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60-609: The area was populated by speakers of Uralic languages and then colonized by the Novgorod Republic . After the fall of Novgorod, the area became a part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow . Krasnoborsk was founded in 1602 as Krasny Bor. From the 17th century, Krasny Bor held an annual trade fair. In the course of the administrative reform carried out in 1708 by Peter the Great , the area was included into Archangelgorod Governorate . In 1780,

120-665: A Finno-Permic grouping. Extending this approach to cover the Samoyedic languages suggests affinity with Ugric, resulting in the aforementioned East Uralic grouping, as it also shares the same sibilant developments. A further non-trivial Ugric-Samoyedic isogloss is the reduction *k, *x, *w > ɣ when before *i, and after a vowel (cf. *k > ɣ above), or adjacent to *t, *s, *š, or *ś. Finno-Ugric consonant developments after Viitso (2000); Samoyedic changes after Sammallahti (1988) The inverse relationship between consonant gradation and medial lenition of stops (the pattern also continuing within

180-502: A century's worth of editing work for later generations of Finnish Uralicists. The Uralic family comprises nine undisputed groups with no consensus classification between them. (Some of the proposals are listed in the next section.) An agnostic approach treats them as separate branches. Obsolete or native names are displayed in italics. There is also historical evidence of a number of extinct languages of uncertain affiliation: Traces of Finno-Ugric substrata, especially in toponymy, in

240-458: A competing hypothesis to Ob-Ugric. Lexicostatistics has been used in defense of the traditional family tree. A recent re-evaluation of the evidence however fails to find support for Finno-Ugric and Ugric, suggesting four lexically distinct branches (Finno-Permic, Hungarian, Ob-Ugric and Samoyedic). One alternative proposal for a family tree, with emphasis on the development of numerals, is as follows: Another proposed tree, more divergent from

300-520: A connection between Uralic and other Paleo-Siberian languages. Theories proposing a close relationship with the Altaic languages were formerly popular, based on similarities in vocabulary as well as in grammatical and phonological features, in particular the similarities in the Uralic and Altaic pronouns and the presence of agglutination in both sets of languages, as well as vowel harmony in some. For example,

360-615: A tributary of the Mezen (not of the Northern Dvina basin). The whole area of the district lies in the drainage basin of the White Sea . Almost the whole of the district is covered by coniferous forests ( taiga ). The exception are the meadows in the floodplains . Administratively , the district is divided into ten selsoviets . The following selsoviets have been established (the administrative centers are given in parentheses): Municipally ,

420-473: Is porsas ("pig"), loaned from Proto-Indo-European *porḱos or pre- Proto-Indo-Iranian *porśos , unchanged since loaning save for loss of palatalization , *ś > s.) The Estonian philologist Mall Hellam proposed cognate sentences that she asserted to be mutually intelligible among the three most widely spoken Uralic languages: Finnish, Estonian, and Hungarian: However, linguist Geoffrey Pullum reports that neither Finns nor Hungarians could understand

480-521: Is a town in Arkhangelsk Oblast , Russia , located at the confluence of the Northern Dvina and Vychegda Rivers . Population: 60,562 ( 2010 Census ) ; 60,647 ( 2002 Census ) ; 68,021 ( 1989 Soviet census ) . Kotlas is the third-largest town of Arkhangelsk Oblast in terms of population (after Arkhangelsk and Severodvinsk ) and an important transport hub. The place

540-704: Is a center of timber industry and an important river port and a railroad center (situated on the railroad connecting central Russia with the Komi Republic ). The Northern Dvina and the Vychegda Rivers are navigable; there is regular passenger navigation on the Vychegda. Roads connect Kotlas with Veliky Ustyug (and eventually Vologda and Kostroma ) to the South, Syktyvkar to the East, and Krasnoborsk (eventually Arkhangelsk ) to

600-487: Is also a technical college in Krasnoborsk which was founded in 1911 and mostly caters to the timber industry. The district contains fourteen objects classified as cultural and historical heritage by Russian Federal law, and additionally sixty-three objects classified as cultural and historical heritage of local importance. Most of these are wooden churches and wooden rural houses built prior to 1917. The only state museum in

660-441: Is apparent from the list, Finnish is the most conservative of the Uralic languages presented here, with nearly half the words on the list above identical to their Proto-Uralic reconstructions and most of the remainder only having minor changes, such as the conflation of *ś into /s/, or widespread changes such as the loss of *x and alteration of *ï. Finnish has also preserved old Indo-European borrowings relatively unchanged. (An example

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720-600: Is at the base of today's wide acceptance of the inclusion of Samoyedic as a part of the Uralic family. Meanwhile, in the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland , a chair for Finnish language and linguistics at the University of Helsinki was created in 1850, first held by Castrén. In 1883, the Finno-Ugrian Society was founded in Helsinki on the proposal of Otto Donner , which would lead to Helsinki overtaking St. Petersburg as

780-593: Is now European Russia, and the Budini , described by Herodotus as notably red-haired (a characteristic feature of the Udmurts ) and living in northeast Ukraine and/or adjacent parts of Russia. In the late 15th century, European scholars noted the resemblance of the names Hungaria and Yugria , the names of settlements east of the Ural. They assumed a connection but did not seek linguistic evidence. The affinity of Hungarian and Finnish

840-639: Is to any other language family. The hypothesis that the Dravidian languages display similarities with the Uralic language group, suggesting a prolonged period of contact in the past, is popular amongst Dravidian linguists and has been supported by a number of scholars, including Robert Caldwell , Thomas Burrow , Kamil Zvelebil , and Mikhail Andronov. This hypothesis has, however, been rejected by some specialists in Uralic languages, and has in recent times also been criticised by other Dravidian linguists, such as Bhadriraju Krishnamurti . Stefan Georg describes

900-408: The town of oblast significance of Kotlas —an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts . As a municipal division , the town of oblast significance of Kotlas is incorporated as Kotlas Urban Okrug . Within the framework of municipal divisions, Kotlas also serves as the administrative center of Cheryomushskoye Rural Settlement, even though it is not a part of it. Kotlas

960-533: The Eskimo–Aleut languages . This is an old thesis whose antecedents go back to the 18th century. An important restatement of it was made by Bergsland (1959). Uralo-Siberian is an expanded form of the Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis. It associates Uralic with Yukaghir, Chukotko-Kamchatkan , and Eskimo–Aleut. It was propounded by Michael Fortescue in 1998. Michael Fortescue (2017) presented new evidence in favor for

1020-662: The Indo-European family. In 1717, the Swedish professor Olof Rudbeck proposed about 100 etymologies connecting Finnish and Hungarian, of which about 40 are still considered valid. Several early reports comparing Finnish or Hungarian with Mordvin, Mari or Khanty were additionally collected by Gottfried Leibniz and edited by his assistant Johann Georg von Eckhart . In 1730, Philip Johan von Strahlenberg published his book Das Nord- und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia ( The Northern and Eastern Parts of Europe and Asia ), surveying

1080-694: The Proto-Uralic language include: The first plausible mention of a people speaking a Uralic language is in Tacitus 's Germania ( c.  98 AD ), mentioning the Fenni (usually interpreted as referring to the Sámi ) and two other possibly Uralic tribes living in the farthest reaches of Scandinavia. There are many possible earlier mentions, including the Iyrcae (perhaps related to Yugra) described by Herodotus living in what

1140-497: The Stalin era. A significant population of Poles existed in the area, with whole Polish villages resettled here in 1920s and 1930s. Labor camps existed within the territory of the city until 1953. Besides logging and the paper industry, inmates worked at plant, housing, bridge, and railroad construction. Most of camps were unguarded barrack settlements. In addition, Kotlas was a major transit point for deportees transferred further to

1200-567: The Uralian languages ( / j ʊəˈr eɪ l i ə n / yoor- AY -lee-ən ), are spoken predominantly in Europe and North Asia . The Uralic languages with the most native speakers are Hungarian (which alone accounts for approximately 60% of speakers), Finnish , and Estonian . Other languages with speakers above 100,000 are Erzya , Moksha , Mari , Udmurt and Komi spoken in the European parts of

1260-642: The Vepsians to general knowledge and elucidated in detail the relatedness of Finnish and Komi. Still more extensive were the field research expeditions made in the 1840s by Matthias Castrén (1813–1852) and Antal Reguly (1819–1858), who focused especially on the Samoyedic and the Ob-Ugric languages , respectively. Reguly's materials were worked on by the Hungarian linguist Pál Hunfalvy  [ hu ] (1810–1891) and German Josef Budenz (1836–1892), who both supported

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1320-434: The uyezds were abolished in favor of the new divisions, the districts (raions). Krasnoborsky District was established on April 10, 1924. In the following years, the district remained within the same borders, but the first-level administrative division of Russia kept changing. In 1929, Northern Dvina Governorate was merged into Northern Krai , which in 1936 was transformed into Northern Oblast . In 1937, Northern Oblast

1380-529: The 1960s. Eurasiatic resembles Nostratic in including Uralic, Indo-European, and Altaic, but differs from it in excluding the South Caucasian languages, Dravidian, and Afroasiatic and including Chukotko-Kamchatkan, Nivkh , Ainu , and Eskimo–Aleut. It was propounded by Joseph Greenberg in 2000–2002. Similar ideas had earlier been expressed by Heinrich Koppelmann in 1933 and by Björn Collinder in 1965. The linguist Angela Marcantonio has argued against

1440-635: The North. There is regular passenger bus traffic originating in Kotlas. Kotlas is an important railway hub, where the railway to Kirov branches off south-east from the main railway, connecting Konosha and Vorkuta . Kotlas is served by the Kotlas Airport and is home to the Savatiya air base. The Church of St. Stephan of Perm was built in 1788, and the adjacent bell-tower was built in 1825. Both are protected at

1500-948: The Northern Dvina: the Ustya (southwest) and the Pinega (northeast). The source of the Pinega is located in Verkhnetoyemsky District ; however, the Pinega starts at the confluence of the Belaya and the Chyornaya, both of which have their sources in Krasnoborsky District. A very small area in the northeast of the district, adjacent to the Komi Republic, belongs to the basin of the Vashka River ,

1560-665: The Russian Federation. Still smaller minority languages are Sámi languages of the northern Fennoscandia ; other members of the Finnic languages , ranging from Livonian in northern Latvia to Karelian in northwesternmost Russia; and the Samoyedic languages , Mansi and Khanty spoken in Western Siberia . The name Uralic derives from the family's purported "original homeland" ( Urheimat ) hypothesized to have been somewhere in

1620-527: The Uralic affinity of Hungarian. Budenz was the first scholar to bring this result to popular consciousness in Hungary and to attempt a reconstruction of the Proto-Finno-Ugric grammar and lexicon. Another late-19th-century Hungarian contribution is that of Ignácz Halász  [ hu ] (1855–1901), who published extensive comparative material of Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic in the 1890s, and whose work

1680-409: The acute denotes a secondary palatal articulation ( ⟨ś⟩ [sʲ ~ ɕ] , ⟨ć⟩ [tsʲ ~ tɕ] , ⟨l⟩ [lʲ] ) or, in Hungarian, vowel length. The Finnish letter ⟨y⟩ and the letter ⟨ü⟩ in other languages represent the high rounded vowel [y] ; the letters ⟨ä⟩ and ⟨ö⟩ are the front vowels [æ] and [ø] . As

1740-471: The administrative center Cherevkovo became a part of Krasnoborsky District. The district is located on both banks of the Northern Dvina . A major part of the district belongs to the basins of the Northern Dvina and its major tributaries . The main (right-hand) Northern Dvina tributary which flows through the district is the Uftyuga . Minor parts of the district belong to the basins of other major tributaries of

1800-521: The arrangement of its subgroups is a matter of some dispute. Mordvinic is commonly seen as particularly closely related to or part of Finno-Samic. The term Volgaic (or Volga-Finnic ) was used to denote a branch previously believed to include Mari, Mordvinic and a number of the extinct languages, but it is now obsolete and considered a geographic classification rather than a linguistic one. Within Ugric, uniting Mansi with Hungarian rather than Khanty has been

1860-433: The cargo transport of goods to and from the Northern Dvina . In 1940, the construction of the railroad connecting Konosha (on the railway stretch between Moscow and Arkhangelsk) to Vorkuta started. The railroad was needed to transport coal, timber, and later oil from the Komi Republic . The headquarters of this railroad were opened in Kotlas. In the same year, Kotlas became a separate administrative unit. In December 1941,

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1920-801: The chief northern center of research of the Uralic languages. During the late 19th and early 20th century (until the separation of Finland from Russia following the Russian Revolution ), the Society hired many scholars to survey the still less-known Uralic languages. Major researchers of this period included Heikki Paasonen (studying especially the Mordvinic languages ), Yrjö Wichmann (studying Permic ), Artturi Kannisto  [ fi ] ( Mansi ), Kustaa Fredrik Karjalainen ( Khanty ), Toivo Lehtisalo ( Nenets ), and Kai Donner ( Kamass ). The vast amounts of data collected on these expeditions would provide over

1980-483: The district is Sergey Tupitsyn Museum of History and Art (founded in 1958) with the main building in Krasnoborsk and a branch in the selo of Cherevkovo . Aleksandr Borisov , a Russian landscape painter, had an estate in the village of Gorodishchenskaya , close to Krasnoborsk. He lived there most of his life from 1909, and died in his house in 1934. Uralic languages The Uralic languages ( / j ʊəˈr æ l ɪ k / yoor- AL -ik ), sometimes called

2040-493: The district is divided into seven rural settlements (the administrative centers are given in parentheses): The basis of the economy of the district is timber industry, which is more developed on the left bank of the Northern Dvina than on the right bank. Food industry is also present. In 2008, there were twenty-four farms of various sizes in the district. These produced meat (beef and pork), milk, cereals, and potatoes. There were also two posts buying wild berries and mushrooms from

2100-499: The early 20th century, they were found to be quite divergent, and they were assumed to have separated already early on. The terminology adopted for this was "Uralic" for the entire family, " Finno-Ugric " for the non-Samoyedic languages (though "Finno-Ugric" has, to this day, remained in use also as a synonym for the whole family). Finno-Ugric and Samoyedic are listed in ISO 639-5 as primary branches of Uralic. The following table lists nodes of

2160-564: The epoch". Still, in spite of this hostile climate, the Hungarian Jesuit János Sajnovics traveled with Maximilian Hell to survey the alleged relationship between Hungarian and Sámi, while they were also on a mission to observe the 1769 Venus transit . Sajnovics published his results in 1770, arguing for a relationship based on several grammatical features. In 1799, the Hungarian Sámuel Gyarmathi published

2220-503: The gatherers. The Northern Dvina is navigable, although there is no regular passenger navigation. There is a road connecting Kotlas and Arkhangelsk which passes through Krasnoborsk. There are also local roads. There is regular passenger bus traffic over the district, and also from Krasnoborsk to Arkhangelsk. There are three high schools in the district (located in Krasnoborsk, Cherevkovo, and Verkhnyaya Uftyuga), and six basic (providing nine-year education) and elementary schools/ There

2280-402: The geography, peoples and languages of Russia. All the main groups of the Uralic languages were already identified here. Nonetheless, these relationships were not widely accepted. Hungarian intellectuals especially were not interested in the theory and preferred to assume connections with Turkic tribes, an attitude characterized by Merritt Ruhlen as due to "the wild unfettered Romanticism of

2340-407: The governorate was abolished and transformed into Vologda Viceroyalty . Simultaneously, Krasny Bor was renamed Krasnoborsk, granted town status, and Krasnoborsky Uyezd was established. In 1796, the uyezd was abolished, and its territory was included into Solvychegodsky Uyezd of Vologda Governorate . In 1918, the area was transferred to the newly established Northern Dvina Governorate and in 1924

2400-480: The local level as architectural monuments, as is Narodny Dom, a wooden house built at the beginning of 20th century. Kotlas has a subarctic climate ( Köppen climate classification Dfc ). Salyut is the local bandy club. [1] Alexandr Tyukavin , a notable player voted as third best player of the Russian National Championship 2011–2012, was born in Kotlas. In 2014 he was awarded a prize from

2460-516: The most complete work on Finno-Ugric to that date. Up to the beginning of the 19th century, knowledge of the Uralic languages spoken in Russia had remained restricted to scanty observations by travelers. Already the Finnish historian Henrik Gabriel Porthan had stressed that further progress would require dedicated field missions. One of the first of these was undertaken by Anders Johan Sjögren , who brought

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2520-469: The nine undisputed families) are becoming more common. A traditional classification of the Uralic languages has existed since the late 19th century. It has enjoyed frequent adaptation in whole or in part in encyclopedias, handbooks, and overviews of the Uralic family. Otto Donner's model from 1879 is as follows: At Donner's time, the Samoyedic languages were still poorly known, and he was not able to address their position. As they became better known in

2580-521: The north and east, since it was a railroad terminus. There is a Kotlas branch of the Sovest ( Conscience ) organization, which seeks to preserve the memory of those times and seek compensation for victims. The further development of Kotlas was due to the construction of the Pechora Railway . Already from 1899 Kotlas was connected by a railway line with Vyatka (currently Kirov ), which was heavily used for

2640-444: The northern part of European Russia have been proposed as evidence for even more extinct Uralic languages. [REDACTED] All Uralic languages are thought to have descended, through independent processes of language change , from Proto-Uralic . The internal structure of the Uralic family has been debated since the family was first proposed. Doubts about the validity of most or all of the proposed higher-order branchings (grouping

2700-535: The number of common words. The following is a very brief selection of cognates in basic vocabulary across the Uralic family, which may serve to give an idea of the sound changes involved. This is not a list of translations: cognates have a common origin, but their meaning may be shifted and loanwords may have replaced them. Orthographical notes: The hacek denotes postalveolar articulation ( ⟨ž⟩ [ʒ] , ⟨š⟩ [ʃ] , ⟨č⟩ [t͡ʃ] ) (In Northern Sámi, ( ⟨ž⟩ [dʒ] ), while

2760-443: The other language's version of the sentence. No Uralic language has exactly the idealized typological profile of the family. Typological features with varying presence among the modern Uralic language groups include: Notes: Many relationships between Uralic and other language families have been suggested, but none of these is generally accepted by linguists at the present time: All of the following hypotheses are minority views at

2820-446: The present time in Uralic studies. The Uralic–Yukaghir hypothesis identifies Uralic and Yukaghir as independent members of a single language family. It is currently widely accepted that the similarities between Uralic and Yukaghir languages are due to ancient contacts. Regardless, the hypothesis is accepted by a few linguists and viewed as attractive by a somewhat larger number. The Eskimo–Uralic hypothesis associates Uralic with

2880-669: The road was completed, and from 1942, the regular service started. Kotlas thus became an important transport hub. The headquarters of the Pechora Railway were located in Kotlas until 1959, when the railway was merged into the Northern Railway . Within the framework of administrative divisions , Kotlas serves as the administrative center of Kotlassky District , even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is, together with one work settlement ( Vychegodsky ) and two rural localities , incorporated separately as

2940-516: The similarities of Sámi, Estonian, and Finnish, and also on a few similar words between Finnish and Hungarian. These authors were the first to outline what was to become the classification of the Finno-Ugric, and later Uralic family. This proposal received some of its initial impetus from the fact that these languages, unlike most of the other languages spoken in Europe, are not part of what is now known as

3000-588: The standard, focusing on consonant isoglosses (which does not consider the position of the Samoyedic languages) is presented by Viitso (1997), and refined in Viitso (2000): The grouping of the four bottom-level branches remains to some degree open to interpretation, with competing models of Finno-Saamic vs. Eastern Finno-Ugric (Mari, Mordvinic, Permic-Ugric; *k > ɣ between vowels, degemination of stops) and Finno-Volgaic (Finno-Saamic, Mari, Mordvinic; *δʲ > *ð between vowels) vs. Permic-Ugric. Viitso finds no evidence for

3060-413: The theory as "outlandish" and "not meriting a second look" even in contrast to hypotheses such as Uralo-Yukaghir or Indo-Uralic. Nostratic associates Uralic, Indo-European, Altaic, Dravidian, Afroasiatic, and various other language families of Asia. The Nostratic hypothesis was first propounded by Holger Pedersen in 1903 and subsequently revived by Vladislav Illich-Svitych and Aharon Dolgopolsky in

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3120-917: The three families where gradation is found) is noted by Helimski (1995): an original allophonic gradation system between voiceless and voiced stops would have been easily disrupted by a spreading of voicing to previously unvoiced stops as well. A computational phylogenetic study by Honkola, et al. (2013) classifies the Uralic languages as follows. Estimated divergence dates from Honkola, et al. (2013) are also given. Structural characteristics generally said to be typical of Uralic languages include: Basic vocabulary of about 200 words, including body parts (e.g. eye, heart, head, foot, mouth), family members (e.g. father, mother-in-law), animals (e.g. viper, partridge, fish), nature objects (e.g. tree, stone, nest, water), basic verbs (e.g. live, fall, run, make, see, suck, go, die, swim, know), basic pronouns (e.g. who, what, we, you, I), numerals (e.g. two, five); derivatives increase

3180-592: The traditional family tree that are recognized in some overview sources. Little explicit evidence has however been presented in favour of Donner's model since his original proposal, and numerous alternate schemes have been proposed. Especially in Finland, there has been a growing tendency to reject the Finno-Ugric intermediate protolanguage. A recent competing proposal instead unites Ugric and Samoyedic in an "East Uralic" group for which shared innovations can be noted. The Finno-Permic grouping still holds some support, though

3240-516: The validity of several subgroups of the Uralic family, as well against the family itself, claiming that many of the languages are no more closely related to each other than they are to various other Eurasian languages (e.g. Yukaghir or Turkic), and that in particular Hungarian is a language isolate. Marcantonio's proposal has been strongly dismissed by most reviewers as unfounded and methodologically flawed. Problems identified by reviewers include: Kotlas Kotlas ( Russian : Ко́тлас )

3300-623: The vicinity of the Ural Mountains , and was first proposed by Julius Klaproth in Asia Polyglotta (1823). Finno-Ugric is sometimes used as a synonym for Uralic, though Finno-Ugric is widely understood to exclude the Samoyedic languages. Scholars who do not accept the traditional notion that Samoyedic split first from the rest of the Uralic family may treat the terms as synonymous. Uralic languages are known for their often complex case systems and vowel harmony . Proposed homelands of

3360-464: The word for "language" is similar in Estonian ( keel ) and Mongolian ( хэл ( hel )). These theories are now generally rejected and most such similarities are attributed to language contact or coincidence. The Indo-Uralic (or "Indo-Euralic") hypothesis suggests that Uralic and Indo-European are related at a fairly close level or, in its stronger form, that they are more closely related than either

3420-591: Was first proposed in the late 17th century. Three candidates can be credited for the discovery: the German scholar Martin Fogel  [ de ] , the Swedish scholar Georg Stiernhielm , and the Swedish courtier Bengt Skytte . Fogel's unpublished study of the relationship, commissioned by Cosimo III of Tuscany, was clearly the most modern of these: he established several grammatical and lexical parallels between Finnish and Hungarian as well as Sámi. Stiernhielm commented on

3480-583: Was merged into Northern Krai , which in 1936 was transformed into Northern Oblast . In 1937, Northern Oblast was split into Arkhangelsk Oblast and Vologda Oblast. Kotlassky District remained in Arkhangelsk Oblast ever since. During the 1930s, Kotlas became a place to which kulaks were deported and made to work in the forestry industry. It was managed by the Kotlaslag division of Gulag . Later, it hosted all possible categories of people repressed during

3540-533: Was probably inhabited from ancient times, but was only granted official town status by the Provisional Government of Russia on June 16, 1917, when it was a part of Vologda Governorate . In 1918, the area was transferred to the newly formed Northern Dvina Governorate , and in 1924 the uyezds were abolished in favor of the new divisions, the districts (raions). Kotlassky District was established on June 25, 1924. In 1929, Northern Dvina Governorate

3600-523: Was split into Arkhangelsk Oblast and Vologda Oblast. Krasnoborsky District remained in Arkhangelsk Oblast ever since. From 1924 to 1959, Cherevkovsky District existed, with its administrative center located in Cherevkovo , initially in Northern Dvina Governorate. On September 11, 1959, the district was abolished and split between Krasnoborsky, Verkhnetoyemsky , and Ustyansky Districts ;

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