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117-584: Mali , officially the Republic of Mali , is a landlocked country in West Africa . It is the eighth-largest country in Africa , with an area of over 1,240,192 square kilometres (478,841 sq mi). The country is bordered to the north by Algeria , to the east by Niger , to the northwest by Mauritania , to the south by Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast , and to the west by Guinea and Senegal . The population of Mali

234-472: A kafu (confederation) headed by a kafu-tigi . The Keita clan initially held the status of kafu-tigi before Sundiata 's expansion and the creation of the mansa (king/emperor). The Mandinka people have traditionally been a socially stratified society, as are many West African ethnic groups with castes . The Mandinka society, states Arnold Hughes, a professor of West African Studies and African Politics, has been "divided into three endogamous castes –

351-587: A marabout , who knows the protective formulas. In most cases, the people do not make important decisions without first consulting a marabout. Marabouts, who have Islamic training, write Qur'anic verses on slips of paper and sew them into leather pouches ( talisman ); these are worn as protective amulets. The conversion of the Mandinka to Islam took place over many centuries. According to Robert Wyndham Nicholls, Mandinka in Senegambia started converting to Islam as early as

468-652: A Tuareg rebellion began in northern Mali, led by the National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad (MNLA). In March, military officer Amadou Sanogo seized power in a coup d'état , citing Touré's failures in quelling the rebellion, and leading to sanctions and an embargo by the Economic Community of West African States . The MNLA quickly took control of the north, declaring its independence as Azawad . However, Islamist groups, including Ansar Dine and Al-Qaeda in

585-617: A border with a coastal country but any path to a coast would still lead across at least two borders. The Free City of Frankfurt which was independent between 1815 and 1866 was doubly landlocked as it bordered the Electorate of Hesse , the Grand Duchy of Hesse , Hesse-Homburg , and Nassau . In the German Confederation there were several other landlocked states that only bordered landlocked states and landlocked exclaves of coastal states:

702-526: A chief and group of elders. Mandinka has been an oral society , where mythologies, history and knowledge are verbally transmitted from one generation to the next. Their music and literary traditions are preserved by a caste of griots , known locally as jalolu (singular, jali ), as well as guilds and brotherhoods like the donso ( hunters ). Between the 16th and 19th centuries, many Muslim and non-Muslim Mandinka people, along with numerous other African ethnic groups, were captured, enslaved and shipped to

819-562: A contrasting account, and states that Traore himself had converted and married Muhammad 's granddaughter. The Traore's marriage with a Muhammad's granddaughter, states Toby Green, is fanciful, but these conflicting oral histories suggest that Islam had arrived well before the 13th century and had a complex interaction with the Mandinka people. Through a series of conflicts, primarily with the Fula -led jihads under Imamate of Futa Jallon , many Mandinka converted to Islam. In contemporary West Africa,

936-456: A council of upper-class elders and a chief who functions as a first among equals. In Mandinka society the lu (extended family) is the basic unit, and is led by a fa (family head) who manages relations with other fa . A dugu (village) is formed by a collection of lu , and the dugu is led by the fa of the most important lu , aided by the dugu-tigi ( village head or fa of the first lu that settled there). A group of dugu-tigi form

1053-531: A country's development. It cuts a nation off from important sea resources such as fishing , and impedes or prevents direct access to maritime trade , a crucial component of economic and social advance. As such, coastal regions, or inland regions that have access to the World Ocean, tended to be wealthier and more heavily populated than inland regions that have no access to the World Ocean. Paul Collier in his book The Bottom Billion argues that being landlocked in

1170-563: A cover. The conflict has seen the creation and growth of Dogon and Bambara militias. The government of Mali is suspected of supporting some of these groups under the guise of being proxies in the war against Islamists in the Northern Mali conflict . The government denies this. One such militia is the Dogon group Dan Na Ambassagou , created in 2016. In the 2018 Malian presidential election held on 29 July 2018, no candidate received more than 50% of

1287-483: A cow's tendons). It is played to accompany a griot's singing or simply on its own. A Mandinka religious and cultural site under consideration for World Heritage status is located in Guinea at Gberedou/Hamana . The kora has become the hallmark of traditional Mandinka musicians ". The kora with its 21 strings is made from half a calabash, covered with cow's hide fastened on by decorative tacks. The kora has sound holes in

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1404-406: A devastating drought from 1968 to 1974, in which famine killed thousands of people. The Traoré regime faced student unrest beginning in the late 1970s and three coup attempts. The Traoré regime repressed all dissenters until the late 1980s. Opposition to the corrupt and dictatorial regime of General Moussa Traoré grew during the 1980s. During this time strict programs, imposed to satisfy demands of

1521-535: A full-fledged democratic system. In 1990, cohesive opposition movements began to emerge, and was complicated by the turbulent rise of ethnic violence in the north following the return of many Tuaregs who had migrated to Algeria and Libya during the drought. Peaceful student protests in January 1991 were brutally suppressed, with mass arrests and torture of leaders and participants. Scattered acts of rioting and vandalism of public buildings followed, but most actions by

1638-522: A hippopotamus upon his death in the Sankarani River and that it was possible to find villages in the area of this river called "old Mali". A study of Malian proverbs noted that in old Mali, there is a village called Malikoma, which means "New Mali", and that Mali could have formerly been the name of a city. Another theory suggests that Mali is a Fulani pronunciation of the name of the Mande peoples . It

1755-616: A military base in Kati , outside Bamako. On 7 June 2021, Mali's military commander Assimi Goïta was sworn into office as the new interim president. In 2022 and 2023, the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara saw major gains in the Mali War , occupying large swathes of territory in southeastern Mali. Ansongo and Tidermène were also captured by the group. By mid-2023, the militant group had doubled

1872-566: A military coup in March 2012 and later fighting between Tuareg and other rebel factions. In response to territorial gains, the French military launched Operation Serval in January 2013. A month later, Malian and French forces recaptured most of the north, although the conflict continued. Presidential elections were held on 28 July 2013, with a second-round run-off held on 11 August, and legislative elections were held on 24 November and 15 December 2013. In

1989-479: A part of many fragmented kingdoms that formed after the collapse of Ghana empire in the 11th century. During the rule of Sundiata Keita , these kingdoms were consolidated, and the Mandinka expanded west from the Niger River basin under Sundiata's general Tiramakhan Traore . This expansion was a part of creating a region of conquest, according to the oral tradition of the Mandinka people. This migration began in

2106-443: A poor geographical neighbourhood is one of four major development "traps" by which a country can be held back. In general, he found that when a neighbouring country experiences better growth, it tends to spill over into favorable development for the country itself. For landlocked countries, the effect is particularly strong, as they are limited in their trading activity with the rest of the world. He states, "If you are coastal, you serve

2223-599: A professor of African American Religious History, Musa was highly influential in attracting North African and Middle Eastern Muslims to West Africa. The Mandinka people of Mali converted early, but those who migrated to the west did not convert and retained their traditional religious rites. One of the legends among the Mandingo of western Africa is that the general Tiramakhan Traore led the migration, because people in Mali had converted to Islam and he did not want to. Another legend gives

2340-512: A rich oral history that is passed down through sung versions by griots . This passing down of oral history through music has made the practice of music one of the most distinctive traits of the Mandinka. They have long been known for their drumming and also for their unique musical instrument, the kora . The kora is a twenty-one-stringed West African harp made from a halved, dried, hollowed-out gourd covered with cow or goat skin. The strings are made of fishing line (these were traditionally made from

2457-463: A third group expanded with Fakoli Kourouma. With the migration, many gold artisans and metal working Mandinka smiths settled along the coast and in the hilly Fouta Djallon and plateau areas of West Africa. Their presence and products attracted Mandika merchants and brought trading caravans from north Africa and the eastern Sahel , states Toby Green – a professor of African History and Culture. It also brought conflicts with other ethnic groups, such as

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2574-427: A transitional government was formed and a national congress of civil and political groups met to draft a new democratic constitution to be approved by a national referendum. In 1992, Alpha Oumar Konaré won Mali's first democratic, multi-party presidential election, before being re-elected for a second term in 1997, which was the last allowed under the constitution. Amadou Toumani Touré , a retired general who had been

2691-573: Is Bamako , the capital of Mali. The Mandinka are the descendants of the Mali Empire , which rose to power in the 13th century under the rule of king Sundiata Keita , who founded an empire that would go on to span a large part of West Africa. They migrated west from the Niger River in search of better agricultural lands and more opportunities for conquest. Nowadays, the Mandinka inhabit the West Sudanian savanna region extending from The Gambia and

2808-741: Is "doubly landlocked" or "double-landlocked" when it is surrounded entirely by landlocked countries (i.e. requiring the crossing of at least two national borders to reach a coastline). There are two such countries: After the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire , the Kingdom of Württemberg became a doubly landlocked state, bordering Bavaria , Baden , Switzerland , the Grand Duchy of Hesse ( Wimpfen exclave), Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen , and Hohenzollern-Hechingen . The latter two were themselves landlocked between each other, Württemberg, and Baden. In 1866 they became an exclave of Prussia , giving Württemberg

2925-515: Is 24,478,595, 47.19% of which are estimated to be under the age of 15 in 2024. Its capital and largest city is Bamako . The country has 13 official languages, of which Bambara is the most commonly spoken. The sovereign state 's northern borders reach deep into the middle of the Sahara Desert . The country's southern part, where the majority of inhabitants live, is in the Sudanian savanna and has

3042-514: Is evidenced in the memoirs of the 14th century Moroccan traveller and Islamic historian Ibn Battuta . Slaves were part of the socially stratified Mandinka people, and several Mandinka language words, such as Jong or Jongo refer to slaves. There were fourteen Mandinke kingdoms along the Gambia River in the Senegambia region during the early 19th century, for example, where slaves were a part of

3159-479: Is made in the village or compound for the return of the children. A celebration marks the return of these new adults to their families. As a result of these traditional teachings, in marriage a woman's loyalty remains to her parents and her family; a man's to his. The women among the Mandinka people, like other ethnic groups near them, have traditionally practiced female genital mutilation (FGM), traditionally referred to as "female circumcision." According to UNICEF ,

3276-492: Is minimal; the literacy rate in Latin script among these Mandinka is quite low. But, more than half the adult population can read the local Arabic script (including Mandinka Ajami ). Small Qur'anic schools for children where this is taught are quite common. Mandinka children are given their name on the eighth day after their birth. The children are almost always named after a very important person in their family. The Mandinka have

3393-469: Is remembered as Mali's March Revolution of 1991 . By 26 March, the growing refusal of soldiers to fire into the largely nonviolent protesting crowds turned into a full-scale tumult, and resulted in thousands of soldiers putting down their arms and joining the pro-democracy movement. That afternoon, Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré announced on the radio that he had arrested the dictatorial president, Moussa Traoré. Opposition parties were legalized,

3510-636: Is suggested that a sound shift led to the change, whereby in Fulani the alveolar segment /nd/ shifts to /l/ and the terminal vowel denasalizes and raises, leading "Manden" to shift to /mali/ . The rock art in the Sahara suggests that northern Mali has been inhabited since 10,000 BC, when the Sahara was fertile and rich in wildlife. Early ceramics have been discovered at the central Malian site of Ounjougou dating to about 9,400 BC, and are believed to represent an instance of

3627-420: Is the day that marks the clash between military soldiers and peaceful demonstrating students which climaxed in the massacre of dozens under the orders of Traoré. He and three associates were later tried and convicted and received the death sentence for their part in the decision-making of that day. Nowadays, the day is a national holiday in order to remember the tragic events and the people who were killed. The coup

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3744-409: Is the predominant profession among the Mandinka, men also work as tailors, butchers, taxi drivers, woodworkers, metalworkers, soldiers, nurses, and extension workers for aid agencies. Today, most Mandinka people practice Islam . Some Mandinka syncretise Islam and traditional African religions . Among these syncretists, it is believed that spirits can be controlled mainly through the power of

3861-613: Is usually not considered a continent but a geographical region by the English-speaking countries ) also has no landlocked countries. All landlocked countries, except Bolivia and Paraguay , are located on the continental mainland of Afro-Eurasia . Mandinka people Western Maninka , Eastern Maninka , Kita Maninka language , Mandinka The Mandinka or Malinke are a West African ethnic group primarily found in southern Mali , The Gambia , southern Senegal and eastern Guinea . Numbering about 11 million, they are

3978-512: The 2019 Indelimane attack in the Ménaka Region of Mali. In February 2020, Human Rights Watch documented atrocities against civilians in Central Mali and said that at least 456 civilians were killed, while hundreds were injured from January 2019 until November. Popular unrest began on 5 June 2020 following irregularities in the March and April parliamentary elections, including outrage against

4095-828: The Americas . They intermixed with slaves and workers of other ethnicities, creating a Creole culture. The Mandinka people significantly influenced the African heritage of descended peoples now found in Brazil , the Southern United States and, to a lesser extent, the Caribbean . The history of Mandinka, as with many Mandé peoples, begins with the Ghana Empire , also known as Wagadu. Mande hunters founded communities in Manden , which would become

4212-749: The Baltic Sea , Black Sea , and Pacific Ocean . On the other hand, some landlocked countries can have access to the ocean along wide navigable rivers. For instance, Paraguay (and Bolivia to a lesser extent) have access to the ocean through the Paraguay and Paraná rivers. Several countries have coastlines on landlocked bodies of water, such as the Caspian Sea and the Dead Sea . Since these seas are in effect lakes without access to wider seaborne trade, countries such as Kazakhstan are still considered landlocked. Although

4329-620: The Battle of Tinzaouaten . On 5 August 2024 the Republic of Mali announced that it was severing diplomatic relations with Ukraine . On 17 September 2024, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked several locations across Bamako , killing at least 77 people and injuring 255 others. Mali is a landlocked country in West Africa, located southwest of Algeria . It lies between latitudes 10° and 25°N , and longitudes 13°W and 5°E . Mali borders Algeria to

4446-526: The Casamance region in Senegal , Mali , Guinea and Guinea Bissau . Although widespread, the Mandinka constitute the largest ethnic group only in the countries of Mali, Guinea and The Gambia. Most Mandinka live in family-related compounds in traditional rural villages. Their traditional society has featured socially stratified castes. Mandinka communities have been fairly autonomous and self-ruled, being led by

4563-676: The Dogon and the Bambara , and the pastoral Fula (or Fulani) people . Historically, the two sides have fought over access to land and water, factors which have been exacerbated by climate change as the Fula move into new areas. The Dogon and the Bambara communities have formed "self-defense groups" to fight the Fula. They accuse the Fula of working with armed Islamists linked to al-Qaeda . While some Fula have joined Islamist groups, Human Rights Watch reports that

4680-535: The Grand Duchy of Hesse , Hesse-Homburg , Nassau (all until 1866), Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld , Saxe-Hildburghausen (both until 1826), and Reuss, elder line (until 1871). All of these bordered Prussia but not the main territory with sea access. There were no doubly landlocked countries from the unification of Germany in 1871 until the end of World War I . Liechtenstein bordered the Austro-Hungarian Empire , which had an Adriatic coastline, and Uzbekistan

4797-545: The Mali Empire (for which Mali is named), and the Songhai Empire . At its peak in 1300, the Mali Empire was the wealthiest country in Africa with its 14th-century emperor Mansa Musa believed to be one of the wealthiest individuals in history. Besides being a hub of trade and mining, medieval Mali was a centre of Islam , culture and knowledge, with Timbuktu becoming a renowned place of learning with its university , one of

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4914-497: The Niger and Senegal rivers running through it. The country's economy centres on agriculture and mining with its most prominent natural resources including gold (of which it is the third largest producer in Africa) and salt . Mali was part of three successive powerful and wealthy West African empires that controlled trans-Saharan trade : the Ghana Empire (for which Ghana is named),

5031-516: The Russian Empire and then the Soviet Union , gained its independence with the dissolution of the latter in 1991 and became the second doubly landlocked country. However, Uzbekistan's doubly landlocked status depends on whether the Caspian Sea is considered a lake or a sea. In the latter case, Uzbekistan is not doubly landlocked, since its neighbors Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan have access to

5148-624: The Soninke , a Mande -speaking people. The empire expanded throughout West Africa from the eighth century until 1078, when it was conquered by the Almoravids . The Battle of Kirina in 1235, culminated in a victory for the Mandinka under the command of the exiled prince Sundiata Keita , which led to the downfall of the Sosso Empire . The Mali Empire later formed on the upper Niger River , and reached

5265-734: The Sound Dues , a toll needed to be paid to reach Western European waters. Sweden bypassed it by conquering Scania in 1658. Landlocked countries may be bordered by a single country having direct access to the high seas , two or more such countries, or be surrounded by other landlocked countries, making a country doubly landlocked. Three countries are landlocked by a single country ( enclaved countries): Seven landlocked countries are surrounded by only two mutually bordering neighbours (semi-enclaved countries): To this group could be added three landlocked territories, two of them de facto states with limited or no international recognition : A country

5382-618: The Wagner Group executed around 300 civilian men in central Mali in March 2022. France had started withdrawing French troops from Mali in February 2022, commencing the end of Operation Barkhane . On 2 May, the military government announced breaking its defence accords concluded in 2013 with France, constituting an additional step in the deterioration of Malian–French relations. This latest announcement has been criticized by French authorities and considered as "illegitimate". A UN panel reported that in

5499-505: The Wolof people , particularly the Jolof Empire . The caravan trade to North Africa and Middle East brought Islamic people into Mandinka people's original and expanded home region. The Muslim traders sought presence in the host Mandinka community, and this likely initiated proselytizing efforts to convert the Mandinka from their traditional religious beliefs into Islam. In Ghana , for example,

5616-589: The 13th century. The Mandinka castes are hereditary, and marriages outside the caste was forbidden. Their caste system is similar to those of other ethnic groups of the African Sahel region. These castes are also common across Mandinka communities such as those in The Gambia , Mali , Guinea , and other countries. The Mandinka practice a rite of passage, kuyangwoo , which marks the beginning of adulthood for their children. At an age between four and fourteen,

5733-474: The 16th and 19th centuries. The Portuguese considered slave sources in Guinea and Senegambia parts of Mandinka territory as belonging to them; their 16th to 18th-century slave trade-related documents refer to "our Guinea" and complain about slave traders from other European nations superseding them in the slave trade. Their slave exports from this region nearly doubled in the second half of the 18th century compared to

5850-558: The 17th century, and most of Mandinka leatherworkers there converted to Islam before the 19th century. Mandinka musicians, however, were last, converting to Islam mostly in the first half of the 20th century. As in other locales, these Muslims have continued some of their pre-Islamic religious practices as well, such as their annual rain ceremony and "sacrifice of the black bull" to their past deities. Most Mandinka live in family-related compounds in traditional rural villages. Mandinka villages are fairly autonomous and self-ruled, being led by

5967-735: The 45 landlocked countries, including those in Africa , Asia , and South America , have been classified as Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs) by the United Nations . Nine of the twelve countries with the lowest Human Development Index rankings are landlocked. International initiatives are aimed at reducing inequalities resulting from issues such as these, such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 , which aims to reduce inequality substantially by 2030. In 1990, there were only 30 landlocked countries in

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6084-662: The Almoravids had divided its capital into two parts by 1077, one part was Muslim and the other non-Muslim. The Muslim influence from North Africa had arrived in the Mandinka region before this, via Islamic trading diasporas. In 1324, Mansa Musa who ruled Mali , went on Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca with a caravan carrying gold. Shihab al-Umari , the Arabic historian, described his visit and stated that Musa built mosques in his kingdom, established Islamic prayers and took back Maliki school of Sunni jurists with him. According to Richard Turner –

6201-463: The Caribbean until the period between the mid-18th through to the 19th century. During these years, slave trade records show that nearly 33% of the slaves from Senegambia and Guinea-Bissau coasts were Mandinka people. Hawthorne suggests three causes of Mandinka people being taken captive as slaves during this era: small-scale jihads by Muslims against non-Muslim Mandinka, non-religious reasons such as

6318-572: The Caspian Sea is connected to the Black Sea via the man-made Volga–Don Canal , large oceangoing ships are unable to traverse it. Some countries or important parts of countries have coastlines or river ports reachable by oceangoing ships, but only through a strait or river part of the territory of another country. The other country can put restriction on passage. Between 1429 and 1857 Poland , Sweden , Russia and more Baltic countries were suffering from

6435-597: The Caspian Sea. Notes: The landlocked countries and de facto states can be grouped in contiguous groups as follows: Notes: There are the following 12 "single" landlocked countries (each of them borders no other landlocked country or de facto state): According to the United Nations geoscheme (excluding the de facto states ), Africa has the most landlocked countries, at 16, followed by Europe (14), Asia (12), and South America (2). However, if Armenia , Azerbaijan , Kazakhstan , and South Ossetia (de facto state) are counted as parts of Europe, then Europe has

6552-551: The International Monetary Fund, brought increased hardship upon the country's population, while elites close to the government supposedly lived in growing wealth. The government continued to attempt economic reforms, and the populace became increasingly dissatisfied. In response to growing demands for multi-party democracy, the Traoré regime allowed some limited political liberalization in the late 1980s, but refused to usher in

6669-620: The Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) , who had helped the MNLA defeat the government, turned on the Tuareg and took control of the north with the goal of implementing sharia in Mali. On 11 January 2013, the French Armed Forces intervened at the request of the interim government of president Dioncounda Traoré . On 30 January, the coordinated advance of the French and Malian troops claimed to have retaken

6786-612: The Mali Empire and expanded, ultimately subsuming the entire eastern portion of the Mali Empire. The Songhai Empire's eventual collapse was largely the result of the Moroccan invasion of 1591 under the command of Judar Pasha . The fall of the Songhai Empire marked the end of the region's role as a trading crossroads. Following the establishment of sea routes by the European powers , the trans-Saharan trade routes lost significance. At that time,

6903-622: The Mali Empire's abundance in wealth expanded its commercial assets of salt and gold . One of the worst famines in the region's recorded history occurred in the 18th century. According to John Iliffe , "The worst crises were in the 1680s, when famine extended from the Senegambian coast to the Upper Nile and 'many sold themselves for slaves, only to get a sustenance', and especially in 1738–1756, when West Africa's greatest recorded subsistence crisis, due to drought and locusts, reportedly killed half

7020-409: The Mandinka are predominantly Muslim, with a few regions where significant portions of the population are not Muslim, such as Guinea Bissau, where 35 percent of the Mandinka practice Islam, more than 20 percent are Christian, and 15 percent follow traditional beliefs. Slave raiding, capture and trading in the Mandinka regions may have existed in significant numbers before the European colonial era, as

7137-422: The Mandinka since pre-Islamic days. A Mandinka man is legally allowed to have up to four wives, as long as he is able to care for each of them equally. Mandinka believe the crowning glory of any woman is the ability to produce children, especially sons. The first wife has authority over any subsequent wives. The husband has complete control over his wives and is responsible for feeding and clothing them. He also helps

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7254-459: The Portuguese, primarily from the Jolof people, along with some Mandinka, started in the 15th century, states Green, but the earliest evidence of a trade involving Mandinka slaves is from and after 1497 CE. In parallel with the start of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, the institution of slavery and slave-trading of West Africans into the Mediterranean region and inside Africa continued as a historic normal practice. Slavery grew significantly between

7371-413: The Republic of Mali was established. After a long period of one-party rule, a coup in 1991 led to a new constitution and the establishment of Mali as a democratic, multi-party state. In January 2012, an armed conflict broke out in northern Mali , in which Tuareg rebels took control of a territory in the north, and in April declared the secession of a new state, Azawad . The conflict was complicated by

7488-450: The amount of territory it controlled since the overthrow of the previous government and establishment of the junta. On 10 January 2022, Mali announced the closure of its borders and recalled several ambassadors to ECOWAS countries in response to sanctions placed on Mali for deferring elections for four years. On 4 February, France's ambassador was expelled. According to Human Rights Watch , Malian troops and suspected Russian mercenaries from

7605-509: The centers of this slavery-perpetuating violence. Farim of Kaabu (the commander of Mandinka people in Kaabu) energetically hunted for slaves on a large scale. Martin Klein (a professor of African Studies) states that Kaabu was one of the early suppliers of African slaves to European merchants. The historian Walter Rodney states that Mandinka and other ethnic groups already held slaves who had inherited slavery by birth, and who could be sold. The Islamic armies from Sudan had long established

7722-442: The conflict in Mali. The United Nations reported that the number of children killed in the conflict in the first six months of 2019 was twice as many for the entire year of 2018. Many of the children have been killed in intercommunal attacks attributed to ethnic militias, with the majority of attacks occurring around Mopti . It is reported that around 900 schools have closed down and that armed militias are recruiting children. During

7839-469: The context of the conflict which opposes the group to other community armed groups in central Mali". However, the group has been blamed for the 24 March 2019 massacre of 160 Fula villagers . The group denied the attack, but afterwards Malian president Keita ordered the group to disband. The UN Special Adviser on the Prevention of Genocide, Adama Dieng , warned of a growing ethnicization of the conflict. By 2020, more than 600,000 people had been displaced by

7956-403: The current responsible Undersecretary-General is Anwarul Karim Chowdhury . Some countries have a long coastline, but much of it may not be readily usable for trade and commerce. For instance, in its early history, Russia 's only ports were on the Arctic Ocean and frozen shut for much of the year. The wish to gain control of a warm-water port was a major motivator of Russian expansion towards

8073-418: The dissidents remained nonviolent. From 22 March through 26 March 1991, mass pro-democracy rallies and a nationwide strike was held in both urban and rural communities, which became known as les évenements ("the events") or the March Revolution. In Bamako, in response to mass demonstrations organized by university students and later joined by trade unionists and others, soldiers opened fire indiscriminately on

8190-432: The early 2020s, Mali experienced two military takeovers by Assimi Goïta . The name Mali is taken from the name of the Mali Empire . It means "the place where the king lives" and carries a connotation of strength. Fourteenth-century Maghrebi traveller Ibn Battuta reported that the capital of the empire was called Mali. One Mandinka tradition tells that the legendary first emperor Sundiata Keita changed himself into

8307-509: The economic greed of Islamic elites who wanted imports of goods and tools from the coast, and attacks by the Fula people on the Mandinka's Kaabu , with consequent cycle of violence. In the 21st century, the Mandinka continue as rural subsistence farmers who rely on peanuts , rice , millet , maize , and small-scale husbandry for their livelihood. During the wet season , men plant peanuts as their main cash crop. Men also grow millet. The women grow rice (traditionally, African rice ), tending

8424-594: The federation in August 1960, which allowed the Sudanese Republic to become the independent Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, and that date is now the country's Independence Day . Modibo Keïta was elected the first president. He quickly established a one-party state, adopted an independent African and socialist orientation with close ties to the East, and implemented extensive nationalization of economic resources. In 1960,

8541-399: The female genital mutilation practices. Marriages are traditionally arranged by family members rather than by either the bride or groom. This practice is particularly prevalent in the rural areas. The suitor's family formally sends Kola nuts, a bitter nut from a tree, to the male elders of the bride-to-be. If they accept the nuts, the courtship may begin. Polygamy has been practiced among

8658-533: The female genital mutilation prevalence rates among the Mandinka of The Gambia is the highest at over 96%, followed by FGM among the women of the Jola people at 91%, and Fula people at 88%. Among the Mandinka women of some other countries of West Africa, the FGM prevalence rates are lower, but still range between 40% and 90%. This cultural practice, locally called Niaka or Kuyungo or Musolula Karoola or Bondo , involves

8775-617: The first three months of 2022, 543 civilians were killed and 269 wounded, warning the 2015 peace agreement between the government and pro-independence groups was threatened by a potential risk of confrontation for the first time in five years. The report also noted a sharp increase in the number of people needing humanitarian assistance over the previous year. Sergey Lavrov , the Russian foreign minister, visited Bamako on 7 February 2023 and said that Moscow would continue to help Mali improve its military capabilities. In June 2023, Mali removed French,

8892-449: The first week of October 2019, two jihadist attacks in the towns of Boulikessi and Mondoro killed more than 25 Mali soldiers near the border with Burkina Faso . President Keïta declared that "no military coup will prevail in Mali", continuing by saying that he does not think it "is on the agenda at all and cannot worry us". On 1 November 2019, the IS-GS militants killed at least 50 soldiers in

9009-463: The first, and most of these slaves disembarked in Brazil. Scholars have offered several theories on the source of the transatlantic slave trade of Mandinka people. According to Boubacar Barry, a professor of History and African Studies, chronic violence between ethnic groups such as the Mandinka people and their neighbours, combined with weapons sold by slave traders and lucrative income from slave ships to

9126-631: The formation of the National Committee for the Salvation of the People (CNSP) and promised elections in the future. A curfew was begun and the streets of Bamako were quiet. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) condemned the coup and demanded that Keïta be reinstated as president. On 12 September 2020, the CNSP agreed to an 18-month political transition to civilian rule. Shortly after, Bah N'daw

9243-465: The former landlocked country of Czechoslovakia ceased to exist on 1 January 1993. On 30 September 2022, the Luhansk People's Republic (de facto state) was annexed by Russia and ceased to exist as a landlocked de facto state. On 19 September 2023, Azerbaijan launched a new offensive against the Republic of Artsakh (de facto state) and achieved a decisive victory. The Government of Artsakh

9360-441: The freeborn ( foro ), slaves ( jongo ), and artisans and praise singers ( nyamolo ). The freeborn castes are primarily farmers. The enslaved strata included labor providers to the farmers, as well as leather workers, pottery makers, metal smiths, griots , and others. The Mandinka Muslim clerics and scribes have traditionally been considered a separate occupational caste called Jakhanke , with their Islamic roots traceable to about

9477-469: The handover of power in September 2020. The tensions came to a head on 24 May 2021 after a cabinet reshuffle, where two leaders of the 2020 military coup – Sadio Camara and Modibo Kone – were replaced by N'daw's administration. Later that day, journalists reported that three key civilian leaders – President N'daw, Prime Minister Moctar Ouane and Defence Minister Souleymane Doucouré , were being detained in

9594-486: The height of power in the 14th century. Under the Mali Empire, the ancient cities of Djenné and Timbuktu were centers of both trade and Islamic learning. The empire later declined as a result of internal intrigue, ultimately being supplanted by the Songhai Empire . The Songhai had long been a major power in West Africa subject to the Mali Empire's rule. In the late 14th century, the Songhai gradually gained independence from

9711-428: The independent invention of pottery in the region. Farming took place by 5000 BC and iron was used by around 500 BC. In the first millennium BC, early cities and towns were created by Mande peoples related to the Soninke people , along the middle Niger River in central Mali, including Dia which began from around 900 BC, and reached its peak around 600 BC, and Djenne-Djenno , which lasted from around 300 BC to 900 AD. By

9828-550: The kidnapping of opposition leader Soumaïla Cissé . Between 11 and 23 deaths followed protests that took place from 10 to 13 June. In July, President Keïta dissolved the constitutional court. Members of the military led by Colonel Assimi Goïta and Colonel-Major Ismaël Wagué in Kati , Koulikoro Region , began a mutiny on 18 August 2020. President Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta and Prime Minister Boubou Cissé were arrested, and shortly after midnight Keïta announced his resignation, saying he did not want to see any bloodshed. Wagué announced

9945-415: The language of its former colonizer, as an official language with the approval of a new constitution by 97% of voters in a referendum conducted by the junta. On 7 September 2023, al-Qaeda linked JNIM militants attacked a vessel on the Niger River , killing at least 154 civilians. In July 2024, CSP-DPA rebels and JNIM militants killed dozens of Russian mercenaries and Malian government forces during

10062-568: The largest subgroup of the Mandé peoples and one of the largest ethnolinguistic groups in Africa . They speak the Manding languages in the Mande language family, which are a lingua franca in much of West Africa. Virtually all of Mandinka people are adherent to Islam , mostly based on the Maliki jurisprudence. They are predominantly subsistence farmers and live in rural villages. Their largest urban center

10179-484: The last remaining Islamist stronghold of Kidal, which was also the last of three northern provincial capitals. On 2 February, French president François Hollande joined Dioncounda Traoré in a public appearance in recently recaptured Timbuktu. In August 2013, Ibrahim Boubacar Keita was elected as the new president of Mali in the second round of the election . In the central Mali province of Mopti , conflict has escalated since 2015 between agricultural communities like

10296-582: The later part of the 13th century. The beginnings of Mandinka We originated from Tumbuktu in the land of the Mandinka: the Arabs were our neighbours there... All the Mandinka came from Mali to Kaabu . — Mandinka de Bijini , Transl: Toby Green The oral traditions in Guinea-Bissau Another group of Mandinka people, under Faran Kamara – the son of the king of Tabou – expanded southeast of Mali, while

10413-531: The leader of the military aspect of the 1991 democratic uprising, was elected in 2002. During this democratic period Mali was regarded as one of the most politically and socially stable countries in Africa. Slavery persists in Mali today with as many as 200,000 people held in direct servitude to a master. In the Tuareg Rebellion of 2012 , ex-slaves were a vulnerable population with reports of some slaves being recaptured by their former masters. In January 2012

10530-414: The links have been "exaggerated and instrumentalized by different actors for opportunistic ends". Added a top Mali military commander: I’ve discussed the growing violence with my commanders and with village chiefs from all sides. Yes, sure, there are jihadists in this zone, but the real problem is banditry, animal theft, score settling – people are enriching themselves using the fight against terrorists as

10647-697: The most landlocked countries, at 20 (including all three landlocked de facto states). If these transcontinental or culturally European countries are included in Asia, then both Africa and Europe (including Kosovo and Transnistria ) have the most, at 16. Depending on the status of Kazakhstan and the South Caucasian countries, Asia has between 9 and 13 (including South Ossetia ). South America only has two landlocked countries: Bolivia and Paraguay . Australia and North America have no landlocked countries, while Antarctica has no countries at all. Oceania (which

10764-443: The nonviolent demonstrators. Riots broke out briefly following the shootings. Barricades as well as roadblocks were erected and Traoré declared a state of emergency and imposed a nightly curfew. Despite an estimated loss of 300 lives over the course of four days, nonviolent protesters continued to return to Bamako each day demanding the resignation of the dictatorial president and the implementation of democratic policies. 26 March 1991

10881-1115: The north-northeast , Niger to the east , Burkina Faso to the south-east , Ivory Coast to the south , Guinea to the south-west , and Senegal to the west and Mauritania to the north-west . Landlocked country Generally, being landlocked creates political and economic disadvantages that having access to international waters would avoid. For this reason, nations large and small throughout history have fought to gain access to open waters, even at great expense in wealth, bloodshed, and political capital . The economic disadvantages of being landlocked can be alleviated or aggravated depending on degree of development, surrounding trade routes and freedom of trade , commonality of language, and other considerations. Some landlocked countries in Europe are affluent, such as Andorra , Austria , Liechtenstein , Luxembourg , San Marino , Switzerland , and Vatican City , all of which, excluding Luxembourg (a founding member of NATO ), frequently employ neutrality in global political issues. However, 32 out of

10998-477: The oldest in the world and still active. The expanding Songhai Empire absorbed the empire in 1468, followed by a Saadian army which defeated the Songhai in 1591 . In the late 19th century, during the Scramble for Africa , France seized control of Mali, making it a part of French Sudan ; as the Sudanese Republic, a brief federation with Senegal was formed, achieving independence in 1960. After Senegal's withdrawal,

11115-532: The partial or total removal of the clitoris, or alternatively, the partial or total removal of the labia minora with the clitoris. Some surveys, such as those by the Gambia Committee on Traditional Practices (GAMCOTRAP), estimate FGM is prevalent among 100% of the Mandinka in Gambia . In 2010, after community efforts of UNICEF and the local government bodies, several Mandinka women's organization pledged to abandon

11232-490: The plants by hand. This is extremely labour-intensive and physically demanding work. Only about 50% of the rice consumption needs are met by local planting; the rest is imported from Asia and the United States. The oldest male is the head of the family, and marriages are commonly arranged. Small mud houses with conical thatch or tin roofs make up their villages, which are organised on the basis of clan groups. While farming

11349-572: The political and cultural center of the Mandinka, but also in Bambuk and the Senegal river valley. The Mande diaspora from Ghana extended from the Atlantic Ocean to Gao . The mythical ancestors of the Malinké and the Bambara people are Kontron and Sanin, the founding "hunter brotherhood". Manden was famous for the large number of animals and game that it sheltered, as well as its dense vegetation, so

11466-412: The population of Timbuktu ." Mali fell under the control of France during the Scramble for Africa in the late 19th century. By 1905, most of the area was under firm French control as a part of French Sudan . In November 1915, a large anti-French uprising broke out among the tribes in the regions of present-day Mali and Burkina Faso. The last resistance was suppressed only in September 1916. During

11583-462: The population of Mali was reported to be about 4.1 million. On 19 November 1968, following progressive economic decline, the Keïta regime was overthrown in a bloodless military coup led by Moussa Traoré , a day which is now commemorated as Liberation Day . The subsequent military-led regime, with Traoré as president, attempted to reform the economy. His efforts were frustrated by political turmoil and

11700-464: The practice of slave raids and trade. Fula jihad from Futa Jallon plateau perpetuated and expanded this practice. These jihads captured the highest number of slaves to sell to Portuguese traders at the ports controlled by Mandinka people. The insecure ethnic groups, states Rodney, stopped working productively and tried to withdraw for security, which made their social and economic conditions more desperate. Though less powerful, such groups also joined

11817-473: The ratio is 3:1). Historically, traveling between a landlocked country and a country which did not border said country required the traveler to pass border controls twice or more. In recent times the advent of air travel has largely negated this impediment. Countries have acted to overcome being landlocked by acquiring land that reaches the sea: Countries can make agreements on getting free transport of goods through neighbouring countries: Losing access to

11934-510: The retaliatory cycle of slave raids and violence. Walter Hawthorne (a professor of African History) states that the Barry and Rodney explanation was not universally true for all of Senegambia and Guinea, where high concentrations of Mandinka people have traditionally lived. Hawthorne says that numerous Mandinka were not exported to the various European colonies in North America, South America and

12051-514: The sea is generally a great loss to a nation, politically, militarily, and economically. The following are examples of countries becoming landlocked. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea now gives a landlocked country a right of access to and from the sea without taxation of traffic through transit states. The United Nations has a programme of action to assist landlocked developing countries, and

12168-424: The sixth century AD, the lucrative trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt and slaves had begun, facilitating the rise of West Africa's great empires. There are a few references to Mali in early Islamic literature. Among these are references to "Pene" and "Malal" in the work of al-Bakri in 1068, the story of the conversion of an early ruler, known to Ibn Khaldun (by 1397) as Barmandana, and a few geographical details in

12285-431: The slave sellers, fed the practice of groups raiding for captives, conducting manhunts, and taking slaves. The victimised ethnic group felt justified in retaliating. Slavery was already an accepted practice before the 15th century, when most enslaved people were taken on routes to North Africa and western Asia by Arab traders. As the demand grew, states Barry, Futa Jallon, led by an Islamic military theocracy, became one of

12402-511: The social strata in all these kingdoms. According to Toby Green, selling slaves along with gold was already a significant part of the trans-Saharan caravan trade across the Sahel between West Africa and the Middle East after the 13th century. With the arrival of Portuguese explorers in Africa as they looked for a sea route to India, the European purchase of slaves had begun. The shipment of slaves by

12519-583: The suppression of the uprising, over 100 villages were destroyed by French colonial troops. On 24 November 1958, French Sudan (which changed its name to the Sudanese Republic) became an autonomous republic within the French Community . In January 1959, Mali and Senegal united to become the Mali Federation . The Mali Federation gained independence from France on 20 June 1960. Senegal withdrew from

12636-543: The vote in the first round. A runoff was held on 12 August 2018 between the top two candidates, incumbent president Ibrahim Boubacar Keïta of the Rally for Mali and Soumaïla Cissé of the Union for the Republic and Democracy , and Keïta was re-elected with 67% of the vote. In September 2018, the Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue negotiated a unilateral ceasefire with Dan Na Ambassagou "in

12753-412: The wives' parents when necessary. Wives are expected to live together in harmony , at least superficially. They share work responsibilities of the compound, such as cooking, laundry, and other tasks. Mandinka culture is rich in tradition, music, and spiritual ritual. The Mandinka continue a long oral history tradition through stories, songs, and proverbs. In rural areas, the influence of western education

12870-415: The work of al-Idrisi . Mali was once part of three famed West African empires which controlled trans-Saharan trade in gold, salt, other precious commodities, and slaves majorly during the reign of Mansa Musa from c. 1312 – c. 1337. These Sahelian kingdoms had neither rigid geopolitical boundaries nor rigid ethnic identities. The earliest of these empires was the Ghana Empire , which was dominated by

12987-429: The world. However, the dissolutions of the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia ; the breakup of Yugoslavia ; the independence referendums of South Ossetia (de facto state), Eritrea , Montenegro , South Sudan , and the Luhansk People's Republic (de facto state); and the unilateral declaration of independence of Kosovo (de facto state) created 15 new landlocked countries and five landlocked de facto states while

13104-431: The world; if you are landlocked, you serve your neighbors." Others have argued that being landlocked has an advantage as it creates a "natural tariff barrier" that protects the country from cheap imports. In some instances, this has led to more robust local food systems. Landlocked developing countries have significantly higher costs of international cargo transportation compared to coastal developing countries (in Asia

13221-430: The youngsters have their genitalia ritually mutilated (see articles on male and female genital mutilation ), in separate groups according to their sex. In years past, the children spent up to a year in the bush, but that has been reduced now to coincide with their physical healing time, between three and four weeks. During this time, they learn about their adult social responsibilities and rules of behaviour. Preparation

13338-508: Was a very popular hunting ground. The Camara (or Kamara) are believed to be the oldest family to have lived in Manden, after having left Wagadou, due to drought. They founded the first village of Manding, Kiri, then Kirina, Siby , Kita . A very large number of families that make up the Mandinka community were born in Manden. Manding is the province from which the Mali Empire started, under the leadership of Sundiata Keita . The Manden were initially

13455-402: Was named interim president by a group of 17 electors, with Goïta being appointed vice president. The government was inaugurated on 25 September 2020. On 18 January 2021, the transitional government announced that the CNSP had been disbanded, almost four months after had been promised under the initial agreement. Tensions between the civilian transitional government and the military ran high after

13572-457: Was officially dissolved on 1 January 2024. As a result, Artsakh ceased to exist as a landlocked de facto state and the Nagorno-Karabakh region was reintegrated into Azerbaijan. As of 1 April 2024, there were 44 landlocked countries and three landlocked de facto states ( Kosovo , South Ossetia , and Transnistria ) in the world. Historically, being landlocked has been disadvantageous to

13689-635: Was then part of the Russian Empire , which had both ocean and sea access. With the dissolution of Austria-Hungary in 1918 and creation of an independent, landlocked Austria , Liechtenstein became the sole doubly landlocked country until 1938. In the Anschluss that year, Austria was absorbed into Nazi Germany , which possessed a border on the Baltic Sea and the North Sea . After World War II, Austria regained its independence and Liechtenstein once again became doubly landlocked. Uzbekistan, which had been part of

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