Land Command (or 'HQ Land') was a military command and formation and part of the structure of the British Army from 1995 to 2008. Its headquarters was at Erskine Barracks , at Fugglestone St Peter , some four kilometres northwest of Salisbury in Wiltshire .
163-479: Military Total: Civilians Total: [REDACTED] 23 killed 8 wounded [REDACTED] 12 killed 16 wounded [REDACTED] 9 killed several wounded Total: 1963 1964 1965 The Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation or Borneo confrontation (known as Konfrontasi in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore) was an armed conflict from 1963 to 1966 that stemmed from Indonesia 's opposition to
326-474: A special autonomous status ( otonomi khusus ) from the central government. Aceh, a conservative Islamic territory , has the right to create some aspects of an independent legal system implementing sharia . Yogyakarta is the only pre-colonial monarchy legally recognised within Indonesia, with the positions of governor and vice governor being prioritised for the reigning Sultan of Yogyakarta and Duke of Pakualaman , respectively. The six Papuan provinces are
489-509: A Brunei politician, Dr. AM Azahari bin Sheikh Mahmud, while supporting a unified North Borneo, also opposed a wider Malaysian federation. In 1961, he had sounded out Indonesia about possible aid in training Borneo recruits; General Abdul Nasution hinted at moral support, and Soebandrio , the Indonesian foreign minister and head of intelligence, hinted at supplying more substantial aid. Azahari
652-545: A build-up of Indonesian infiltration forces in Kalimantan opposite Kuching, which suggested the possibility of an escalation in hostilities. Two additional British battalions were subsequently deployed to Borneo. Meanwhile, due to the landings in Malaysia and Indonesia's continued troop build-up, Australia and New Zealand also agreed to begin deploying combat forces to Borneo in early 1965. Indonesia Indonesia , officially
815-582: A contingent of 120 from the Indonesian intelligence agency and a small cadre trained in China. The PKI (Indonesian Communist Party) was firmly in evidence and led by an ethnic Arab revolutionary, Sofyan. The PGRS ran some raids into Sarawak but spent more time developing their supporters in Sarawak. The Indonesian military did not approve of the leftist nature of the PGRS and generally avoided them. Sukarno's motives for beginning
978-456: A dividing line ( Wallace Line ) between the distribution of Indonesia's Asian and Australasian species. It runs roughly north–south along the edge of the Sunda Shelf, between Kalimantan and Sulawesi, and along the deep Lombok Strait , between Lombok and Bali. Flora and fauna on the west of the line are generally Asian, while east from Lombok is increasingly Australian until the tipping point at
1141-440: A headman reported an incursion in the 3rd Division and a follow-up indicated they were about 50 strong. A series of contacts ensued as 2/6 Gurkhas deployed patrols and ambushes, and after a month, 15 had been killed and three captured. The Gurkhas reported that they were well trained and professionally led, but their ammunition expenditure was high, and their fire discipline broke down. The prisoners reported 300 more invaders within
1304-700: A legislature ( DPRD Kabupaten/Kota ). The third level are the districts ( kecamatan , distrik in Papua , or kapanewon and kemantren in Yogyakarta ), and the fourth are the villages (either desa , kelurahan , kampung , nagari in West Sumatra , or gampong in Aceh ). The village is the lowest level of government administration. It is divided into several community groups ( rukun warga , RW), which are further divided into neighbourhood groups ( rukun tetangga , RT). In Java,
1467-482: A longer term target to further increase the coverage of its marine protected areas to 10% of its territorial waters, or 31 million hectares. Indonesia is a republic with a presidential system. Following the fall of the New Order in 1998, political and governmental structures have undergone sweeping reforms, with four constitutional amendments revamping the executive, legislative and judicial branches. Chief among them
1630-774: A month for the security forces to capture or kill 90 of the 96 paratroopers, with two men killed during the action. Indonesia's expansion of the conflict to the Malaysian Peninsula sparked the Sunda Straits Crisis , involving the anticipated transit of the Sunda Strait by the British aircraft carrier HMS Victorious and two destroyer escorts. Commonwealth forces were readied for airstrikes against Indonesian infiltration staging areas in Sumatra if further Indonesian infiltrations of
1793-619: A presence in the Far East as early as the late-1950s. As a part of its withdrawal from its Southeast Asian colonies, the UK moved to combine its colonies in North Borneo with the Federation of Malaya (which had become independent from Britain in 1957), and Singapore (which had become self-governing in 1959). In May 1961, the UK and Malayan governments proposed a larger federation called Malaysia, encompassing
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#17328483279221956-480: A press bureau in the Netherlands, Indonesisch Pers-bureau . Fossilised remains of Homo erectus , popularly known as the " Java Man ", suggest the Indonesian archipelago was inhabited two million to 500,000 years ago. Homo sapiens reached the region around 43,000 BCE. Austronesian peoples , who form the majority of the modern population, migrated to Southeast Asia from what is now Taiwan. They arrived in
2119-471: A range of sea and coastal ecosystems, including beaches , dunes, estuaries, mangroves, coral reefs, seagrass beds, coastal mudflats, tidal flats, algal beds, and small island ecosystems. Indonesia is one of the Coral Triangle countries with the world's most enormous diversity of coral reef fish , with more than 1,650 species in eastern Indonesia only. British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace described
2282-505: A subject of debate. While Indonesia at the time denied direct involvement, it did sympathise with the TNKU's objectives to destabilise the proposed Malaysian state. Following the TNKU's military setback in Brunei, on 20 January 1963 Indonesian Foreign Minister Subandrio announced that Indonesia would pursue a policy of Konfrontasi with Malaysia, reversing Indonesia's previous policy of compliance with
2445-509: A wealth of Asian fauna. Large species such as the Sumatran tiger , rhinoceros, orangutan, Asian elephant , and leopard were once abundant as far east as Bali, but numbers and distribution have dwindled drastically. Having been long separated from the continental landmasses, Sulawesi, Nusa Tenggara, and Maluku have developed their unique flora and fauna. Papua was part of the Australian landmass and
2608-548: A week and 600 in a fortnight. The Battle of Long Jawai was the first major incursion for the centre of the 3rd Division, directed by an RPKAD Major Mulyono Soerjowardojo, who had been sent to Nangabadan earlier in the year. The proclamation of Malaysia in September 1963 meant that Malaysian Army units deployed former British Borneo now known as East Malaysia. The deliberate attack by Indonesian forces on Malaysian troops did not enhance Sukarno's "anti-imperialist" credentials, although
2771-569: Is US$ 15,835, while nominal per capita GDP is US$ 5,108. Services are the economy's largest sector and account for 43.4% of GDP (2018), followed by industry (39.7%) and agriculture (12.8%). Since 2009, it has employed more people than other sectors, accounting for 47.7% of the total labour force, followed by agriculture (30.2%) and industry (21.9%). Over time, the structure of the economy has changed considerably. Historically, it has been weighted heavily towards agriculture, reflecting both its stage of economic development and government policies in
2934-624: Is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ( ASEAN ) and the East Asia Summit . In common with most of the Muslim world , Indonesia does not have diplomatic relations with Israel and has actively supported Palestine . However, observers have pointed out that Indonesia has ties with Israel, albeit discreetly. Indonesia has been a member of the United Nations since 1950 and
3097-404: Is believed to have caused a global volcanic winter and cooling of the climate and subsequently led to a genetic bottleneck in human evolution, though this is still in debate. The 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora and the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa were among the largest in recorded history. The former caused 92,000 deaths and created an umbrella of volcanic ash that spread and blanketed parts of
3260-524: Is elected for a five-year term, as are the party-aligned members of the DPR and the non-partisan DPD. Beginning with the 2015 local elections , elections for governors and mayors have occurred on the same date. In 2014, the Constitutional Court ruled that legislative and presidential elections would be held simultaneously, starting in 2019. Indonesia has several levels of subdivisions. The first level are
3423-403: Is generally below average in both regional and global context. Indonesia has one of the world's fastest deforestation rates. In 2020, forests covered approximately 49.1% of the country's land area, down from 87% in 1950. Since the 1970s, log production, various plantations and agriculture have been responsible for much of the deforestation in Indonesia . Most recently, it has been driven by
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#17328483279223586-718: Is highly unstable, making it a site of numerous volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire , where the Indo-Australian Plate and the Pacific Plate are pushed under the Eurasian Plate , where they melt at about 100 kilometres (62 miles) deep. A string of volcanoes runs through Sumatra, Java , Bali and Nusa Tenggara , and then to the Banda Islands of Maluku to northeastern Sulawesi . Of
3749-495: Is home to a unique fauna and flora closely related to that of Australia, including over 600 bird species. Indonesia is second only to Australia in terms of total endemic species, with 36% of its 1,531 species of bird and 39% of its 515 species of mammal being endemic. Indonesia harbours 83% of Southeast Asia's old-growth forest , and the highest amount of forest carbon in the region. Tropical seas surround Indonesia's 80,000 kilometres (50,000 miles) of coastline. The country has
3912-451: Is naturally covered by tropical rainforests. This covers the mountainous areas cut by many rivers with very steep-sided hills and hilltop ridges often only a few metres wide. The high rainfall means large rivers; these provide a principal means of transport and are formidable tactical obstacles. Dense mangrove forest covering vast tidal flats intersected with numerous creeks is a feature of many coastal areas, including Brunei and either end of
4075-544: Is some policy recognition of OECMs but no national mechanism for reporting them. There are 55 national parks in Indonesia, of which 9 are predominantly marine . Of these 6 are World Heritage Sites , such as the Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra that includes three parks. Seven national parks are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves and 5 are wetlands of international importance under
4238-542: Is the delegation of power and authority to various regional entities while remaining a unitary state . The President of Indonesia is the head of state and head of government , commander-in-chief of the Indonesian National Armed Forces ( Tentara Nasional Indonesia , TNI), and the director of domestic governance, policy-making, and foreign affairs. The president may serve a maximum of two consecutive five-year terms. The highest representative body at
4401-498: Is the world's fourth-most-populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country . Java, the world's most populous island , is home to more than half of the country's population. Indonesia is a presidential republic with an elected legislature . It has 38 provinces , of which nine have special autonomous status . The country's largest city, Jakarta , is the world's second-most-populous urban area . Indonesia shares land borders with Papua New Guinea , East Timor , and
4564-713: Is the world's largest producer of nickel . These commodities make up a large portion of the country's exports, with palm oil and coal briquettes as the leading export commodities. In addition to refined and crude petroleum as the primary imports, telephones, vehicle parts and wheat cover the majority of additional imports. China, the United States, Japan, Singapore, India, Malaysia, South Korea, and Thailand are Indonesia's principal export markets and import partners. Army Strategic Command (United Kingdom) It assumed control of virtually all Army combat and combat support troops on 1 April 1995. Three major exceptions were Cyprus ,
4727-426: The 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake . Indonesia's size, tropical climate, and archipelagic geography support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity , and it is among the 17 megadiverse countries identified by Conservation International . Its flora and fauna are a mixture of Asian and Australasian species. The Sunda Shelf islands (Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and Bali) were once linked to mainland Asia and have
4890-623: The Army (TNI–AD), Navy (TNI–AL, which includes Marine Corps ), and Air Force (TNI–AU). The army has about 400,000 active-duty personnel. Defence spending in the national budget was 0.7% of gross domestic product (GDP) in 2018, with controversial involvement of military-owned commercial interests and foundations. The Armed Forces were formed during the Indonesian National Revolution when it undertook guerrilla warfare along with informal militia. Since then, territorial lines have formed
5053-491: The Bali myna , Sumatran orangutan , and Javan rhinoceros . Some academics describe the deforestation and other environmental destruction in the country as an ecocide . As of 2023, the government of Indonesia has gazetted 21.3% of the country's land as protected areas , with the intention of developing a new protected area strategy in line with global post-2020 framework . The country also has 411 marine reserves , or 9% of
Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation - Misplaced Pages Continue
5216-671: The Clandestine Communist Organisation (CCO) or the Sarawak Communist Organisation (SCO). The SCO was predominantly dominated by ethnic Chinese but also included Dayak supporters. However, the SCO had little support from ethnic Malays and other indigenous Sarawak peoples. At its height, the SCO had 24,000 members. During the 1940s and 1950s, Maoism had spread among Chinese vernacular schools in Sarawak. Following World War II, Communist influence also penetrated
5379-644: The Colonial Office in London , which in turn dispatched a governor for Sarawak. The predominantly Malay anti-cession movement, which rejected the British takeover of Sarawak and had assassinated Duncan Stewart , the first British High Commissioner of Sarawak, may have been the forerunner of the subsequent anti-Malaysia movement in Sarawak, headed by Ahmad Zaidi Adruce . According to Vernon L. Porritt and Hong-Kah Fong, left-wing and communist cells had been present among Sarawak's urban Chinese communities since
5542-586: The Constitutional Court ( Mahkamah Konstitusi ) which listens to constitutional and political matters, and the Religious Court ( Pengadilan Agama ), which deals with codified Islamic Personal Law ( sharia ) cases. Additionally, the Judicial Commission ( Komisi Yudisial ) monitors the performance of judges. Since 1999, Indonesia has had a multi-party system. In all legislative elections since
5705-462: The Consumer Price Index have contributed to strong economic growth in recent years. From 2007 to 2019, annual growth accelerated to between 4% and 6% due to improvements in the banking sector and domestic consumption, helping Indonesia weather the 2008–2009 Great Recession , and regain in 2011 the investment grade rating it had lost in 1997. As of 2019 , 9.41% of the population lived below
5868-580: The Falkland Islands and in support of the United Nations, and the Arms Plot, the routine rotation of armoured, artillery and infantry units between postings. Major forces not under Land Command's aegis remained British Forces Cyprus (with many units committed to the United Nations), the Falkland Islands , units under Director Special Forces , and Headquarters Northern Ireland . In the last of those,
6031-921: The Falklands Islands , and Northern Ireland , where the General Officer Commanding reported to the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland for operations in support of the civil power. Discussion was underway within the Ministry of Defence by 1967 to create a proposed Army Strategic Command. The headquarters, abbreviated as STRATCO, was established on 1 April 1968 in the wake of the government's decision, announced in January of that year, to withdraw all British troops from bases east of Suez . In future Britain's defence efforts would be concentrated 'mainly in Europe and
6194-650: The First and Second World . Indonesia was an important country in developing the Non-Aligned Movement , hosting the Bandung Conference in 1955. Indonesia had relentlessly pursued its claim to Dutch New Guinea from 1950 to 1962, despite facing multiple setbacks in the UN General Assembly in getting its claim recognised by the international community. Following the Indonesian crisis in 1958, which had included
6357-602: The Japanese invasion and occupation ended Dutch rule and encouraged the independence movement. Two days after the surrender of Japan in August 1945, influential nationalist leaders Sukarno and Mohammad Hatta issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence . Sukarno, Hatta, and Sutan Sjahrir were appointed president, vice-president, and prime minister, respectively. The Netherlands attempted to re-establish their rule. In
6520-698: The Maluku Islands . Dutch and British traders followed. In 1602, the Dutch established the Dutch East India Company ( Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie ; VOC) and became the dominant European power for almost 200 years. The VOC was dissolved in 1799 following bankruptcy, and the Netherlands established the Dutch East Indies as a nationalised colony. For most of the colonial period , Dutch control over
6683-749: The Manila Accord . While the Philippines did not engage in hostilities, it did defer recognising Malaysia as the successor state to Malaya. Consequently, Malaysia severed diplomatic ties with the Philippines. Indonesia argued that the establishment of Malaysia allowed the United Kingdom to maintain her unique privileges regarding the use of the Singapore base and keep close ties to British defense needs in Southeast Asia constituted an implied threat. Subandrio ,
Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation - Misplaced Pages Continue
6846-502: The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation . The name Indonesia derives from the Greek words Indos ( Ἰνδός ) and nesos ( νῆσος ), meaning "Indian islands". The name dates back to the 19th century, far predating the formation of independent Indonesia. In 1850, George Windsor Earl , an English ethnologist , proposed the terms Indunesians —and, his preference, Malayunesians —for
7009-642: The Permesta rebellion in eastern Indonesia and the declaration of the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia , Indonesia had emerged as a notable and rising military power in Southeast Asia. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), primarily through its Taiwan-based subsidiary Civil Air Transport (CAT), had been covertly providing support to rebels on remote islands, seeking to weaken, if not outright oust President Sukarno's regime. Beginning in 1957,
7172-536: The Prosperous Justice Party (PKS). The first general election was held in 1955 to elect members of the DPR and the Constitutional Assembly ( Konstituante ). The most recent elections in 2019 resulted in nine political parties in the DPR, with a parliamentary threshold of 4% of the national vote. At the national level, Indonesians did not elect a president until 2004. Since then, the president
7335-469: The Ramsar convention . Around 9% of the Indonesia surface are national parks. As of 2012 Indonesia had over 100 marine protected areas covering an area of 15.7 million ha, of which 32 where managed by the Ministry of Forestry while the rest where managed by local governments. In 2009 the president Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono declared a target of reaching 20 million hectares by 2020. In 2010 Indonesia also set out
7498-582: The Republic of Indonesia , is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania , between the Indian and Pacific oceans. It consists of over 17,000 islands , including Sumatra , Java , Sulawesi , and parts of Borneo and New Guinea . Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area , at 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 square miles). With over 280 million people, Indonesia
7661-561: The Royal Marines but with significant army support, was under the direct command of the Commander-in-Chief Fleet (CINCFLEET). The numerous other ‘brigades’ within the new Support Command were better described as regional districts whose function is to administer all Territorial Army units within their area, and to coordinate the provision of support to the civil authority if necessary, as well as home defence tasks. An example
7824-501: The Sultan of Brunei , the Brunei oil fields, or European hostages. Within hours of the insurrection being launched, British forces based in Singapore were mobilised for a prompt response. The failure of the insurrection was evident within 30 hours when Gurkha troops airlifted from Singapore secured Brunei town and ensured the Sultan's safety. The degree of Indonesian support for the TNKU remains
7987-683: The UNHRC have raised the issue of human rights abuses committed by Indonesian troops in Papua such as extrajudicial killings and forced disappearances. Past engagements of the army include the conflict against the Netherlands over the Dutch New Guinea , the opposition to the British -sponsored creation of Malaysia (" Konfrontasi "), the mass killings of the Indonesian Communist Party (PKI), and
8150-431: The Weber Line . In his 1869 book, The Malay Archipelago , Wallace described numerous species unique to the area. The region of islands between his line and New Guinea is now termed Wallacea . Indonesia's large and growing population and rapid industrialisation present serious environmental issues . They are often given a lower priority due to high poverty levels and weak, under-resourced governance. Problems include
8313-429: The eastern part of Malaysia , as well as maritime borders with Singapore , Peninsular Malaysia , Vietnam , Thailand , the Philippines , Australia , Palau , and India . Despite its large population and densely populated regions, Indonesia has vast areas of wilderness that support one of the world's highest levels of biodiversity . The Indonesian archipelago has been a valuable region for trade since at least
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#17328483279228476-569: The invasion of East Timor , the latter having been Indonesia's most massive military operation. Indonesia has a mixed economy in which the private sector and government play vital roles. As the only G20 member state in Southeast Asia, the country has the largest economy in the region and is classified as a newly industrialised country . Per a 2023 estimate, it is the world's 16th largest economy by nominal GDP and 7th in terms of GDP at PPP , estimated to be US$ 1.417 trillion and US$ 4.393 trillion, respectively. Per capita GDP in PPP
8639-436: The palm oil industry, which has been criticised for its environmental impact and displacement of local communities. The situation has made Indonesia the world's largest forest-based emitter of greenhouse gases. It also threatens the survival of indigenous and endemic species. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) identified 140 species of mammals as threatened and 15 as critically endangered, including
8802-436: The provinces , which have a legislature ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat Daerah , DPRD) and an elected governor . A total of 38 provinces have been established from the original eight in 1945, the most recent change being the split of Southwest Papua from the province of West Papua in 2022. The second level are the regencies ( kabupaten ) and cities ( kota ), led by regents ( bupati ) and mayors ( walikota ), respectively, and
8965-410: The tropical rainforest climate found on every large island of Indonesia. Cooler climate types exist in mountainous regions that are 1,300 to 1,500 metres (4,300 to 4,900 feet) above sea level. The oceanic climate (Köppen Cfb ) prevails in highland areas adjacent to rainforest climates, with uniform precipitation year-round. In highland areas near the tropical monsoon and tropical savanna climates ,
9128-429: The 1930s and 1940s. Some of the earliest Communist groups in Sabah included the Anti-Fascist League, which later became the Races Liberation Army, and the Borneo Anti-Japanese League, which was made up of the North Borneo Anti-Japanese League and the West Borneo Anti-Japanese League. The latter was led by Wu Chan, who was deported by the Sarawak colonial government to China in 1952. Other Communist groups in Sarawak included
9291-413: The 1950s and 1960s to promote agricultural self-sufficiency. A gradual process of industrialisation and urbanisation began in the late 1960s and accelerated in the 1980s as falling oil prices saw the government focus on diversifying away from oil exports and towards manufactured exports. This development continued throughout the 1980s and into the next decade despite the 1990 oil price shock , during which
9454-411: The 400 volcanoes, around 130 are active. Between 1972 and 1991, there were 29 volcanic eruptions, mostly on Java. Volcanic ash has made agricultural conditions unpredictable in some areas. However, it has also resulted in fertile soils, a factor in historically sustaining the high population densities of Java and Bali. A massive supervolcano erupted at present-day Lake Toba around 70,000 BCE. It
9617-420: The British decolonisation initiative involving the formation of the Federation of Malaysia that would comprise the Malay Peninsula and British Borneo. Sukarno accused Malaysia of being a British puppet state aimed at establishing neo-imperialism and neo-colonialism in Southeast Asia, and also at containing Indonesian ambition to be the regional hegemonic power. It was also suggested that Sukarno's campaign against
9780-426: The British proposal. This was followed by the first recorded infiltration of Indonesian forces on 12 April 1963 when a police station in Tebedu, Sarawak, was attacked. In 1961, the island of Borneo was divided between four separate entities. Kalimantan , comprising four Indonesian provinces , was located in the south of the island. In the north, were the Sultanate of Brunei (a British protectorate) and two colonies of
9943-407: The British responded in 1964 by launching their own covert operations into Indonesian Kalimantan under the code name Operation Claret . Coinciding with Sukarno announcing a 'year of dangerous living' and the 1964 race riots in Singapore , Indonesia launched an expanded campaign of operations into Peninsular Malaysia on 17 August 1964, albeit without military success. A build-up of Indonesian forces on
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#173284832792210106-486: The CCO by the UK but called the PGRS—Pasukan Gelilya Rakyat Sarawak (Sarawak People's Guerrilla Force) by Indonesia. Soebandrio met with a group of their potential leaders in Bogor, and Nasution sent three trainers from Resimen Para Komando Angkatan Darat (RPKAD) Battalion 2 to Nangabadan near the Sarawak border, where there were about 300 trainees. Some three months later, two lieutenants were sent there. The PGRS numbered about 800, based in West Kalimantan at Batu Hitam, with
10269-463: The CIA was increasing contact with military leaders in Sumatra and Sulawesi critical of the regime. By late 1957, the transport of weapons and ammunition to Sumatra by merchant ships and night submarines had become increasingly common, but the Americans believed that for their clandestine assistance to be truly effective, such operations required the use of British facilities in Singapore to refuel and support CAT missions launched in Bangkok, Taiwan, or
10432-409: The Cold War. Numerous attempts by the United States and the Soviet Union , and China to some degree, culminated in the 1965 coup attempt and subsequent upheaval that led to a reorientation of foreign policy. Quiet alignment with the Western world while maintaining a non-aligned stance has characterised Indonesia's foreign policy since then. Today, it maintains close relations with its neighbours and
10595-451: The East ( de Oost ); and Insulinde . After 1900, Indonesia became more common in academic circles outside the Netherlands, and native nationalist groups adopted it for political expression. Adolf Bastian of the University of Berlin popularized the name through his book Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipels, 1884–1894 . The first native scholar to use the name was Ki Hajar Dewantara when in 1913, he established
10758-520: The Fourth and Fifth Divisions or the Interior Residency, and in Third Division, there was only the coast road, which was some 150 miles from the border. Mapping was generally poor, as British maps of the country only showed tiny topographic detail. Indonesian maps were worse; veterans recall "a single black and white sheet for all of Kalimantan torn from a school textbook" in 1964. Kalimantan was divided into four provinces, of which East Kalimantan and West Kalimantan bordered British Borneo. The capital of
10921-495: The GDP rose at an average rate of 7.1%. As a result, the official poverty rate fell from 60% to 15%. Trade barriers reduction from the mid-1980s made the economy more globally integrated. The growth ended with the 1997 Asian financial crisis that severely impacted the economy, including a 13.1% real GDP contraction in 1998 and a 78% inflation. The economy reached its low point in mid-1999 with only 0.8% real GDP growth. Relatively steady inflation and an increase in GDP deflator and
11084-448: The General Officer commanding reported to the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland for operations in support of the civil power. Wilsey also became Joint Commander for British military operations in the Former Republic of Yugoslavia including Operation Grapple , UNPROFOR. On 1 April 2008, HQ Land Command amalgamated with HQ Adjutant General under 'Project Hyperion' and became HQ Land Forces . It moved from Erskine Barracks to
11247-459: The Indonesian foreign minister, was careful to explain to American ambassador Howard P. Jones that the confrontation policy was concerned with Malaya not Malaysia and was a reaction to Malayan and British anti-Djakarta, pro-rebel activity in 1958, and promotion of program to split off Sumatra as diplomatic efforts to settle the Malaysian dispute picked up steam in the summer of 1963 through ministerial and summit level talks in Manila. In April 1963,
11410-464: The Indonesian government tried blaming their Navy Commando Corps ( Korps Komando , KKO) as enthusiastic idealists acting independently. They also produced Azahari, who claimed that Indonesian forces were playing no part in active operations. Sukarno next launched a peace offensive and, in late January, declared he was ready for a ceasefire (despite having denied direct Indonesia involvement). Talks started in Bangkok, but border violations continued, and
11573-414: The Kalimantan border in December 1964 saw the UK commit significant forces from the UK-based Army Strategic Command . Australia and New Zealand deployed roulement combat forces from Peninsular Malaysia to Borneo in 1965–66. The intensity of the conflict began to subside following the coup d'état of October 1965 and Sukarno's loss of power to General Suharto . A round of serious peace negotiations between
11736-625: The LAND mark reorganisation, into two suborganisations, Field Army and Regional Forces, that paralleled the Cold War structure of UKLF. Commander Field Army had two deployable divisions (1st Armoured Division, 3rd Mechanised Division), Theatre Troops , Joint Helicopter Command , and Training Support under him, while Commander Regional Forces was responsible for three regenerative Divisions ( 2nd Division , 4th Division , 5th Division ), London District, and United Kingdom Support Command (Germany) . In 2007 it
11899-720: The Malaysian Ambassador from Jakarta . Two days later, rioters organised by the PKI burned the British embassy in Jakarta. Several hundred rioters ransacked the Singaporean embassy in Jakarta and the homes of Singaporean diplomats. In Malaysia, Indonesian agents were captured, and crowds attacked the Indonesian embassy in Kuala Lumpur . Even as peace talks progressed and stalled, Indonesia maintained its campaign of infiltrations. On 14 August,
12062-490: The Malaysian Peninsula on 17 August 1964. On 17 August 1964, a seaborne force of about 100, composed of air force Rapid Response Troop ( Pasukan Gerak Tjepat , PGT) paratroopers, KKO and about a dozen Malaysian communists, crossed the Strait of Malacca by boat, landing at Pontian in three parties in the night. Instead of being greeted as liberators, however, they were contained by various Commonwealth forces, and all but four of
12225-560: The Malaysian Peninsula were attempted. A tense three-week standoff occurred before the crisis was peacefully resolved. By the final months of 1964, the conflict once again appeared to have reached a stalemate, with Commonwealth forces having placed Indonesia's campaign of infiltrations into East Malaysia in check for the moment, and more recently, the Malaysian Peninsula. However, the fragile equilibrium looked likely to change once again in December 1964 when Commonwealth intelligence began reporting
12388-625: The Malaysian government, while obstructing the confrontation, reducing it to a minimal level. This was implemented to preserve an already exhausted army which had recently conducted Operation Trikora in Western New Guinea, while also maintaining its political position in Indonesian politics, especially against the Communist Party of Indonesia, the ardent supporters of the confrontation. On 3 May 1964, amid ongoing hostilities, Sukarno proclaimed
12551-585: The Manila negotiations, it was persuaded by the Indonesian and Philippine Governments to postpone Malaysia's inauguration until 15 September 1963 by which time a UN mission was expected to report on whether the two Borneo colonies supported the Malaysia proposal. However, following the conclusion of the Manila talks, the Malayan prime minister Tunku Abdul Rahman announced that the proposed Malaysian state would come into existence on 16 September 1963, apparently irrespective of
12714-552: The North Atlantic area'. Its major task was to direct the strategic reserves of the British Army; its headquarters was formed from HQ Southern Command at Erskine Barracks near Fugglestone ( Wilton, Wiltshire ). The first Commander-in-chief of the new Command was Lieutenant General Sir John Mogg KCB, CBE, DSO, (previously Commander-in-chief, Southern Command), who described the reasoning behind its formation as being: "to raise
12877-719: The Overseas Chinese Youth Association, which was formed in 1946, and the Liberation League along with its youth wing, the Advanced Youth Association, which emerged during the 1950s. These organisations became the nuclei for two Communist guerrilla movements: the anti-Malaysia North Kalimantan People's Army (PARAKU) and the Sarawak People's Guerrillas (PGRS). These various Communist groups were designated by various British and other Western sources as
13040-597: The People's Dual Command or Dwi Komando Rakyat (Dwikora). The Dwikora contained Sukarno's call to defend the Indonesian Revolution and support revolutions in Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak and Sabah to destroy Malaysia. Co-ordinated to coincide with Sukarno's announcement of the 'Year of Living Dangerously' during Indonesian Independence Day celebrations, Indonesian forces began a campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations of
13203-588: The Philippines through the Sultanate of Sulu . However, while Sukarno made no direct claims to incorporate northern Borneo into Indonesian Kalimantan, he saw the formation of Malaysia as an obstacle to the Maphilindo , a non-political, irredentist union spanning Malaya, Philippines and Indonesia. President of the Philippines Diosdado Macapagal initially did not oppose the concept and even initiated
13366-407: The Philippines, Palau, and Australia. At 4,884 metres (16,024 ft), Puncak Jaya is Indonesia's highest peak, and Lake Toba in Sumatra is the largest lake, with an area of 1,145 km (442 sq mi). Indonesia's largest rivers are in Kalimantan and New Guinea and include Kapuas , Barito , Mamberamo , Sepik and Mahakam . They serve as communication and transport links between
13529-407: The Philippines. With the influx of Soviet arms aid, Indonesia was able to advance its claim to Dutch New Guinea more forcefully. The diplomatic dispute reached its climax in 1962 when Indonesia launched a substantial campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations into Dutch New Guinea. While the infiltration forces were soundly defeated by Dutch and Papuan forces, Indonesia was able to lend credence to
13692-590: The Spice Islands of Maluku during the Age of Discovery . Following three and a half centuries of Dutch colonialism , Indonesia secured its independence after World War II . Indonesia's history has since been turbulent, with challenges posed by natural disasters, corruption, separatism, a democratisation process, and periods of rapid economic growth. Indonesia consists of thousands of distinct native ethnic groups and hundreds of linguistic groups, with Javanese being
13855-538: The Strait of Malacca while trying to evade interception by an RAF Javelin FAW 9 launched from RAF Tengah . Due to a lightning storm, the drop of 96 paratroopers was widely dispersed. This resulted in them landing close to 1/10 Gurkhas, who were joined by 1st Battalion, Royal New Zealand Infantry Regiment (1 RNZIR) stationed near Malacca with 28 (Commonwealth) Brigade . Operations were commanded by four Malaysian Brigade, but it took
14018-499: The UK itself. They would only have been able to generate field formations in the event of a general war. These three divisions were disbanded in Spring 2012 and the component units were transferred to Support Command. After 2012, British Forces Germany formed the district HQ for personnel based in Germany that were not attached to military formations. London District's most public concern
14181-653: The UK, Germany (including HQ ARRC, 1st Armoured Division , and United Kingdom Support Command (Germany) ), Nepal and Brunei, as well as the British Army Training Unit Suffield in Canada; British Army Training Unit Kenya ; and the training team in Belize. The command represented 72% of the Army's manpower and virtually all of its fighting forces. Bringing all the army's conventional fighting forces into one command allowed
14344-506: The UN was expected to begin on 22 August, Indonesian delaying tactics forced the mission to start on 26 August. Nevertheless, the UN expected the report to be published by 14 September 1963. Before the Manila meeting, the Malayan Government had set 31 August as the date on which Malaysia would come into existence (coinciding with Malaya's independence day celebrations of 31 August). However, at
14507-488: The UN) scattered over both sides of the equator, around 6,000 of which are inhabited. The largest are Sumatra , Java , Borneo (shared with Brunei and Malaysia), Sulawesi , and New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea). Indonesia shares land borders with Malaysia on Borneo and Sebatik , Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea, East Timor on the island of Timor , and maritime borders with Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam,
14670-564: The United Kingdom—British North Borneo (later renamed Sabah) and Sarawak . The three British territories totalled some 1.5 million people, about half of them Dayaks . Sarawak had a population of about 900,000, Sabah's was 600,000 and Brunei's was around 80,000. Among Sarawak's non-Dayak population, 31% were Chinese, and 19% were Malay. Among non-Dayaks in Sabah, 21% were Chinese, and 7% were Malay; Brunei's non-Dayak population
14833-471: The West Kalimantan is Pontianak on the west coast, about 100 miles (160 km) from the border, and the capital of East Kalimantan is Samarinda on the south coast, some 350 kilometres (220 mi) from the border. There were no roads in the border area other than some in the west, and no road existed linking East and West Kalimantan. The lack of roads and tracks suitable for vehicles on both sides of
14996-567: The action occurring in the border area between Indonesia and East Malaysia on the island of Borneo (known as Kalimantan in Indonesia). However Indonesia also conducted lower intensity covert actions on the Malay Peninsula and in Singapore. The conflict was characterised by restrained and isolated ground combat, set within tactics of low-level brinkmanship . Combat was usually conducted by company - or platoon -sized operations on either side of
15159-529: The advantage of better helicopter deployment and resupply to forward operating bases. Rivers were also used as a method of transport and infiltration. Although combat operations were primarily conducted by ground forces, airborne forces played a vital support role and naval forces ensured the security of the sea flanks. The British provided most of the defensive effort, although Malaysian forces steadily increased their contributions, and there were periodic contributions from Australian and New Zealand forces within
15322-461: The archipelago and made much of the Northern Hemisphere without summer in 1816 . The latter produced the loudest sound in recorded history and caused 36,000 deaths due to the eruption itself and the resulting tsunamis, with significant additional effects around the world years after the event. Recent catastrophic disasters due to seismic activity include the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and
15485-560: The archipelago around 2,000 BCE and confined the native Melanesians to the far eastern regions as they spread east. Ideal agricultural conditions and the mastering of wet-field rice cultivation as early as the eighth century BCE allowed villages, towns, and small kingdoms to flourish by the first century CE. The archipelago's strategic sea-lane position fostered inter-island and international trade, including with Indian kingdoms and Chinese dynasties, from several centuries BCE. Trade has since fundamentally shaped Indonesian history. From
15648-562: The archipelago was tenuous. Dutch forces were engaged continuously in quelling rebellions on and off Java. The influence of local leaders such as Prince Diponegoro in central Java, Imam Bonjol in central Sumatra, Pattimura in Maluku , and the Aceh War weakened the Dutch and tied up the colonial military forces. Only in the early 20th century did Dutch dominance extend to what was to become Indonesia's current boundaries. During World War II,
15811-473: The basis of all TNI branches' structure, aimed at maintaining domestic stability and deterring foreign threats. The military has possessed a strong political influence since its founding, which peaked during the New Order . Political reforms in 1998 included the removal of the TNI's formal representation from the legislature. Nevertheless, its political influence remains, albeit at a reduced level. Since independence,
15974-522: The beginning of the Indonesian National Revolution , the Dutch recognised Indonesian independence in the face of international pressure in December 1949, following the Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference . Despite political, social, and sectarian divisions, Indonesians found unity in their fight for independence. As president, Sukarno moved Indonesia from democracy towards authoritarianism and maintained power by balancing
16137-533: The border meant that movement was limited to foot tracks mostly unmarked on any map, as well as water and air movement. There were many large rivers on both sides of the border, and these were the primary means of movement. There were also quite a few small grass airstrips suitable for light aircraft, as dropping zones for parachuted supplies, and helicopters. The equator lies about 160 kilometres (100 mi) south of Kuching , and most of northern Borneo receives over 3,000 mm (120 in) of rain each year. Borneo
16300-582: The border. Indonesia's campaign of infiltrations into Borneo sought to exploit how ethnically and religiously diverse Sabah and Sarawak were compared to that of Malaya and Singapore, with the intent of unravelling the proposed state of Malaysia. The jungle terrain of Borneo and the lack of roads straddling the Indonesia–Malaysia border forced both Indonesian and Commonwealth forces to conduct long foot patrols. Both sides relied on light infantry operations and air transport, although Commonwealth forces enjoyed
16463-500: The border. There are cultivated areas in valleys and around villages. In the vicinity of abandoned and current settlements are areas of dense secondary regrowth. In 1946 the Raj of Sarawak , Charles Vyner Brooke ceded the state to the British Crown believing it to be in the best interest of the people of Sarawak following the end of World War II . Sarawak became a Crown colony, ruled from
16626-531: The combined Far East Strategic Reserve stationed then in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore. Initially, Indonesian attacks on East Malaysia relied heavily on local volunteers trained by the Indonesian Army . Over time, the infiltration forces became more organised with the inclusion of a more substantial component of Indonesian forces. To deter and disrupt Indonesia's growing campaign of infiltrations,
16789-632: The conflict included Indonesia's policy of confrontation against Dutch New Guinea from March to August 1962 and the Indonesia-backed Brunei revolt in December 1962. Malaysia had direct military support from the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. Indonesia had indirect support from the USSR and China, thus making it an episode of the Cold War in Asia . The conflict was an undeclared war with most of
16952-551: The confrontation are contested. Former Indonesian Foreign Minister Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung argued years later that Sukarno intentionally muted Indonesia's opposition to the proposed Malaysian state while Indonesia was preoccupied with advancing its claim to West New Guinea . Following Indonesia's diplomatic victory in the West New Guinea dispute, Sukarno may have been emboldened to extend Indonesia's dominance over its weaker neighbours. Conversely, Sukarno may have felt compelled by
17115-486: The confrontation. While the latter returned to Sarawak and had his political status rehabilitated, Azahari remained in Indonesia until his death on 3 September 2002. In the aftermath of the Brunei Revolt, the remnants of the TNKU reached Indonesia. Possibly fearing British reprisals (which never came), many Chinese communists, possibly several thousand, also fled Sarawak. Their compatriots remaining in Sarawak were known as
17278-540: The core of Headquarters Allied Command Europe Rapid Reaction Corps , HQ ARRC) were placed under its command after the disbandment of Headquarters British Army of the Rhine . It became HQ Land Command , and assumed control of almost all British Army combat and combat support units on 1 April 1995. When it was formed it included 69,200 regular troops (6,400 officers and 62,800 other ranks), 59,700 reservists and 14,200 civil servants. It initially embraced all operational troops in
17441-499: The country hardest hit by the 1997 Asian financial crisis . It brought out popular discontent with the New Order's corruption and suppression of political opposition and ultimately ended Suharto's presidency. In 1999, East Timor seceded from Indonesia, following its 1975 invasion by Indonesia and a 25-year occupation marked by international condemnation of human rights abuses . Since 1998, democratic processes have been strengthened by enhancing regional autonomy and instituting
17604-456: The country has struggled to maintain unity against local insurgencies and separatist movements. Some, notably in Aceh and Papua , have led to an armed conflict and subsequent allegations of human rights abuses and brutality from all sides. The former was resolved peacefully in 2005, while the latter has continued amid a significant, albeit imperfect, implementation of regional autonomy laws. Reports from Amnesty , Human Rights Watch , and
17767-493: The country's first direct presidential election in 2004 . Political, economic and social instability, corruption, and instances of terrorism remained problems in the 2000s; however, the economy has performed strongly since 2007. Although relations among the diverse population are mostly harmonious, acute sectarian discontent and violence remain problematic in some areas. A political settlement to an armed separatist conflict in Aceh
17930-415: The country's total maritime area, and has set a target to increase this to 30% by 2045. However, a 2023 study suggested this target is not on track and that existing marine reserves are poorly managed. Around 390 marine areas are managed in some way by government bodies, communities, and other sectors, with potential for these to be considered other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs). There
18093-543: The creation of the state of Malaysia from the Federation of Malaya . After Indonesian president Sukarno was deposed in 1966, the dispute ended peacefully. The creation of Malaysia was a merger of the Federation of Malaya (now Peninsular Malaysia ), Singapore and the British Crown colonies of North Borneo and Sarawak (collectively known as British Borneo , now East Malaysia ) in September 1963. Vital precursors to
18256-432: The destruction of peatlands, large-scale illegal deforestation (causing extensive haze across parts of Southeast Asia ), over-exploitation of marine resources, air pollution, garbage management, and reliable water and wastewater services . These issues contribute to Indonesia's low ranking (number 116 out of 180 countries) in the 2020 Environmental Performance Index . The report also indicates that Indonesia's performance
18419-531: The dominant religion in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 16th century. For the most part, Islam overlaid and mixed with existing cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Java. The first Europeans arrived in the archipelago in 1512, when Portuguese traders, led by Francisco Serrão , sought to monopolise the sources of nutmeg , cloves , and cubeb pepper in
18582-422: The event of a request for military assistance by the civil authorities. There were a number of specialist brigades which bring together under a single administrative apparatus several units performing similar functions. There were two logistic brigades 102 Logistic Brigade in Germany and 101 Logistic Brigade which contained logistic units to support the two deployable divisions directly. They were formed from
18745-636: The executive branch. Reforms since 1998 have markedly increased its role in national governance, while the DPD is a new chamber for matters of regional management. Most civil disputes appear before the State Court ( Pengadilan Negeri ); appeals are heard before the High Court ( Pengadilan Tinggi ). The Supreme Court of Indonesia ( Mahkamah Agung ) is the highest level of the judicial branch and hears final cessation appeals and conducts case reviews. Other courts include
18908-691: The fall of the New Order , no political party has won an overall majority of seats. The Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle (PDI-P) secured the most votes in the 2024 general election , becoming their third consecutive wins since 2014. Other notable parties include the Party of the Functional Groups ( Golkar ), the Great Indonesia Movement Party ( Gerindra ), the Democratic Party , and
19071-460: The first recorded infiltration and attack occurred in Borneo. An infiltration force training at Nangabadan was split in two and prepared for its first operation. On 12 April 1963, one infiltration force attacked and seized the police station at Tebedu in the 1st Division of Sarawak, about 64 km (40 miles) from Kuching and 3.2 km (2 miles) from the border with Kalimantan. The other group attacked
19234-479: The formation of Malaysia was motivated by a desire to separate Malaya, North Borneo, Sarawak, and Singapore as a separate country, hence not submitting to the British proposal for decolonization calling it as neocolonialism done by the British state as a way of spreading British hegemony in the region. Similarly, the Philippines claimed eastern North Borneo, arguing that the Borneo colony had historical links with
19397-424: The former RAF Andover site now known as Marlborough Lines on 23 June 2010. Land Command was initially divided into eight formations, each one commanded by a Major General , and several smaller units including the training units and training support units in Belize, Brunei, Canada ( Suffield for armoured battlegroups and Wainwright for infantry units) and Kenya. Land Command was later divided in 2003, under
19560-438: The frequency of drought and food shortages (with an impact on precipitation and the patterns of wet and dry seasons, and thus Indonesia's agriculture system ) as well as numerous diseases and wildfires. Rising sea levels would also threaten most of Indonesia's population, who live in low-lying coastal areas. Impoverished communities would likely be affected the most by climate change. Tectonically , most of Indonesia's area
19723-527: The infiltrators were captured within a few days. On 2 September, three Lockheed C-130 Hercules aircraft set off from Jakarta for Peninsular Malaysia , flying low to avoid detection by radar. The following night, two of the C-130 reached their objective with their onboard PGT paratroopers, who jumped off and landed around Labis in Johor (about 160 kilometres (100 miles) north of Singapore). The remaining C-130 crashed into
19886-560: The inhabitants of the "Indian Archipelago or Malay Archipelago ". In the same publication, one of his students, James Richardson Logan , used Indonesia as a synonym for Indian Archipelago . Dutch academics writing in East Indies publications were reluctant to use Indonesia . They preferred Malay Archipelago ( Dutch : Maleische Archipel ); the Netherlands East Indies ( Nederlandsch Oost Indië ), popularly Indië ;
20049-495: The interiors of Kalimantan and Papua, and less in areas closer to Australia, such as Nusa Tenggara, which tends to be relatively dry. The almost uniformly warm waters that constitute 81% of Indonesia's area ensure that land temperatures remain relatively constant. Humidity is quite high, at between 70 and 90%. Winds are moderate and generally predictable, with monsoons usually blowing in from the south and east in May through October and from
20212-419: The island's river settlements. Indonesia lies along the equator, and its climate tends to be relatively even year-round. Indonesia has two seasons—a dry season and a wet season —with no extremes of summer or winter. For most parts of Indonesia, the dry season falls between May and October, while the wet season falls between November and April. Indonesia's climate is almost entirely tropical , dominated by
20375-716: The labour movement and the predominantly Chinese Sarawak United People's Party , the state's first political party, which was founded in June 1959. The Sarawak Insurgency began after the Brunei Revolt in 1962 and the SCO would fight alongside the Bruneian rebels and Indonesian forces during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation. The SCO and the Bruneian rebels supported and propagated the unification of all British Borneo territories to form an independent leftist North Kalimantan state. This idea
20538-459: The largest. A shared identity has developed with the motto " Bhinneka Tunggal Ika " ("Unity in Diversity" literally , "many, yet one"), defined by a national language , cultural diversity, religious pluralism within a Muslim-majority population, and a history of colonialism and rebellion against it. A developing country , Indonesia is classified a newly industrialized country , with its economy
20701-464: The latest UN report. North Borneo and Sarawak, anticipating a pro-Malaysian UN report, declared their independence as part of Malaysia on the sixth anniversary of Malayan independence, 31 August 1963, before the UN report had been published. On 14 September the UN report was published, once again providing general endorsement of the proposed Malaysian state. Malaysia was formally established on 16 September 1963. Indonesia immediately reacted by expelling
20864-625: The national level is the People's Consultative Assembly ( Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat , MPR). Its main functions are supporting and amending the constitution, inaugurating and impeaching the president, and formalising broad outlines of state policy. The MPR comprises two houses; the People's Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat , DPR), with 575 members, and the Regional Representative Council ( Dewan Perwakilan Daerah , DPD), with 136. The DPR passes legislation and monitors
21027-684: The new commander-in-chief, initially General Sir John Wilsey , to better prioritise operational commitments and to reduce the higher overhead costs previously spent in maintaining four-star operational commands both in the UK and in Germany. HQ Land Command was given control of several functions previously executed by the General Staff within the Ministry of Defence (Army). These include the Operational Tour Plot for duties in Northern Ireland, to
21190-550: The north and west in November through April. Typhoons and large-scale storms pose little hazard to mariners; significant dangers come from swift currents in channels, such as the Lombok and Sape straits. Several studies consider Indonesia to be at severe risk from the projected effects of climate change . These include unreduced emissions resulting in an average temperature rise of around 1 °C (2 °F) by mid-century, raising
21353-549: The north coast, was divided into several residencies; those of the interior and Tawau were on the border. Apart from either end, the border with Indonesia generally followed a ridgeline throughout its length, rising to almost 2,500 metres in the Fifth Division. In the First Division, there were some roads, including a continuous road from Kuching to Brunei and around to Sandakan on the east coast of Sabah. There were no roads in
21516-399: The ongoing pressure of the PKI and the general instability of Indonesian politics to divert attention towards a new foreign conflict. In the late 1950s, Sukarno argued that Malaysia was a British puppet state, a neo-colonial experiment and that any expansion of Malaysia would increase British control over the region, with implications for Indonesia's national security. Sukarno strongly opposed
21679-425: The only ones where the indigenous people have privileges in their local government. Indonesia maintains 132 diplomatic missions abroad, including 95 embassies. The country adheres to what it calls a "free and active" foreign policy, seeking a role in regional affairs in proportion to its size and location but avoiding involvement in conflicts among other countries. Indonesia was a significant battleground during
21842-438: The opposing forces of the military , political Islam, and the increasingly powerful Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI). Tensions between the military and the PKI culminated in an attempted coup in 1965. The army, led by Major General Suharto , countered by instigating a violent anti-communist purge that killed between 500,000 and one million people and incarcerated roughly a million more in concentration camps . The PKI
22005-544: The poverty line, and the official open unemployment rate was 5.28%. During the first year of the global COVID-19 pandemic , the economy suffered its first recession since the 1997 crisis but recovered in the following year. Indonesia has abundant natural resources. Its primary industries are fishing, petroleum, timber, paper products, cotton cloth, tourism, petroleum mining, natural gas, bauxite, coal, and tin. Its main agricultural products are rice, coconuts, soybeans, bananas, coffee, tea, palm, rubber, and sugar cane. Indonesia
22168-450: The seventh century CE, the Srivijaya naval kingdom flourished due to trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism . Between the eighth and tenth centuries CE, the agricultural Buddhist Sailendra and Hindu Mataram dynasties thrived and declined in inland Java, leaving grand religious monuments such as Sailendra's Borobudur and Mataram's Prambanan . The Hindu Majapahit kingdom
22331-423: The seventh century, when Sumatra's Srivijaya and later Java's Majapahit kingdoms engaged in commerce with entities from mainland China and the Indian subcontinent . Over the centuries, local rulers assimilated foreign influences, leading to the flourishing of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. Sunni traders and Sufi scholars later brought Islam , and European powers fought one another to monopolise trade in
22494-662: The standard and training of field force units to ensure any force sent abroad is correctly prepared, equipped and mounted to carry out its task speedily and successfully". STRATCO commanded most of the UK-based field forces for all matters except local administration. The command's tasks outside the British Isles were: Army Strategic Command consisted of two divisions, 3rd and 5th Infantry Divisions , and command troops. 3rd Division controlled 5th Infantry Brigade , 19th, 24th Infantry Brigades and 16th Parachute Brigade . 3rd Division
22657-574: The states of Malaya, North Borneo , Sarawak , Brunei , and Singapore . Initially, Indonesia was mildly supportive of the proposed federation, although the Communist Party of Indonesia (PKI) was firmly opposed to it. In Brunei, it was unclear whether Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien III would support Brunei joining the proposed Malaysian state because of the implied reduction of his political office, and Brunei's oil revenues ensured Brunei's financial viability were it to choose independence. Furthermore,
22820-438: The subtropical highland climate (Köppen Cwb ) is more pronounced during dry season. Some regions, such as Kalimantan and Sumatra , experience only slight differences in rainfall and temperature between the seasons, whereas others, such as Nusa Tenggara, experience far more pronounced differences with droughts in the dry season and floods in the wet season. Rainfall varies across regions, with more in western Sumatra, Java, and
22983-408: The summit, on 27 July 1963, Sukarno had continued his inflammatory rhetoric, declaring that he was going to "crush Malaysia" ( Indonesian : Ganyang Malaysia ). At the Manila meeting, the Philippines and Indonesia formally agreed to accept the formation of Malaysia if a majority in North Borneo and Sarawak voted for it in a referendum organised by the United Nations . While the fact-finding mission by
23146-463: The talks soon failed. They resumed mid-year in Tokyo and failed within days but allowed time for a Thai mission to visit Sarawak and witness, well-equipped Indonesian soldiers withdrawing across the border, which they had crossed a short distance away earlier in the day. Meanwhile, the Indonesian armed forces led by Lieutenant General Ahmad Yani became increasingly concerned with the worsening domestic situation in Indonesia and began secretly contacting
23309-471: The territory by 1969. Thus by the close of 1962, Indonesia had achieved a considerable diplomatic victory, which possibly emboldened its self-perception as a notable regional power. It was in the context of this recent diplomatic victory that Indonesia cast its attention to the British proposal for a unified Malaysian state. Before the British government announced the East of Suez policy in 1968, it had already begun re-evaluating their commitment to maintaining
23472-418: The threat of an Indonesian invasion of Dutch New Guinea. The Dutch, facing mounting diplomatic pressure from the Indonesians, and also the Americans, who were anxious to keep Indonesia from becoming Communist aligned, yielded and agreed to a diplomatic compromise, allowing the Indonesians to gain control of the territory in exchange for pledging to hold a self-determination plebiscite (the Act of Free Choice ) in
23635-462: The two sides began in May 1966, and a final peace agreement was signed on 11 August 1966 with Indonesia formally recognising Malaysia. Before Konfrontasi , Sukarno sought to develop an independent Indonesian foreign policy, focused on the annexation of Dutch New Guinea as a conclusion of the Indonesian National Revolution , and establishing Indonesia's credentials as a notable international power supporting its own agenda distinct from those of
23798-633: The village ( desa ) is divided into smaller units called dusun or dukuh (hamlets), which are the same as RW. Following the implementation of regional autonomy measures in 2001, regencies and cities have become chief administrative units responsible for providing most government services. The village administration level is the most influential on a citizen's daily life and handles village or neighbourhood matters through an elected village head ( lurah or kepala desa ). Nine provinces—Aceh, Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Papua , Central Papua , Highland Papua , South Papua , Southwest Papua , and West Papua —are granted
23961-403: The village of Gumbang, South West of Kuching, later in the month. Only about half returned. The confrontation could be said to have started from a military perspective with the Tebedu attack. Before Indonesia's declaration of confrontation against the proposed Malaysian state on 20 January 1963, the Cobbold Commission in 1962 had reported on the viability of a Malaysian state, finding that there
24124-450: The world's 16th-largest by nominal GDP and the 7th-largest by PPP . It is the world's third-largest democracy, a regional power , and is considered a middle power in global affairs. The country is a member of several multilateral organisations, including the United Nations, World Trade Organization , G20 , and a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement , Association of Southeast Asian Nations , East Asia Summit , D-8 , APEC , and
24287-404: Was 28% Chinese and 54% Malay. There was a large Indonesian population in Tawau in southern Sabah and a large and economically active Chinese one in Sarawak. Despite their population size, Dayaks were spread through the country in village longhouses and were not politically organised. Sarawak was divided into five administrative divisions. Sabah, whose capital city was Jesselton ( Kota Kinabalu ) on
24450-473: Was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC). Indonesia is a signatory to the ASEAN Free Trade Area agreement, the Cairns Group , the World Trade Organization (WTO), and a former member of OPEC . Indonesia has been a humanitarian and development aid recipient since 1967, and recently, the country established its first overseas aid programme in late 2019. Indonesia's Armed Forces (TNI) include
24613-414: Was a leftist who had fought in Indonesia in their war for independence. Following these meetings, Indonesia began training a small volunteer force called the North Kalimantan National Army (TNKU) in Kalimantan. On 8 December 1962, the TNKU staged an insurrection—the Brunei revolt . The insurrection was an abject failure, as the poorly trained and equipped forces were unable to capture key objectives such as
24776-528: Was achieved in 2005. Indonesia is the southernmost country in Asia. The country lies between latitudes 11°S and 6°N and longitudes 95°E and 141°E . A transcontinental country spanning Southeast Asia and Oceania, it is the world's largest archipelagic state , extending 5,120 kilometres (3,181 mi) from east to west and 1,760 kilometres (1,094 mi) from north to south. The country's Coordinating Ministry for Maritime and Investments Affairs says Indonesia has 17,504 islands (with 16,056 registered at
24939-436: Was also responsible for training of the British battalion designated for the NATO ACE Mobile Force (Land) . Headquarters 1 Signal Group (STRATCO) was formed the same day to coordinate signals units with the same responsibilities. 5th Division comprised 2nd, 8th and 39 Brigades. 2nd and 8th Brigades had skeleton headquarters which were raised at about the same time as the divisional headquarters. However, 5th Infantry Division
25102-526: Was announced that a new deployable divisional headquarters (HQ) would be established until at least 2011, as a means of meeting the UK's commitments to provide divisional HQs on a rotational basis to Regional Command South in Afghanistan and as the lead nation of Multi-National Division (South-East) in Iraq . This headquarters was based in York , the re-established HQ 6th Division . HQs 2, 4, and 5 Divisions (originally referred to as Regenerative Divisions) effectively used to act as military districts in
25265-402: Was blamed for the coup and effectively destroyed. Suharto capitalised on Sukarno's weakened position, and following a drawn-out power play with Sukarno , Suharto was appointed president in March 1968. His US-backed "New Order" administration encouraged foreign direct investment , which was a crucial factor in the subsequent three decades of substantial economic growth. Indonesia was
25428-483: Was formed as part of the 1999 Strategic Defence Review force reductions. On 1 September 1999, the brigade was formed by merging of 24 Airmobile Brigade and elements of 5th Airborne Brigade . In November 2007, the Ministry of Defence announced the temporary creation of another deployable brigade, designated as 11 Light Brigade , which commanded the Operation Herrick rotation between October 2009 and April 2010. 3 Commando Brigade , formed predominantly by units of
25591-401: Was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and under Gajah Mada , its influence stretched over much of present-day Indonesia. This period is often referred to as the "Golden Age" in Indonesian history. The earliest evidence of Islamized populations in the archipelago dates to the 13th century in northern Sumatra . Other parts of the archipelago gradually adopted Islam, and it was
25754-533: Was little more than a holding organisation for battalions resting between operational commitments abroad. The division was disbanded again in 1970. From 1971–72 to the mid-1990s, land forces in the British Isles were the responsibility of United Kingdom Land Forces , one of the two foremost Army commands, the other being the British Army of the Rhine . In 1995, HQ United Kingdom Land Forces at Wilton assumed control of troops in Germany and most other places. The remaining British Army troops in Germany (including
25917-553: Was originally proposed by A. M. Azahari , leader of the Parti Rakyat Brunei (Brunei People's Party), who had forged links with Sukarno 's nationalist movement, together with Ahmad Zaidi, in Java in the 1940s. However, the Brunei People's Party was in favour of joining Malaysia on the condition it was unified with the three territories of northern Borneo with their own sultan, and hence was strong enough to resist domination by Malaya, Singapore, Malay administrators or Chinese merchants. The North Kalimantan (or Kalimantan Utara) proposal
26080-400: Was seen as a post- decolonisation alternative by local opposition against the Malaysia plan. Local opposition throughout the Borneo territories was primarily based on economic, political, historical and cultural differences between the Borneo states and Malaya, as well as the refusal to be subjected under peninsular political domination. Both Azahari and Zaidi went into exile in Indonesia during
26243-469: Was sufficient support in the Borneo colonies for the creation of a larger Malaysian state. However, due to hardening Indonesian and Philippine opposition to the Malaysia proposal, a new round of negotiations was proposed to hear the Indonesian and Philippine points of opposition. To resolve the dispute the would-be member states of Malaysia met representatives of Indonesia and the Philippines in Manila for several days, starting on 30 July 1963. Just days before
26406-490: Was the administration of ceremonial units and provision of garrisons for such installations as the Tower of London. However, its primary responsibility was to maintain units directly for the defence of the capital. By 1999–2000, five years after the command was established, the British Army had only seven genuinely operational, deployable brigade groups – the six incorporated in 1st Armoured Division and 3rd Mechanised Division, plus 16 Air Assault Brigade . 16 Air Assault Brigade
26569-473: Was the coordination of military support the regional brigades did during the foot and mouth disease outbreak in 2001 . The fourteen new Civil Contingency Response Forces (CCRFs), each parented by a TA infantry battalion, were also linked into this structure. They form force elements which may be called on, alongside regular units, by the established chain of command ( Ministry of Defence , Army Headquarters, HQ Land Forces, Support Command and Regional Brigades) in
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