convenience store chains such as Indomaret have established a presence in Sanggau town. Chinese language Chinese ( simplified Chinese : 汉语 ; traditional Chinese : 漢語 ; pinyin : Hànyǔ ; lit. ' Han language' or 中文 ; Zhōngwén ; 'Chinese writing')
35721-436: Was succeeded by Sultan Sulaiman Paku Negara. The era after Tahir II is defined by the start of Dutch control over the region. In 1877, the sultan of Sanggau and the governor-general of the Dutch East Indies , Johan Wilhelm van Lansberge , signed a treaty leasing land to the Dutch East Indies. in 1921, the Dutch forced Sultan Muhammaid Said Pakunegara to step down and he was replaced by Sultan Tahir III. In 1942, Japan occupied
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