List of forms of government
109-405: A provisional government , also called an interim government , an emergency government , a transitional government or provisional leadership , is a temporary government formed to manage a period of transition, often following state collapse , revolution , civil war , or some combination thereof. Provisional governments generally come to power in connection with a grave crisis that has caused
218-659: A disputed succession to the throne can cause the 'utter collapse of royal authority'. The Wars of the Roses ended the Lancastrian dynasty at the battle of Tewkesbury in 1471; and led to the downfall of Richard III and the Yorkist line at the battle of Bosworth in 1485. In Angola in the 1980's, aid from the USSR was the 'principal cause of collapse', turning the ruling elite into unpopular 'worshippers of foreign divinities'. Soon afterwards
327-425: A puppet state in northern Italy, he "divided Italy in two and initiated 18 months of terrible civil war." Ken Livingstone has compared Slobodan Milosevic to Hitler for his racism and expansionist goals. Saddam Hussein , who also suffered from a Messiah complex, was similar: "Hitler was not one of a kind. As long as millions of people passionately long for his return, it is only a matter of time until their wish
436-426: A " Masada complex" that may drive fanatics to a suicidal, violent last-ditch stand. In a totalitarian state or an ideocracy , individuals may develop a closed mind and an authoritarian personality , making them more likely to resist threats to the incumbent regime. According to psychologist Erich Fromm it is possible for an entire nation, if they all share the same vices and errors, to become insane—a "folie
545-464: A "Christ in the image of the rejected and agonizing monarchy". Few political scientists credibly predicted the collapse of the Soviet Union or agreed on its causes: in hindsight, Leonid Fituni lists 'poverty, hunger, regional conflicts, ethnic wars, deindustrialisation, foreign debt, elite corruption, disease epidemics, refugee problems, environmental issues' as causes. Armed forces may take over
654-490: A ' Promised land ', but because he leads them away from their unwanted selves". When collapse threatens he may insist on a "fight to the finish". Hitler, according to Walter Langer had a Messiah complex and saw himself as the "Saviour of Germany" who performed "miracles" with the economy. He was unnaturally fond of his mother, to the extent that Germany became a "mother symbol". His drive to destroy (the Jews, communism, Europe)
763-484: A bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré , a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day . The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. His efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and a devastating drought from 1968 to 1974, in which famine killed thousands of people. The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. The Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until
872-546: A collapsing state by coup d'etat . Some military regimes are able to reverse a downward spiral, but if they fail to do so, must rely ever more on coercion and control. The regime 'falls into the vacuum it has created'. This occurred in Uganda under Idi Amin in 1979; and in Somalia in 1991. Legitimacy refers to popular belief in, or acceptance of, an authority; thus it includes any leader achieving popularity at any given moment. When
981-839: A convention of delegates from 13 British colonies on the east coast of North America became the provisional government of the United States in 1776, during the American Revolutionary War . The government shed its provisional status in 1781, following ratification of the Articles of Confederation , and continued in existence as the Congress of the Confederation until it was supplanted by the United States Congress in 1789. The practice of using "provisional government" as part of
1090-428: A democracy can also collapse "if voters don't get what they want and merely affirm the status quo." In these circumstances, voters deprived of real choice may opt for the least democratic option. In a divided, collapsing country lacking civil institutions, or in a closed country attempting reform and openness, the process of democratisation is 'dangerous' and may hasten collapse. In the USSR and Apartheid South Africa,
1199-527: A dynamic model of the causes of state collapse. In their article in Global Change, Peace & Security , they argue that a state collapse happens when 1) opposition groups arm themselves and mobilise against the government; 2) political transitions such as decolonisation or regime change cause existing power structures to be questioned; 3) politics prolong power struggles and undermine existing institutions; 4) repression causes extreme distrust between rulers and
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#17328378341211308-704: A formal name can be traced to Talleyrand 's government in France in 1814. In 1843, American pioneers in the Oregon Country , in the Pacific Northwest region of North America established the Provisional Government of Oregon —as the U.S. federal government had not yet extended its jurisdiction over the region—which existed until March 1849. The numerous provisional governments during the Revolutions of 1848 gave
1417-525: A hippopotamus upon his death in the Sankarani River and that it was possible to find villages in the area of this river called "old Mali". A study of Malian proverbs noted that in old Mali, there is a village called Malikoma, which means "New Mali", and that Mali could have formerly been the name of a city. Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples . It
1526-569: A master. In the Tuareg Rebellion of 2012 , ex-slaves were a vulnerable population with reports of some slaves being recaptured by their former masters. In January 2012 a Tuareg rebellion began in northern Mali, led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA). In March, military officer Amadou Sanogo seized power in a coup d'état , citing Touré's failures in quelling
1635-619: A military base in Kati , outside Bamako. On 7 June 2021, Mali's military commander Assimi Goïta was sworn into office as the new interim president. In 2022 and 2023, the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara saw major gains in the Mali War , occupying large swathes of territory in southeastern Mali. Ansongo and Tidermène were also captured by the group. By mid-2023, the militant group had doubled
1744-618: A military coup in March 2012 and later fighting between Tuareg and other rebel factions. In response to territorial gains, the French military launched Operation Serval in January 2013. A month later, Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north, although the conflict continued. Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013, with a second-round run-off held on 11 August, and legislative elections were held on 24 November and 15 December 2013. In
1853-659: A military coup and authoritarian military rule. According to Sabrina Ramet , regenerative changes occurred in Yugoslavia in the 1980s when the communist ideology was replaced by a nationalist drive for a Greater Serbia and by an anti-bureaucratic revolution in support of Slobodan Milosevic . The Young Turk coup of 1908, the 1991 Soviet coup d'etat attempt , and the financial/industrial reforms of Sergei Witte in Imperial Russia, were all aimed at regenerating causes which were nearing collapse. Marina Ottaway discusses
1962-546: A millions" . Inhumane treatment by the rulers inevitably leads to collapse; Despots and ruling cliques can succeed in dominating and exploiting their fellow man ... but their subjects react ... with apathy, impairment of intelligence, initiative and skills ... or they react by the accumulation of such hate and destructiveness as to bring about an end to themselves, their rulers and their system. ... if man lives under conditions contrary to his nature and to human growth and sanity, he cannot help reacting.' Mark Blyth alleges that
2071-479: A new government can be appointed. Caretaker governments operate entirely within the existing constitutional framework and most countries tightly circumscribe their authority, in contrast to provisional governments, which often operate in the absence of any elected legislature and usually enjoy expansive, if temporary, powers. In opinion of Yossi Shain and Juan J. Linz, provisional governments can be classified to four groups: The establishment of provisional governments
2180-554: A part of French Sudan . In November 1915, a large anti-French uprising broke out among the tribes in the regions of present-day Mali and Burkina Faso. The last resistance was suppressed only in September 1916. During the suppression of the uprising, over 100 villages were destroyed by French colonial troops. On 24 November 1958, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) became an autonomous republic within
2289-573: A period of several months". According to Call, between 1995 and 2005, the main examples of collapsed states included Somalia , which had a sustained collapse from 1990 to 2004; the Soviet Union in 1991; Yugoslavia in 1992; and possibly Afghanistan from 1992 to 1995. Recent scholarship has focused on identifying measurable dimensions of state capacity, building on the institutionalist approach associated with Max Weber . Daniel Lambach, Eva Johais, and Markus Bayer have thus defined state collapse as
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#17328378341212398-599: A public appearance in recently recaptured Timbuktu. In August 2013, Ibrahim Boubacar Keita was elected as the new president of Mali in the second round of the election . In the central Mali province of Mopti , conflict has escalated since 2015 between agricultural communities like the Dogon and the Bambara , and the pastoral Fula (or Fulani) people . Historically, the two sides have fought over access to land and water, factors which have been exacerbated by climate change as
2507-529: A regular political process, which is generally an election . They may be involved with defining the legal structure of subsequent regimes, guidelines related to human rights and political freedoms , the structure of the economy , government institutions , and international alignment. Provisional governments differ from caretaker governments , which are responsible for governing within an established parliamentary system and serve temporarily after an election, vote of no confidence or cabinet crisis , until
2616-528: A second term in 1997, which was the last allowed under the constitution. Amadou Toumani Touré , a retired general who had been the leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising, was elected in 2002. During this democratic period Mali was regarded as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa. Slavery persists in Mali today with as many as 200,000 people held in direct servitude to
2725-452: A viable government results. Services are absent and national borders are unprotected, as in Haiti , Somalia , Yemen and South Sudan . A failed state can fragment, be taken over by outside forces, or descend into chaos. The Mongol Empire was able to conquer and unite the various kingdoms and empires spanning China into one state again in 1279, due to a lack of centralised state authority over
2834-518: Is 24,478,595, 47.19% of which are estimated to be under the age of 15 in 2024. Its capital and largest city is Bamako . The country has 13 official languages, of which Bambara is the most commonly spoken. The sovereign state 's northern borders reach deep into the middle of the Sahara Desert . The country's southern part, where the majority of inhabitants live, is in the Sudanian savanna and has
2943-544: Is frequently tied to the implementation of transitional justice . Provisional governments may be responsible for implementing transitional justice measures as part of the path to establishing a permanent government structure. The early provisional governments were created to prepare for the return of royal rule. Irregularly convened assemblies during the English Revolution , such as Confederate Ireland (1641–49), were described as "provisional". The Continental Congress ,
3052-492: Is fulfilled." Nicolae Ceaușescu "went mad" as early as 1971 according to John Sweeney , when, "blind to his own Messianism", he attempted to recreate North Korean totalitarianism in Romania . He "played the king" and the role of "chosen one" and "saviour". Managerial incapacity, failing to meet popular needs, causes dissatisfaction. If the government avoids necessary choices, practices only defensive politics, and represses
3161-637: Is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment /nd/ shifts to /l/ and the terminal vowel denasalizes and raises, leading "Manden" to shift to /mali/ . The rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10,000 BC, when the Sahara was fertile and rich in wildlife. Early ceramics have been discovered at the central Malian site of Ounjougou dating to about 9,400 BC, and are believed to represent an instance of
3270-473: The 24 March 2019 massacre of 160 Fula villagers . The group denied the attack, but afterwards Malian president Keita ordered the group to disband. The UN Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, Adama Dieng , warned of a growing ethnicization of the conflict. By 2020, more than 600,000 people had been displaced by the conflict in Mali. The United Nations reported that the number of children killed in
3379-697: The African National Congress , and other political organizations, resulting in South Africa's first non-racial election , which was won by the African National Congress . 'Misbegotten wars, when serving as culmination points of more general national decline, can be fatal', says Robert Kaplan. Participation in World War I was a decisive factor in the collapse of Ottoman Turkey, the Austro-Hungarian empire and Russia in 1917. In an absolute monarchy,
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3488-610: The Allies . As of 2024 in Europe, only Belarus , South Ossetia , and the Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine have provisional governments. The former two were established by the opposition in parallel with the government of the Republic of South Ossetia–State of Alania and the government of the Republic of Belarus , while the latter exists as a Russian puppet government in opposition to
3597-573: The Battle of Tinzaouaten . On 5 August 2024 the Republic of Mali announced that it was severing diplomatic relations with Ukraine . On 17 September 2024, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked several locations across Bamako , killing at least 77 people and injuring 255 others. Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria . It lies between latitudes 10° and 25°N , and longitudes 13°W and 5°E . Mali borders Algeria to
3706-462: The French Armed Forces intervened at the request of the interim government of president Dioncounda Traoré . On 30 January, the coordinated advance of the French and Malian troops claimed to have retaken the last remaining Islamist stronghold of Kidal, which was also the last of three northern provincial capitals. On 2 February, French president François Hollande joined Dioncounda Traoré in
3815-623: The French Community . In January 1959, Mali and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation . The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960. Senegal withdrew from the federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, and that date is now the country's Independence Day . Modibo Keïta
3924-602: The Mali Empire (for which Mali is named), and the Songhai Empire . At its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire was the wealthiest country in Africa with its 14th-century emperor Mansa Musa believed to be one of the wealthiest individuals in history. Besides being a hub of trade and mining, medieval Mali was a centre of Islam , culture and knowledge, with Timbuktu becoming a renowned place of learning with its university , one of
4033-553: The Niger and Senegal rivers running through it. The country's economy centres on agriculture and mining with its most prominent natural resources including gold (of which it is the third largest producer in Africa) and salt . Mali was part of three successive powerful and wealthy West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade : the Ghana Empire (for which Ghana is named),
4142-541: The Rally for Mali and Soumaïla Cissé of the Union for the Republic and Democracy , and Keïta was re-elected with 67% of the vote. In September 2018, the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue negotiated a unilateral ceasefire with Dan Na Ambassagou "in the context of the conflict which opposes the group to other community armed groups in central Mali". However, the group has been blamed for
4251-519: The Republic of Mali , is a landlocked country in West Africa . It is the eighth-largest country in Africa , with an area of over 1,240,192 square kilometres (478,841 sq mi). The country is bordered to the north by Algeria , to the east by Niger , to the northwest by Mauritania , to the south by Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast , and to the west by Guinea and Senegal . The population of Mali
4360-620: The State of Palestine under both Fatah (detailed above) and Hamas , Syria , and Yemen currently have provisional governments. The Syrian provisional governments are opposition groups in rebellion against their internationally recognized government. Afghanistan's provisional government is unrecognized, but is de facto the country's sole governing body. Myanmar and Yemen have both ruling and opposition provisional governments. Provisional governments were also established throughout Europe as occupied nations were liberated from Nazi occupation by
4469-552: The U.S. Bill of Rights , New Deal social legislation, the liberal constitutions of several European states and even the Soviet Union." Collapse may be followed by formal or informal efforts at justice, such as the Nuremberg trials and the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (South Africa) . Slobodan Milosevic and Saddam Hussein were also tried in court. Germany has faced up to its German collective guilt and 'legacy of 'shame' for
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4578-621: The Wagner Group executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022. France had started withdrawing French troops from Mali in February 2022, commencing the end of Operation Barkhane . On 2 May, the military government announced breaking its defence accords concluded in 2013 with France, constituting an additional step in the deterioration of Malian–French relations. This latest announcement has been criticized by French authorities and considered as "illegitimate". A UN panel reported that in
4687-526: The establishment of sea routes by the European powers , the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance. At that time, the Mali Empire's abundance in wealth expanded its commercial assets of salt and gold . One of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe , "The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to
4796-509: The government of Ukraine . State collapse State collapse is a sudden dissolution of a sovereign state . It is often used to describe extreme situations in which state institutions dissolve rapidly. When a new regime moves in, often led by the military, civil society typically fails to rally around the central government, and societal actors fend for themselves at the local level. Neighboring states interfere politically, sometimes harboring dissidents within their borders, and
4905-527: The 1990's. In the case of post-WW1 Austria, the loss of pre-war markets in the Austro-Hungarian empire encouraged fears of economic decline, thus the idea of Anschluss with Germany, and Austria's downfall by German invasion in 1938. In the Soviet Union, the dramatic drop of the price of oil in 1985 and 1986 and the Reagan administration's escalation of the arms race ('they can't sustain military spending
5014-506: The 1990s, when its six socialist republics broke apart to become separate countries; though Slovenia seceded peacefully, civil wars broke out in Croatia , Bosnia and Kosovo , then part of Serbia , due to nationalist elites manipulating communal tensions. The ethnic discrimination of the apartheid system in South Africa ended through negotiations between the governing National Party ,
5123-722: The Austrian Anschluss of 1938. The partition of India in 1947 led to the creation of two independent nations, India and Pakistan. When Ottoman Turkey collapsed at the end of World War I , it lost territory, including what became Syria , Iraq and Palestine ; the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian empire gave rise to Czechoslovakia , Hungary and the Austrian Republic, while Slovenia and Croatia became part of Yugoslavia . Nazi Germany in 1945 fragmented into East and West Germany, while Pomerania and Silesia became part of Poland. The USSR breakup led to regional wars in
5232-532: The Fula move into new areas. The Dogon and the Bambara communities have formed "self-defense groups" to fight the Fula. They accuse the Fula of working with armed Islamists linked to al-Qaeda . While some Fula have joined Islamist groups, Human Rights Watch reports that the links have been "exaggerated and instrumentalized by different actors for opportunistic ends". Added a top Mali military commander: I’ve discussed
5341-607: The Hitler years in such media portrayals as Downfall . Denial has been a common reaction in post-collapse nations. In post-apartheid South Africa, white liberals were more likely to feel guilt feelings than conservatives. Some have refused to accept responsibility for massacres, as in Holocaust denial , the Myth of the clean Wehrmacht and the Armenian genocide denial ; a fictitious explanation for
5450-488: The March Revolution. In Bamako, in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others, soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on the nonviolent demonstrators. Riots broke out briefly following the shootings. Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traoré declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew. Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over
5559-626: The March and April parliamentary elections, including outrage against the kidnapping of opposition leader Soumaïla Cissé . Between 11 and 23 deaths followed protests that took place from 10 to 13 June. In July, President Keïta dissolved the constitutional court. Members of the military led by Colonel Assimi Goïta and Colonel-Major Ismaël Wagué in Kati , Koulikoro Region , began a mutiny on 18 August 2020. President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister Boubou Cissé were arrested, and shortly after midnight Keïta announced his resignation, saying he did not want to see any bloodshed. Wagué announced
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#17328378341215668-462: The Republic of Mali was established. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. In January 2012, an armed conflict broke out in northern Mali , in which Tuareg rebels took control of a territory in the north, and in April declared the secession of a new state, Azawad . The conflict was complicated by
5777-563: The Soviet Union led to state collapse in Georgia , Bosnia-Herzegovina , and Tajikistan . Other cases of state collapse included Laos, following an attack backed by the United States which led to partitioning of the country into spheres of influence; Lebanon, which went through a full-scale civil war; and Afghanistan, where insurgents challenged the communist regime and moved against Soviet intervention. In 2020, Johais, Bayer and Lambach proposed
5886-670: The USSR itself collapsed, in part due to the 'demands of the main sponsor', the USA. The 2010 Haiti earthquake caused a surge in aid which: created a huge parallel government run by NGOs and contractors; destroyed weak institutions; inflated wages, rents, and prices beyond the reach of local businesses; and gave the Haitian government no incentive to undertake necessary reforms. Either the incumbent regime itself, or an extremist reactionary group dissatisfied with its performance, may attempt to postpone or avoid collapse by regenerating popular support; 'At
5995-407: The Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–1756, when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half the population of Timbuktu ." Mali fell under the control of France during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century. By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as
6104-453: The amount of territory it controlled since the overthrow of the previous government and establishment of the junta. On 10 January 2022, Mali announced the closure of its borders and recalled several ambassadors to ECOWAS countries in response to sanctions placed on Mali for deferring elections for four years. On 4 February, France's ambassador was expelled. According to Human Rights Watch , Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from
6213-405: The arms trafficking, set up a justice system and rebuild the economy, all against the opposition of warlords, extremists and smugglers. In 1946, the Diet ratified a new Constitution of Japan The new constitution drafted by Americans allowed access and control over the Japanese military through MacArthur and the Allied occupation on Japan. "The political project drew much of its inspiration from
6322-461: The army refused to fight in the civil war. State collapse is prevalent in much of post-colonial Africa and has occurred in two waves: in the 1980's, the second decade of independence, in Chad, Uganda and Ghana; and a decade later, in Somalia and Liberia . Collapse is marked by the loss of control of political space. Neighbour states may intervene directly in a collapsing state; or they may host dissident movements. The collapse of Afghanistan in 2021
6431-455: The central power. The Japanese philosopher Hajime Tanabe points to the quasi-religious role of the state to mediate between mortal individuals and the eternal universe, so that states regularly collapse; like religious figures, they must undergo a process of death and resurrection . In his view this may account for the perennial popularity of states because they regularly demonstrate their ability to transcend death. Psychologists speak of
6540-419: The collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Ottoman Empire in 1918, British India in 1947, the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the collapse of South Africa's white supremacist government in 1993, of Czechoslovakia the following year, and of Yugoslavia . State collapse is 'not necessarily anarchy'. If attempts at restructuring from within or without are unsuccessful, a long-term absence of
6649-426: The collapse of the German Empire in 1918 was found in the Stab-in-the-back myth . The collapse of the Ottomans in 1918 had long-term consequences, 'triggering most of the problems that plague the Middle East today'. Hegemony in the Middle East has been subject to quarrels between British, French, Israeli, American, Arab nationalist, Saudi and Iranian interests ever since. Mali Mali , officially
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#17328378341216758-411: The conflict in the first six months of 2019 was twice as many for the entire year of 2018. Many of the children have been killed in intercommunal attacks attributed to ethnic militias, with the majority of attacks occurring around Mopti . It is reported that around 900 schools have closed down and that armed militias are recruiting children. During the first week of October 2019, two jihadist attacks in
6867-435: The course of four days, nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies. 26 March 1991 is the day that marks the clash between military soldiers and peaceful demonstrating students which climaxed in the massacre of dozens under the orders of Traoré. He and three associates were later tried and convicted and received
6976-452: The death sentence for their part in the decision-making of that day. Nowadays, the day is a national holiday in order to remember the tragic events and the people who were killed. The coup is remembered as Mali's March Revolution of 1991 . By 26 March, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full-scale tumult, and resulted in thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining
7085-612: The death toll in the Armenian genocide vary between 300,000 and 1.5 million. The partition of India displaced between 10 and 12 million Sikhs, Hindus and Muslims, creating overwhelming refugee crises; there was large-scale violence, with estimates of loss of life accompanying or preceding the partition disputed and varying between several hundred thousand and two million. In the former Yugoslavia collapse led to state failure, and ethnic cleansing and genocide erupted. State collapse in most cases incurs humanitarian tragedies, ending in massive outflows of refugees and others. Africa leads
7194-461: The drought. Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants. Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by the dissidents remained nonviolent. From 22 March through 26 March 1991, mass pro-democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities, which became known as les évenements ("the events") or
7303-434: The dynasty." Group feeling ( asabiyyah , groupthink ) disappears as the dynasty grows senile. After three generations a new invading clique, "restless, alert and courageous", will cause the old dynasty to collapse in accordance with the principle in the Book of Exodus , chapter 20, verse four: God "visits the sins of the fathers onto their children, even unto the third and fourth generation of those that hate Him". Ibn Khaldun
7412-436: The early 2020s, Mali experienced two military takeovers by Assimi Goïta . The name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire . It means "the place where the king lives" and carries a connotation of strength. Fourteenth-century Maghrebi traveller Ibn Battuta reported that the capital of the empire was called Mali. One Mandinka tradition tells that the legendary first emperor Sundiata Keita changed himself into
7521-404: The end of a dynasty there often appears some show of power giving the impression that the dynasty's senility has been made to disappear. It lights up brilliantly just before it is extinguished, like a candle which leaps up brilliantly just before it is put out'. To do so they may have to take 'heroic' measures; 'Throughout history there have always been in the event of defeat two paths of action;
7630-421: The eyes of the people'. In the USSR the 1991 Soviet coup d'etat attempt was foiled, not by the Gorbachev regime but by Boris Yeltsin and other reformers: Gorbachev never recovered from this blow to his legitimacy Such states are especially vulnerable to collapse as the people may not accept or understand the principles of legitimacy or nationhood. In Mozambique , the FRELIMO government lost legitimacy when
7739-569: The first three months of 2022, 543 civilians were killed and 269 wounded, warning the 2015 peace agreement between the government and pro-independence groups was threatened by a potential risk of confrontation for the first time in five years. The report also noted a sharp increase in the number of people needing humanitarian assistance over the previous year. Sergey Lavrov , the Russian foreign minister, visited Bamako on 7 February 2023 and said that Moscow would continue to help Mali improve its military capabilities. In June 2023, Mali removed French,
7848-633: The formation of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP) and promised elections in the future. A curfew was begun and the streets of Bamako were quiet. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) condemned the coup and demanded that Keïta be reinstated as president. On 12 September 2020, the CNSP agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule. Shortly after, Bah N'daw
7957-424: The growing violence with my commanders and with village chiefs from all sides. Yes, sure, there are jihadists in this zone, but the real problem is banditry, animal theft, score settling – people are enriching themselves using the fight against terrorists as a cover. The conflict has seen the creation and growth of Dogon and Bambara militias. The government of Mali is suspected of supporting some of these groups under
8066-549: The guise of being proxies in the war against Islamists in the Northern Mali conflict . The government denies this. One such militia is the Dogon group Dan Na Ambassagou , created in 2016. In the 2018 Malian presidential election held on 29 July 2018, no candidate received more than 50% of the vote in the first round. A runoff was held on 12 August 2018 between the top two candidates, incumbent president Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta of
8175-418: The handover of power in September 2020. The tensions came to a head on 24 May 2021 after a cabinet reshuffle, where two leaders of the 2020 military coup – Sadio Camara and Modibo Kone – were replaced by N'daw's administration. Later that day, journalists reported that three key civilian leaders – President N'daw, Prime Minister Moctar Ouane and Defence Minister Souleymane Doucouré , were being detained in
8284-467: The help of multilateral organizations and bilateral donors. State reconstruction involves five basic elements; 1) a central political authority, 2) control of borders, 3) control of national territory, 4) sufficient control and supply of resources to maintain the state, 5) availability of state agents sufficient to execute policy. Anyone attempting this in Somalia would have to; disarm thousands of gunmen, stop
8393-459: The illusion of power." Discussing how the "powerless" Mahatma Gandhi brought about the collapse of militarily "powerful" British India , Galbraith reflects that power, mostly seen as a possession of states and their leaders, would be better viewed as a flow, into and away from "those instruments that enforce it". Martin Wight deplored the "demonic concentrations of power" of the defeated countries in
8502-487: The inability to make and enforce binding rules; maintain a monopoly on violence ; and collect taxes. Using this framework, Lambach et al. identified 17 collapsed states between 1960 and 2007. The majority of cases were in sub-Saharan Africa , involving armed rebellions in countries including Chad , Uganda , Liberia , Somalia, Angola , Zaire , Guinea-Bissau , and Sierra Leone , plus Congo-Kinshasa, which collapsed following decolonization from Belgium. The dissolution of
8611-479: The independent invention of pottery in the region. Farming took place by 5000 BC and iron was used by around 500 BC. In the first millennium BC, early cities and towns were created by Mande peoples related to the Soninke people , along the middle Niger River in central Mali, including Dia which began from around 900 BC, and reached its peak around 600 BC, and Djenne-Djenno , which lasted from around 300 BC to 900 AD. By
8720-438: The informal economy becomes dominant, operating beyond the control of the state and further undermining potential reconstruction. While the definitions of " failed state " and " fragile state " have been contested for being "too broad and too vague", foreign policy experts such as Charles T. Call have advocated focusing on extreme cases of "collapsed states" instead, defined as "countries whose state apparatus ceases to exist for
8829-470: The language of its former colonizer, as an official language with the approval of a new constitution by 97% of voters in a referendum conducted by the junta. On 7 September 2023, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked a vessel on the Niger River , killing at least 154 civilians. In July 2024, CSP-DPA rebels and JNIM militants killed dozens of Russian mercenaries and Malian government forces during
8938-562: The late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from the Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire. The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of the Moroccan invasion of 1591 under the command of Judar Pasha . The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads. Following
9047-471: The late 1980s. Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Moussa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time strict programs, imposed to satisfy demands of the International Monetary Fund, brought increased hardship upon the country's population, while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. The government continued to attempt economic reforms, and
9156-495: The newly created states of Tajikistan , Moldova , Azerbaijan and Georgia . The prospect, and chaos, of state collapse provides fearful elites with motive and opportunity to kill en masse (though the planning and implementation of genocide may be hampered by reduced resources). When defeat appeared inevitable, Hitler ordered the killing of invalids, Gypsies, Russians and Jews in the Final solution . In Ottoman Turkey, estimates for
9265-478: The oldest in the world and still active. The expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the empire in 1468, followed by a Saadian army which defeated the Songhai in 1591 . In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa , France seized control of Mali, making it a part of French Sudan ; as the Sudanese Republic, a brief federation with Senegal was formed, achieving independence in 1960. After Senegal's withdrawal,
9374-448: The one aims at saving enough of the substance as possible. the other at leaving behind a stirring legend'. According to Piekalkiewicz and Penn, they may rethink or adapt the ideology, or replace it by a completely new set of ideals. For example, in Poland, according to Piekalkiewicz and Penn, communist ideocracy failed in 1980; the recognition of Lech Walesa 's Solidarity Trade Union led to
9483-517: The populace became increasingly dissatisfied. In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization in the late 1980s, but refused to usher in a full-fledged democratic system. In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs who had migrated to Algeria and Libya during
9592-507: The previous century of disunity. The gradual weakening and collapse of the Byzantine empire starting in the 11th century led to territory being occupied by European and Ottoman powers, accelerating the total failure of the state. The collapse in authority and failure of other states such as the Golden Horde led to their territorial occupation by other states, in this case Russia. As in
9701-414: The previous government to suddenly and irreversibly collapse, such as economic collapse , civil war , defeat in a foreign war , revolution , or the death of a long-serving authoritarian ruler. Questions of democratic transition and state-building are often fundamental to the formation and policies of such governments. Provisional governments maintain power until a new government can be appointed by
9810-510: The pro-democracy movement. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré. Opposition parties were legalized, a transitional government was formed and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum. In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election, before being re-elected for
9919-563: The protests with tyranny, the state is likely to implode. This was the case in Chad when it collapsed in 1980, and in Ghana in 1981. Czar Nicholas II , crowned at an early age, 26, was untrained in governance. Grand Duke Vladimir's son Cyril was a rival candidate for the throne. Liberals and revolutionaries challenged his autocracy. By 1916 he had become apathetic, dominated by the Czarina and Rasputin ,
10028-672: The rebellion, and leading to sanctions and an embargo by the Economic Community of West African States . The MNLA quickly took control of the north, declaring its independence as Azawad . However, Islamist groups, including Ansar Dine and Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) , who had helped the MNLA defeat the government, turned on the Tuareg and took control of the north with the goal of implementing sharia in Mali. On 11 January 2013,
10137-532: The rest of society; 5) factionalism obstructs strengthening of state policies; 6) loss of cohesion within the ruling elite erodes the monopolisation of violence, rule-making, and tax collection; and 7) external interventions contribute to destabilisation. Islamic scholar Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406) produced a general theory of state collapse, transforming the study of history into a "new science". In his eyes, dynasties repeatedly become "sedentary, senile, coercive, pompous, subservient to desire ... liable to divisions in
10246-426: The sixth century AD, the lucrative trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt and slaves had begun, facilitating the rise of West Africa's great empires. There are a few references to Mali in early Islamic literature. Among these are references to "Pene" and "Malal" in the work of al-Bakri in 1068, the story of the conversion of an early ruler, known to Ibn Khaldun (by 1397) as Barmandana, and a few geographical details in
10355-489: The state became 'evil or tyrannical... destroying the institutions of civil society'; and in Somalia between 1970 and 1991, Siad Barre changed from 'prophetic rule, to autocracy, to tyranny'. In this context John Kenneth Galbraith regrets the "very slight" amount of research on the nature of political power. Power regularly passes to those who "assert the unknown with the greatest conviction... not necessarily related to intelligence." What we call "power" is, "in practice,
10464-403: The state fails to reward the people with civil rights, participation, accountability and oversight, legitimacy fades and collapse may occur In Afghanistan , the non-inclusive 2004 constitution, the international coalition's focus on power consolidation at the expense of democracy, and president Ashraf Ghani 's narrow circle of support, caused the regime to fall in 2021 as it 'lacked legitimacy in
10573-839: The towns of Boulikessi and Mondoro killed more than 25 Mali soldiers near the border with Burkina Faso . President Keïta declared that "no military coup will prevail in Mali", continuing by saying that he does not think it "is on the agenda at all and cannot worry us". On 1 November 2019, the IS-GS militants killed at least 50 soldiers in the 2019 Indelimane attack in the Ménaka Region of Mali. In February 2020, Human Rights Watch documented atrocities against civilians in Central Mali and said that at least 456 civilians were killed, while hundreds were injured from January 2019 until November. Popular unrest began on 5 June 2020 following irregularities in
10682-411: The two world wars. A devout Christian, he saw their "triumphant self-destruction" as "Antichrist moments". According to political scientists, in an ideocracy there must be a ruthless charismatic leader: "the leader is the movement", and all individuals are required to submit to, and worship him. "Followers who lead barren, insecure, frustrated lives obey the leader, not through faith in his vision of
10791-407: The upper Niger River , and reached the height of power in the 14th century. Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Djenné and Timbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning. The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire . The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire's rule. In
10900-580: The way we can') overstretched the USSR economy: while the economy of apartheid South Africa was weakened by sanctions, banking and other boycotts, divestment and shareholder activism. Loss of territorial control is a 'vital characteristic' of state collapse. If the components of society are neglected they may oppose the centre of power and fend for themselves. If civil war results, the state loses its Monopoly on violence , and force becomes privatised under warlords , paramilitary or guerrilla units. The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia collapsed in
11009-545: The word its modern meaning: A liberal government established to prepare for elections. Numerous provisional governments have been established since the 1850s. As of 2024, seven African countries currently have provisional governments: Libya , Sudan , Burkina Faso , Guinea , Mali , Niger and Gabon . As of 2024 in the Americas, only Haiti has a provisional government. As of 2024 in Asia, Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Myanmar ,
11118-401: The work of al-Idrisi . Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, other precious commodities, and slaves majorly during the reign of Mansa Musa from c. 1312 – c. 1337. These Sahelian kingdoms had neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities. The earliest of these empires was the Ghana Empire , which
11227-834: The world in refugee crises, especially in Somalia and Rwanda, and elsewhere, Bosnia and Haiti . Earlier examples include: the Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944-1950) from areas now part of Poland or Russia; the Revival Process when the People's Republic of Bulgaria collapsed; the White emigres who left Russia after the Czarist regime fell; and the South African diaspora after the collapse of apartheid. Collapsed states are now expected to be rebuilt, territorially intact and along democratic lines, with
11336-517: Was an unconscious attempt to resolve his Oedipus complex and the injustices of his childhood. He "dismantled the German state ... and replaced it with a war machine". He was swept along by a tide of events. Mussolini , according to Denis Mack Smith , "was an actor, playing the part that Italians wanted him to be". He was vindictive, sadistic, impulsive, proud and cruel, full of "demonic wilfulness" and did not know right from wrong. When in 1944 he led
11445-557: Was dominated by the Soninke , a Mande -speaking people. The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the eighth century until 1078, when it was conquered by the Almoravids . The Battle of Kirina in 1235, culminated in a victory for the Mandinka under the command of the exiled prince Sundiata Keita , which led to the downfall of the Sosso Empire . The Mali Empire later formed on
11554-494: Was elected the first president. He quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources. In 1960, the population of Mali was reported to be about 4.1 million. On 19 November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in
11663-519: Was fatalistic: "This senility is a chronic disease which cannot be cured because it is something natural". Professor Geoff Mulgan discusses Ibn Khaldun in detail and agrees on the timescale: "There are obvious parallels between the lifespans of individuals and those of ruling groups." In the case of the USSR, a Marxist revolutionary wave had formed in which several subordinate regimes in Eastern Europe and Africa collapsed almost simultaneously with
11772-403: Was named interim president by a group of 17 electors, with Goïta being appointed vice president. The government was inaugurated on 25 September 2020. On 18 January 2021, the transitional government announced that the CNSP had been disbanded, almost four months after had been promised under the initial agreement. Tensions between the civilian transitional government and the military ran high after
11881-607: Was only possible because the Taliban were sheltered in Pakistan . Idi Amin was forced out of Uganda by Ugandan exiles combined with the invasion by Tanzania . In a collapsing state the economy may shrink because a) the Black economy overshadows the formal, more controlled economy, and b) peripheral areas may prefer to use a neighbour state's currency, as in Chad, Ethiopia in the 1980's and Zaire in
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