201-473: Uruli is a traditional cookware extensively used South Indian states of Kerala , Tamil Nadu , and more broadly in South India . It is also pronounced as Uruli and commonly made of clay, copper, brass or bronze. Urulis were used in home for cooking and in ayurvedha to make traditional medicine. A more modern use of urulis is as a decorative bowl to float flowers which is a part of South Indian tradition. It has
402-495: A Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma (9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time, based at the port of Kollam . A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of Baghdad (896–956 CE), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 CE), Abulfeda (1273–1331 CE), and Al-Dimashqi (1256–1327 CE) mention
603-630: A unicameral legislature. The Kerala Legislative Assembly also known as Niyamasabha, consists of 140 members who are elected for five-year terms. The state elects 20 members to the Lok Sabha , the lower house of the Indian Parliament, and 9 members to the Rajya Sabha , the upper house. The Government of Kerala is a democratically elected body in India with the governor as its constitutional head and
804-534: A continuation of the Mysore Plateau , are known for natural Gold fields, along with the adjoining districts of Karnataka . Minerals including Ilmenite , Monazite , Thorium , and Titanium , are found in the coastal belt of Kerala. Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium -containing monazite sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy/yr and, in certain locations on
1005-532: A contract with the Government. By the early 20th century, the greater part of the land was held by ryots who paid rent directly to the Government. Zamindari estates occupied about 26 million acres (110,000 km ), more than one-quarter of the whole presidency. The peshkash , or tribute, payable to the government in perpetuity was about £330,000 a year. Inams , revenue-free or quit-rent grants of lands made for religious endowments or for services rendered to
1206-502: A developing period of art, literature, trade and the Bhakti movement of Hinduism. A Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils , became linguistically separate during this period around the seventh century. The origin of Malayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE. For local administration, the empire was divided into provinces under the rule of Naduvazhis , with each province comprising
1407-469: A high capacity to retain heat, and an ability to preserve the flavour of food cooked in it. The uruli can be found in many traditional Malayali homes, which show them in several sizes, like the small ones that have a more decorative function or also the very large “varpu” which are used for cooking in big occasions that require a big amount of food. With its shallow circular shape this vessel is also used to display flower decor in traditional households and for
1608-501: A number of Desams under the control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis . Mamankam festival , which was the largest native festival, was held at Tirunavaya near Kuttippuram , on the bank of river Bharathappuzha . Athavanad , the headquarters of Azhvanchery Thamprakkal , who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya. Sulaiman al-Tajir ,
1809-519: A population of 22,031,697. Subsequent enumerations were made in 1851–52, 1856–57, 1861–62, and 1866–67. The population of Madras Presidency was tallied at 22,857,855, 24,656,509 in 1861–62 and 26,539,052 in 1866–67. The first organised census of India was conducted in 1871 and returned a population of 31,220,973 for the Madras Presidency. Since then, a census has been conducted once every ten years. The last census of British India held in 1941 counted
2010-420: A population of 28 million. The rice yield was 7 to 10 cwt. per acre, the cholam yields were 3.5 to 6.25 cwt. per acre, khambu , 3.25 to 5 cwt. per acre and ragi, 4.25 to 5 cwt. per acre. The average gross turnout for food crops was 6.93 cwt. per acre. Irrigation along the east coast is carried out mostly by means of dams across rivers, lakes and irrigation tanks . The main source of water for agriculture in
2211-454: A population of 49,341,810 for the Madras Presidency. The Tamil , Telugu , Malayalam , Kannada , Odia , Tulu and English languages were all spoken in the Madras Presidency. Tamil was spoken in the southern districts of the presidency from a few miles north of Madras city as far west as the Nilgiri hills and Western Ghats. Telugu was spoken in the districts to the north of Madras city and to
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#17328546127982412-633: A prime minister. In the early decades of the 20th century, many significant contributors to the Indian independence movement came from Madras. Madras was later admitted as Madras State , a state of the Indian Union at the inauguration of the Republic of India on 26 January 1950. The discovery of dolmens from this portion of the subcontinent shows inhabitation as early as the Stone Age . The first prominent rulers of
2613-477: A revenue loss of over ₹ 20 billion (US$ 240 million). Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100. The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board is a government owned financial institution in
2814-516: A second reorganisation took place, whereupon the double battalions were abolished and the existing battalions were renumbered. The Madras Army at the time consisted of one European and one native brigade of horse artillery, three battalions of foot artillery of four companies each, with four companies of lascars attached, three regiments of light cavalry, two corps of pioneers, two battalions of European infantry, 52 battalions of native infantry and three local battalions. Between 1748 and 1895, as with
3015-602: A similar had earlier introduced similar legislation, the Temple Entry Proclamation at the advice of his Diwan, Sir C. P. Ramaswamy Ayyar , in 1937. The provincial government under Ramasamy Reddy passed the Madras Temple Entry Authorization Act on 11 May 1947, which was intended to give Dalits and other prohibited Hindus full and complete rights to enter Hindu temples. The Madras Devadasis (Prevention of Dedication) Act which gave Devadasi 's
3216-452: A splinter group allied with the opposition Swarajists . A motion of no-confidence was proposed against Ramarayaningar's government on 27 November 1923, but was defeated 65–44. Ramarayaningar remained in power until November 1926. The enactment in August 1921 of the first communal Government Order (G.O. No. 613), which introduced caste-based communal reservations in government jobs, remains one of
3417-586: A strong service sector. In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 63% of the state's GSVA , compared to 28% by secondary sector , and 8% by primary sector . In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one. The state's service sector which accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based upon hospitality industry , tourism , Ayurveda and medical services, pilgrimage, information technology , transportation , financial sector, and education . Major initiatives under
3618-531: A sub-division of Tanjore district in June 1805 and remained so till August 1808 when its status as a separate district was restored. The districts of Rajahmundry (Rajamahendravaram), Masulipatnam and Guntur were created in 1823. These three districts were reorganised in 1859 into two – the Godavari and Krishna districts. Godavari district was further bifurcated into East and West Godavari districts in 1925. The Kurnool kingdom
3819-559: Is Mahabali , an Asura and a prototypical just king, who ruled the earth from Kerala. He won the war against the Devas , driving them into exile. The Devas pleaded before Lord Vishnu , who took his fifth incarnation as Vamana and pushed Mahabali down to netherworld to placate the Devas. There is a belief that, once a year during the Onam festival, Mahabali returns to Kerala. The Matsya Purana , among
4020-628: Is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth. In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar , making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent , which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century. The municipalities of Kozhikode , Palakkad , Fort Kochi , Kannur , and Thalassery , were founded on 1 November 1866 of
4221-530: Is a matter of dispute. The suggested locations are Ponnani , Tanur , Beypore - Chaliyam - Kadalundi - Vallikkunnu , and Koyilandy . Merchants from West Asia and Southern Europe established coastal posts and settlements in Kerala. The Israeli (Jewish) connection with Kerala started in 573 BCE. Arabs also had trade links with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to
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#17328546127984422-617: Is appointed by the president of India for a five-year term. The leader of the party or coalition with a majority in the Legislative Assembly is appointed as the chief minister by the governor, and the council of ministers are appointed by the governor on the advice of the chief minister. The governor remains a ceremonial head of the state, while the chief minister and his council are responsible for day-to-day government functions. The council of ministers consists of Cabinet Ministers and Ministers of State (MoS). The Secretariat headed by
4623-702: Is derived from the Old Tamil word for 'lake'. Keralam may stem from the Classical Tamil cherive-alam 'declivity of a hill or a mountain slope' or chera alam 'land of the Cheras'. One folk etymology derives Kerala from the Malayalam word kera 'coconut tree' and alam 'land'; thus, 'land of coconuts', which is a nickname for the state used by locals due to the abundance of coconut trees. The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala as Cherapadha
4824-537: Is first recorded as Keralaputo ('son of Chera [s]') in a 3rd-century-BCE rock inscription left by the Maurya emperor Ashoka (274–237 BCE), one of his edicts pertaining to welfare. At that time, one of three states in the region was called Cheralam in Classical Tamil: Chera and Kera are variants of the same word. The word Cheral refers to the oldest known dynasty of Kerala kings and
5025-551: Is forested. Four of the world's Ramsar Convention listed wetlands — Lake Sasthamkotta , Ashtamudi Lake , Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands , and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala, as well as 1455.4 km of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and 1828 km of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve . Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century, much of the remaining forest cover
5226-764: Is now protected from clearfelling . Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests , which are common in the Western Ghats. The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in Nilambur . Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species of mammals (1 endemic), 500 species of birds , 189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species of amphibians (36 endemic). These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinisation , and resource extraction. In
5427-502: Is practised by more than half of the population, followed by Islam and Christianity . In 2019–20, the economy of Kerala was the 8th-largest in India with ₹ 8.55 trillion (US$ 100 billion) in gross state domestic product (GSDP) and a per capita net state domestic product of ₹ 222,000 (US$ 2,700). In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 65% to state's GSVA , while the primary sector contributed only 8%. The state has witnessed significant emigration, especially to
5628-479: Is still referred to as the "Garden of Spices" or as the "Spice Garden of India". Kerala's spices attracted ancient Arabs , Babylonians , Assyrians and Egyptians to the Malabar Coast in the 3rd and 2nd millennia BCE. Phoenicians established trade with Kerala during this period. Arabs and Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices . The Arabs on the coasts of Yemen , Oman , and
5829-498: Is the second-most urbanised major state in the country with 47.7% urban population according to the 2011 Census of India . The state topped in the country to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals according to the annual report of NITI Aayog published in 2019. The state has the highest media exposure in India with newspapers publishing in nine languages, mainly Malayalam and sometimes English . Hinduism
6030-512: Is the largest shopping mall in India. Despite many achievements, Kerala faces many challenges like high levels of unemployment that disproportionately impact educated women, a high degree of global exposure and a very fragile environment. Madras province The Madras Presidency or Madras Province , officially called the Presidency of Fort St. George until 1937, was an administrative subdivision (province) of British India and later
6231-449: Is the largest urban agglomeration. According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007, Thiruvananthapuram , Kozhikode , Kochi , Kollam , Thrissur are among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities. The state is governed by a parliamentary system of representative democracy . Kerala has
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6432-638: Is the late Vedic text Aitareya Aranyaka . Kerala is also mentioned in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata , the two Hindu epics. The Skanda Purana mentions the ecclesiastical office of the Thachudaya Kaimal who is referred to as Manikkam Keralar , synonymous with the deity of the Koodalmanikyam temple. The Greco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to Kerala as Celobotra . Kerala
6633-409: Is thus the oldest English trading post on India's east coast, dating back to 1611. In 1625, another factory was established at Armagon, a few miles to the south, whereupon both the factories came under the supervision of an agency based at Machilipatnam. The English authorities decided to relocate these factories further south, due to a shortage of cotton cloth, the main trade item of the east coast at
6834-561: Is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats . Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22', Kerala experiences humid tropical rainforest climate with some cyclones. The state has a coast of 590 km (370 mi) and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 kilometres (7 and 75 mi). Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions:
7035-518: The 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India , the local government institutions function as the third tier of government, which constitutes 14 District Panchayats , 152 Block panchayats , 941 Grama Panchayats , 87 Municipalities , six Municipal Corporations and one Township . Mahé , a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry , though 647 kilometres (402 mi) away from it,
7236-492: The Achankovil River ; 128 kilometres (80 mi). The average length of the rivers is 64 kilometres (40 mi). Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain. As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in delta , they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution. The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state
7437-585: The Arab states of the Persian Gulf during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s, and its economy depends significantly on remittances from a large Malayali expatriate community. The production of pepper and natural rubber contributes significantly to the total national output. In the agricultural sector, coconut , tea , coffee , cashew and spices are important. The state is situated between Arabian Sea to
7638-667: The Bombay Presidency (which had also included other regions in the western coast of India) of British India in the years 1792 and 1799, respectively. By the end of the 18th century, the whole of Kerala fell under the control of the British, either administered directly or under suzerainty . Initially the British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja , who had popular support in Thalassery - Wayanad region. After India
7839-478: The British Indian Empire , making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality of Thiruvananthapuram came into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign of Sree Chithira Thirunal , Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala. The first Municipal Corporation founded after
8040-558: The Chief Secretary assists the council of ministers. The Chief Secretary is also the administrative head of the government. Each government department is headed by a minister, who is assisted by an Additional Chief Secretary or a Principal Secretary , who is usually an officer of Indian Administrative Service (IAS), the Additional Chief Secretary/Principal Secretary serve as the administrative head of
8241-684: The Coimbatore district were tanks. The Land Improvement and Agriculturists Loan Act passed in 1884 provided funds for the construction of wells and their utilisation in reclamation projects. In the early part of the 20th century, the Madras government established the Pumping and Boring Department to drill boreholes with electric pumps. The Mettur Dam , the Periyar Project, the Cudappah-Kurnool canal and
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8442-519: The Dominion of India . At its greatest extent, the presidency included most of southern India , including all of present-day Andhra Pradesh , almost all of Tamil Nadu and parts of Kerala , Karnataka , Odisha and Telangana in the modern day. The city of Madras was the winter capital of the presidency and Ooty was the summer capital. The Madras Presidency was neighboured by the Kingdom of Mysore to
8643-471: The Dravidian word Mala ('hill'). Al-Biruni (973–1048 CE ) is the first known writer to call this country Malabar . Authors such as Ibn Khordadbeh and Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works. The Arab writers had called this place Malibar , Manibar , Mulibar , and Munibar . Malabar is reminiscent of the word Malanad which means the land of hills . According to William Logan ,
8844-550: The East India Company . Subsequently, during the reign of King James I (1567–1625), Sir William Hawkins and Sir Thomas Roe were sent to negotiate with the Mughal Emperor Jahangir (1569–1627) to permit the establishment of trading factories in India on behalf of the company. The first of these were built at Surat on the west coast and at Masulipatinam on the country's eastern seaboard. Masulipatinam
9045-675: The High and Late Middle Ages . However, the dominance of Middle East traders was challenged in the European Age of Discovery . After Vasco Da Gama 's arrival in Kappad , Kozhikode in 1498, the Portuguese began to dominate eastern shipping, and the spice-trade in particular. Following the discovery of sea route from Europe to Malabar in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their territories and ruled
9246-505: The Idukki district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of 2,695 m (8,842 ft). The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among UNESCO World Heritage Sites . The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains. The Athirappilly Falls , which is situated on
9447-564: The Idukki district , which lie on the eastern highland made by Western Ghats . They are locally known as "muniyara", derived from muni ( hermit or sage ) and ara (dolmen). Rock engravings in the Edakkal Caves , in Wayanad date back to the Neolithic era around 6000 BCE. Archaeological studies have identified Mesolithic , Neolithic and Megalithic sites in Kerala. The studies point to
9648-660: The Kerala High Court and a system of lower courts. The High Court, located in Kochi, has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional pro tempore justices as of 2021 . The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep . In Kerala, local government bodies such as Panchayats, Municipalities, and Corporations have existed since 1959. However, a significant decentralization initiative began in 1993, aligning with constitutional amendments by
9849-582: The Leader of the Opposition . According to the Constitution of India , Kerala has a parliamentary system of representative democracy ; universal suffrage is granted to residents. After independence, the state was managed as a social democratic welfare economy . The "Kerala phenomenon" or " Kerala model of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from
10050-495: The Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act , by combining Malayalam -speaking regions of the erstwhile regions of Cochin , Malabar , South Canara , and Travancore . Spread over 38,863 km (15,005 sq mi), Kerala is the 21st largest Indian state by area . It is bordered by Karnataka to the north and northeast, Tamil Nadu to
10251-891: The Persian Gulf , must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other eastern countries . They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East . The Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians. It is noted in Sangam literature that the Chera king Uthiyan Cheralathan ruled most of modern Kerala from his capital in Kuttanad , and controlled
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#173285461279810452-521: The Poligar Wars were other notable insurrections against the British rule, but the Madras Presidency remained relatively undisturbed by the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857. The Madras Presidency annexed the Kingdom of Mysore in 1831 on allegations of maladministration and restored it to Chamaraja Wodeyar (1881–94), the grandson and heir of the deposed Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1799–1868) in 1881. Thanjavur
10653-667: The Quit India movement . In 1944, Periyar renamed the Justice Party as Dravidar Kazhagam and withdrew it from electoral politics. After the end of the Second World War, the Indian National Congress re-entered politics, and in the absence of any serious opposition it easily won the 1946 election . Tanguturi Prakasam was then elected as Chief Minister with the support of Kamaraj and served for eleven months. Prakasam
10854-466: The States Reorganisation Act, 1956 , the modern-day state of Kerala was formed by merging the Malabar district of Madras State (excluding Gudalur taluk of Nilgiris district , Lakshadweep Islands, Topslip , the Attappadi Forest east of Anakatti), the taluk of Kasaragod (now Kasaragod District ) in South Canara , and the erstwhile state of Thiru-Kochi (excluding four southern taluks of Kanyakumari district , and Shenkottai taluks). Kerala has
11055-401: The Thanjavur Maratha kingdom were constituted as a separate district in 1799. In 1800, the districts of Bellary and Cuddapah were created out of the territory ceded by the Nizam of Hyderabad. In 1801, the districts of North Arcot, South Arcot, Nellore, Trichinopoly , Madura and Tinnevely were created out of the territories of the erstwhile Carnatic kingdom. Trichinopoly district was made
11256-406: The Tinnevely and Malabar districts of Madras Presidency with native Christians forming over one–quarter of the total population of the princely state of Travancore. Hill tribes of the Nilgiris, Palani and Ganjam regions such as the Todas , Badagas , Kotas , Yerukalas and the Khonds , worshiped tribal gods and were often classified as Hindus. In 1921, the Raja of Panagal 's government passed
11457-443: The Travancore Royal Family , and were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741. An agreement, known as "Treaty of Mavelikkara", was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvement in the region. In the 18th Century, Travancore King Sree Anizham Thirunal Marthanda Varma annexed all the kingdoms up to Cochin through military conquests, resulting in
11658-400: The United Democratic Front (UDF), led by the Indian National Congress ; and the Left Democratic Front (LDF), led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). As of 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election , the LDF is the ruling coalition; Pinarayi Vijayan of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, while V. D. Satheesan of the Indian National Congress is
11859-452: The Vaikom Satyagraha , which campaigned for the right of untouchables in Travancore to enter temples. In 1937, the Indian National Congress was elected to power in the Presidency of Madras for the first time. Chakravarti Rajagopalachari was the first chief minister of the presidency to come from the Congress party. He successfully enacted the Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act and introduced both prohibition and sales taxes in
12060-419: The 10th century. Following the conquest of Madurai by Malik Kafur in 1311, there was a brief lull when both culture and civilisation began to deteriorate. The Tamil and Telugu territories recovered under the Vijayanagar Empire , founded in 1336. Following the empire's demise, the country was split amongst numerous sultans, polygars and European trading companies. Between 1685 and 1947, a number of kings ruled
12261-452: The 14th century onwards, when Malik Kafur conquered Madurai . Nagore was the holiest city for the Muslims of the Madras Presidency. The presidency also had one of the oldest Christian populations in India. Branches of the Syrian church, contrary to historical evidence, are popularly believed to have been instituted by St. Thomas , an apostle of Jesus Christ who visited the Malabar coast in 52 AD Christians were mainly concentrated in
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#173285461279812462-421: The 14th century, Ravi Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-lived supremacy over southern India. After his death, in the absence of a strong central power, the state was divided into 30 small warring principalities; the most powerful of them were the kingdom of Zamorin of Kozhikode in the north, Kollam in the far-south, Kochi in the south, and Kannur in
12663-406: The 15th century caused two major religions, Buddhism and Jainism , to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of Jainism . The social system became fractured with divisions on caste lines. Finally, the Kulasekhara dynasty was subjugated in 1102 by the combined attack of Later Pandyas and Later Cholas . However, in
12864-410: The 1950s. Kerala's economy depends significantly on emigrants working in foreign countries , mainly in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf , and the remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP. The state witnessed significant emigration during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$ 11.3 billion, which
13065-474: The Agency of Fort St George , precursor of the Madras Presidency, although there had been Company factories at Machilipatnam and Armagon since the very early 1600s. The agency was upgraded to a Presidency in 1652 before once more reverting to its previous status in 1655. In 1684, it was re-elevated to a Presidency and Elihu Yale was appointed as president. In 1785, under the provisions of Pitt's India Act , Madras became one of three presidencies established by
13266-428: The Bengal and Bombay armies, had no effect on the Madras Army. In 1895, the presidency armies were finally merged and the Madras regiments came under the direct control of the Commander-in-chief of British India. in 1890 three madras infantry battalions were accordingly reconstituted, at least for a time, by tapping two south Indian communities which had not yet provided many recruits to the Indian army-the Mappilas and
13467-402: The Bengal and Bombay armies, the Madras Army had its own Commander-in-Chief who was subordinate to the president, and later to the Governor of Madras . By custom, the Commander-in-chief of the Madras Army was a member of the Governor's Executive Council. The army's troops participated in the conquest of Manila in 1762, the 1795 expeditions against Ceylon and the Dutch as well as the conquest of
13668-425: The British of Madras followed suit and established the Madras Regiment. Though native regiments were subsequently established by the British in other parts of India, the distances that separated the three presidencies resulted in each force developing divergent principles and organisations. The first reorganisation of the army took place in 1795 when the Madras army was reconstituted into the following units: In 1824,
13869-408: The British took over administration, the centuries-old system of land proprietorship was left intact. The new rulers appointed middlemen to collect revenue for lands which were not under the control of local zamindar s. In most cases, these go-betweens ignored the welfare of the farmers and exploited them to the full. A Board of Revenue was established in 1786 to solve the issue but to no avail. At
14070-449: The East India Company. Thereafter, the head of the area was styled "Governor" rather than "President" and became subordinate to the Governor-General in Calcutta , with Madras' titulature that would persist until 1950. Judicial, legislative and executive powers rested with the Governor who was assisted by a Council whose constitution was modified by reforms enacted in 1861, 1909, 1919 and 1935. Regular elections were conducted in Madras up to
14271-417: The Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of Tyndis was located at the northwestern border of Keprobotos . The North Malabar region, which lies north of the port at Tyndis , was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period . The port at Tyndis which was on the northern side of Muziris , as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings, was somewhere around Kozhikode . Its exact location
14472-759: The French in 1785. In 1757, to resist the invasion of the Zamorin of Kozhikode , the Palakkad Raja sought the help of the Hyder Ali of Mysore . In 1766, Hyder Ali defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode – an East India Company ally at the time – and absorbed Kozhikode into his state. The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts of Kerala ( Malabar region ) including Kolathunadu , Kottayam , Kadathanadu , Kozhikode , Tanur , Valluvanad , and Palakkad were unified under
14673-600: The Hindu Religious Endowments Bill that established government-controlled trusts in the Madras Presidency to manage Hindu temples and prevent potential misuse of their funds. Until the early years of the 20th century, certain Hindu communities were not allowed inside Hindu temples. However, along with the emancipation of Indian women and removal of social evils, untouchability was slowly eradicated through legislation and social reform. The Raja of Bobbili who served
14874-823: The Hindu faith. Of the Hindu temples, the largest and most important were the Venkateswara temple at Thirupathi , the Brihadeeswarar temple at Tanjore , the Meenakshi Amman temple at Madurai , the Ranganathaswamy temple at Srirangam , the Krishna temple at Udupi and the Padmanabhaswamy temple in the princely state of Travancore. Islam was brought to the southern part of India by Arab traders although most converts were made from
15075-657: The Israelis [Hebrew Jews] at Eden. In the 4th century, the Knanaya or Southist Christians also migrated from Persia and lived alongside the early Syriac Christian community known as the Saint Thomas Christians who trace their origins to the evangelistic activity of Thomas the Apostle in the 1st century. A second Chera Kingdom (c. 800–1102), also known as Kulasekhara dynasty of Mahodayapuram (present-day Kodungallur ),
15276-697: The Kollidam river near Srirangam island. The Dowlaishwaram dam across the Godavari river, the Gunnavaram aqueduct across the Vaineteyam Godavari, the Kurnool-Cuddapah canal and the Krishna dam are examples of major irrigation works carried out by the British. In 1946–47, the total area under irrigation was 9,736,974 acres (39,404.14 km ) acres which yielded a return of 6.94% on capital outlay. The trade of
15477-631: The Madras Mahajana Sabha. The third session of the Indian National Congress was held in Madras in December 1887 and was a huge success attended by 362 delegates from the province. Subsequent sessions of the Indian National Congress took place in Madras in 1894, 1898, 1903 1908, 1914 and 1927. Madam Blavatsky and Colonel H. S. Olcott moved the headquarters of the Theosophical Society to Adyar in 1882. The society's most prominent figure
15678-444: The Madras Presidency comprised that of both the presidency with other Provinces and its overseas trade. External trade made up 93 percent of the total with internal trade making up the remainder. Foreign trade accounted for 70 percent of the total while 23 percent was inter-provincial. In 1900–01, imports from other provinces of British India amounted to ₹ 13.43 crores while exports to other provinces amounted to ₹ 11.52 crores. During
15879-656: The Madras Presidency included cereals such as rice, corn, kambhu ( Indian millet ) and ragi as well as vegetables including brinjal , sweet potato , ladies' fingers , beans, onions, garlic and spices such as chilli , pepper and ginger along with vegetable oils made from castor beans and peanuts. Fruits cultivated included lime , banana jackfruit , cashew nuts, mangos, custard apples and papayas . In addition, cabbages, cauliflowers, pomelos , peaches, betel pepper, niger seed and millet were introduced from Asia, Africa or Europe, while grapes were introduced from Australia. The total cultivated area used for food crops
16080-730: The Madras Presidency were the Vizagapatam Hill Tracts Agency which was subject to the District Collector of Vizagapatam and the Ganjam Hill Tracts Agency subject to the District Collector of Ganjam. In 1936, the districts of Ganjam and Vizagapatam (including the Vizagapatam and the Ganjam agencies) were partitioned between Madras and the newly created province of Orissa. There were five princely states subordinate to
16281-976: The Madras Presidency, the English were repeatedly attacked by the Mughals, the Marathas and the Nawabs of Golkonda and the Carnatic region . In September 1774, by Pitt's India Act, passed by the Parliament of Great Britain to unify and regulate the administration of the territories of the East India Company, the President of Madras was made subordinate to the Governor-General of India based in Calcutta. In September 1746, Fort St George
16482-417: The Madras Presidency. His rule is largely remembered for the use of Hindi being made compulsory in educational institutions, a measure which made him highly unpopular as a politician and sparked widespread Anti-Hindi agitations , which led to violence in some places. Over 1,200 men, women, and children were jailed for their participation in such Anti-Hindi agitations while Thalamuthu and Natarasan died during
16683-513: The Madras Presidency. It was launched by E. V. Ramaswamy who, unhappy with the principles and policies of the Brahmin leadership of the provincial Congress, left the party to form the Self-Respect Movement . Periyar, as he was alternatively known, criticised Brahmins , Hinduism , and Hindu superstitions in periodicals and newspapers such as Viduthalai and Justice . He also participated in
16884-505: The Madras government. They were Banganapalle , Cochin , Pudukkottai , Sandur , and Travancore . All these states had a considerable degree of internal autonomy. However, their foreign policy was completely controlled by a Resident who represented the Governor of Fort St George. In case of Banganapalle, the Resident was the District Collector of Kurnool, while the District Collector of Bellary
17085-587: The Ministry split the Justice Party once again. Fearing a no-confidence motion against him, Munuswamy Naidu resigned in November 1932 and the Raja of Bobbili was appointed Chief Minister in his place. The Justice Party eventually lost the 1937 elections to the Indian National Congress, and Chakravarti Rajagopalachari became Chief Minister of Madras Presidency. During the 1920s and 1930s, an Anti-Brahmin movement emerged in
17286-635: The Muslim communities in Kerala. Some historians assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South Asia . The known earliest mention about Muslims of Kerala is in the Quilon Syrian copper plates . The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in
17487-639: The Periyar river to the Vaigai River basin in order to irrigate the arid lands to the east of the Western Ghats. Similarly, the Rushikulya Project was launched to utilise the waters of the Rushikulya river in Ganjam. Under the scheme over 142,000 acres (570 km ) of land were brought under irrigation. The British also constructed a number of dams and canals for irrigation. An upper dam was constructed across
17688-717: The Premier from 1932 to 1936, appointed untouchables to temple administration boards all over the presidency and reformed the administration of the Tirumala Tirupathi Devasthanams , the trust which manages the Hindu temple at Tirupathi . In 1939, the Congress government of C. Rajagopalachari introduced the Temple Entry Authorization and Indemnity Act which removed all restrictions on untouchables entering Hindu temples. Chithira Thirunal of Travancore had issued
17889-747: The Rushikulya Project were the biggest irrigation projects launched by the Madras Government. Constructed below the Hogenakkal Falls on the Madras-Mysore border in 1934, the Mettur Dam supplied water to the western districts of the presidency. The Periyar Dam (now known as the Mullaperiyar Dam) was constructed across the Periyar river in Travancore, near the border. This project diverted the waters of
18090-529: The Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon. The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula , because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch". The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats, making Kerala
18291-787: The Spice Islands in the same year. They also took part in expeditions against Mauritius (1810), Java (1811), the wars against Tipu Sultan and the Carnatic Wars of the 18th century, the British attack on Cuttack during the Second Anglo-Maratha War , the Siege of Lucknow during the Indian Mutiny , and the invasion of Upper Burma during the Third Anglo-Burmese War . The 1857 Mutiny, which quickly led to drastic changes in
18492-487: The Western Ghats' rain shadow . 41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers, and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region. The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad ; hence also known Pal ghat , where the Palakkad Gap breaks. The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 metres (4,900 feet ) above sea level , while the highest peaks reach around 2,500 metres (8,200 feet). Anamudi in
18693-651: The Zamorin forces in the battle at Chaliyam Fort . An insurrection at the Port of Quilon between the Arabs and the Portuguese led to the end of the Portuguese era in Quilon . The Muslim line of Ali Rajas of Arakkal kingdom , near Kannur , who were the vassals of the Kolathiri , ruled over the Lakshadweep islands. The Bekal Fort near Kasaragod , which is also largest fort in the state,
18894-518: The administration, against the Mylapore clique , came to power. A. Subbarayalu Reddiar became the first Chief Minister of the Madras Presidency but resigned soon after due to declining health and was replaced by P. Ramarayaningar , Minister of Local Self-Government and Public Health, popularly known as the Raja of Panagal. The party split in late 1923 when C. R. Reddy resigned from primary membership and formed
19095-519: The administration. Legislative powers were given to the Governor's council under the Indian Councils Act 1861 . The council was reformed and expanded under the Indian Councils Act 1892 , the Indian Councils Act 1909 , the Government of India Act 1919 , and the Government of India Act 1935 . V. Sadagopacharlu (1861–63) was the first Indian to be appointed to the council. The legal profession
19296-490: The area militarily subordinate to the Governor of Fort St George. The largest kingdom of the hill-tract region of Visakhapatanam was Jeypore and in 1777 it was conquered by Captain Matthews. The hill tracts of Ganjam and Visakhapatnam were the last places to be annexed by the British. The period also witnessed a number of rebellions starting with the 1806 Vellore Mutiny . The rebellion of Velu Thambi and Paliath Achan and
19497-401: The areas that became part of the Madras Presidency. The southwestern portions of the presidency, which together constitute Tulu Nadu and Kerala , has a distinct history, language, and culture from its eastern counterparts. On 31 December 1600, Queen Elizabeth I of England (1533–1603) granted a group of English merchants a charter to establish a joint-stock company which became known as
19698-543: The background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as The Niagara of India . It is located in the Chalakudy River and is the largest waterfall in the state. Wayanad is the sole Plateau in Kerala. The eastern regions in the districts of Wayanad , Malappuram ( Chaliyar valley at Nilambur ), and Palakkad ( Attappadi Valley), which together form parts of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and
19899-569: The backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is about 200 km (77 sq mi) in area. Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala. Kerala's 44 rivers include the Periyar ; 244 kilometres (152 mi), Bharathapuzha ; 209 kilometres (130 mi), Pamba ; 176 kilometres (109 mi), Chaliyar ; 169 kilometres (105 mi), Kadalundipuzha ; 130 kilometres (81 mi), Chalakudipuzha ; 130 kilometres (81 mi), Valapattanam ; 129 kilometres (80 mi) and
20100-471: The battle of Purakkad in 1755. In 1761, the British captured Mahé , and the settlement was handed over to the ruler of Kadathanadu . The British restored Mahé to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris. In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in the French loss of Mahé . In 1783, the British agreed to restore to the French their settlements in India, and Mahé was handed over to
20301-586: The central government. The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act were enacted in 1994, establishing a 3-tier system for local governance. This system includes Gram Panchayat, Block Panchayat, and District Panchayat. The Acts define clear powers for these institutions. For urban areas, the Kerala Municipality Act follows a single-tier system, equivalent to Gram Panchayat.These bodies receive substantial administrative, legal, and financial powers to ensure effective decentralization. Currently,
20502-532: The chains of eternal serfdom. In 1933, an amendment to the Act was introduced by the Raja of Bobbili to curb the rights of Zamindars and safeguard the cultivators from exploitation. This act was passed in the legislative council despite strong opposition from the Zamindars. Almost 71% of the population of Madras Presidency was engaged in agriculture with the agricultural year usually commencing on 1 July. Crops cultivated in
20703-556: The coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr. Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region, and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries , and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters . Kuttanad , also known as The Rice Bowl of Kerala , has the lowest altitude in India , and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level. The country's longest lake Vembanad , dominates
20904-802: The coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands. Most of the biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats . Three-quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to the 18th century. As of 2004 , over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 flowering plant species; 1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala, 900 are medicinal , and 159 are threatened . Its 9,400 km of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km ), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km and 100 km , respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate ( shola ) forests (highest elevations—100 km ). Altogether, 24% of Kerala
21105-452: The company's forces were the defence of the city from Mughal and Maratha invaders and from the incursions of the Nawab of Carnatic. In 1713, the Madras forces under Lieutenant John de Morgan distinguished themselves in the siege of Fort St David and in putting down Richard Raworth's Rebellion . When Joseph François Dupleix , the Governor of French India, began to raise native battalions in 1748,
21306-495: The coorgs, the government of madras was sceptical, and agreed to the formation of two Mappila battalions only on condition they were deployed outside Malabar. Raised in 1900, the new regiments were complete failure, they soon dwindled to 600 men 'quite useless for service'. ref:The Sepoy and the Raj: The Indian Army, 1860-1940 Revenue from land rental as well as an income tax based on the tenant's net profits from their land
21507-554: The deep south and the Ezhimala kingdom in the north formed the other kingdoms in the early years of the Common Era (CE). The region had been a prominent spice exporter since 3000 BCE . The region's prominence in trade was noted in the works of Pliny as well as the Periplus around 100 CE . In the 15th century, the spice trade attracted Portuguese traders to Kerala, and paved
21708-615: The department they are assigned to. Each department also has officers of the rank of Secretary, Special Secretary, Joint Secretary etc. assisting the Minister and the Additional Chief Secretary / Principal Secretary Each district has a district administrator appointed by government called District collector for executive administration. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats , for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs. The judiciary consists of
21909-441: The development of ancient Kerala society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic Age, through the Mesolithic, Neolithic and Megalithic Ages. Foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural formation; historians suggest a possible relationship with Indus Valley civilisation during the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age . Kerala has been a major spice exporter since 3000 BCE, according to Sumerian records and it
22110-440: The districts of Tinnevely, Trichinopoly, Coimbatore, North Arcot and South Arcot. This involved the leasing of land to the principal cultivators, who in turn leased the land to ryots , or peasant farmers. However, as a village settlement had few differences compared to a permanent settlement, it was eventually discarded. In its place came the "Ryotwari Settlement" implemented by Sir Thomas Munro between 1820 and 1827. According to
22311-402: The earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. However, the Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut in the Battle of Cochin (1504) . However, the allegiance of the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the Zamorin of Calicut . The Portuguese took advantage of the rivalry between the Zamorin and the King of Kochi allied with Kochi. When Francisco de Almeida
22512-408: The earliest glimpses of life in the city. Ma Huan (1403 AD), the Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho ( Zheng He ) states the city as a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. Abdur Razzak (1442–43), Niccolò de' Conti (1445), Afanasy Nikitin (1468–74), Ludovico di Varthema (1503–1508), and Duarte Barbosa witnessed the city as one of
22713-436: The east and south, and the Lakshadweep Sea to the west. With 33 million inhabitants as per the 2011 census , Kerala is the 13th-largest Indian state by population . It is divided into 14 districts with the capital being Thiruvananthapuram . Malayalam is the most widely spoken language and is also the official language of the state. The Chera dynasty was the first prominent kingdom based in Kerala. The Ay kingdom in
22914-404: The east of Bellary and Anantapur districts. In the district of South Kanara, the western part of Bellary and Anantapur districts and parts of Malabar, Kannada was spoken. Malayalam was spoken in the districts of Malabar and South Kanara and the princely states of Travancore and Cochin, while Tulu was spoken in South Canara. Oriya was spoken in the districts of then Ganjam and Vizagapatam. English
23115-511: The eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains. Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain. A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport. The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of
23316-399: The end of Greenhill's term in 1652, Fort St George was elevated to a Presidency, independent of Bantam and under the leadership of the first president, Aaron Baker (1652–1655). However, in 1655 the status of the fort was downgraded to an Agency and made subject to the factory at Surat, until 1684. In 1658, control of all the factories in Bengal was given to Madras, when the English occupied
23517-417: The factor Andrew Cogan of Masulipatinam was appointed as its first Agent. All the agencies along India's east coast were subordinated to the East India Company presidency of Bantam in Java . By 1641, Fort St George became the company's headquarters on the Coromandel Coast . Andrew Cogan was succeeded by Francis Day (1643–1644), Thomas Ivie (1644–1648) and Thomas Greenhill (1648–52 and 1655–58). At
23718-436: The far north. The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political position in Kerala, while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi , and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary roles. The Zamorin of Calicut was originally the ruler of Eranad , which was a minor principality located in the northern parts of present-day Malappuram district . The Zamorin allied with Arab and Chinese merchants and used most of
23919-530: The first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon. The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India. In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only. Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually. Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in);
24120-428: The first time from 31.2 million in 1871 to 30.8 million in 1881. These famines and alleged partiality shown by the government in handling the Chingleput Ryots' Case and the Salem riots trial caused discontent among the population. A strong sense of national awakening emerged in the Madras Presidency in the later half of the 19th century. The first political organisation in the province, the Madras Native Association,
24321-458: The forests, sonokeling , Dalbergia latifolia , anjili , mullumurikku , Erythrina , and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo , wild black pepper, wild cardamom , the calamus rattan palm, and aromatic vetiver grass, Vetiveria zizanioides . Indian elephant , Bengal tiger , Indian leopard , Nilgiri tahr , common palm civet , and grizzled giant squirrels are also found in
24522-1176: The forests. Reptiles include the king cobra , viper , python , and mugger crocodile . Kerala's birds include the Malabar trogon , the great hornbill , Kerala laughingthrush , darter and southern hill myna . In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as Kadu , Red Line Torpedo Barb and choottachi ; orange chromide — Etroplus maculatus are found. Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State; Stygarctus keralensis . The state's 14 districts are distributed among six regions: North Malabar (far-north Kerala), South Malabar (north-central Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore (south-central Kerala), Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (far-south Kerala). The districts which serve as administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into 27 revenue subdivisions and 77 taluks , which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further sub-divided into 1,674 revenue villages. Since
24723-430: The high points of his rule. In the following elections of 1926 the Justice Party lost. However, as no party was able to obtain a clear majority, the Governor, Lord Goschen , set up a cross-party government under the leadership of P. Subbarayan and nominated its supporting members. In the election of 1930, the Justice Party was victorious, and P. Munuswamy Naidu became Chief Minister. The exclusion of Zamindars from
24924-410: The inclusion of official and non-official members and served as the main legislative body till 1935, when a legislative assembly of a more representative nature was created and legislative powers were transferred to the assembly. On India's independence on 15 August 1947, the three-member Governor's executive council was abolished. The origins of Madras Presidency lay in the village of Madraspatnam which
25125-400: The independence of India as well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is at Kozhikode in the year 1962. There are six Municipal corporations in Kerala that govern Thiruvananthapuram , Kozhikode , Kochi , Kollam , Thrissur , and Kannur . The Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named Kochi UA
25326-490: The industrial sector include Cochin Shipyard , shipbuilding, oil refinery, software industry, coastal mineral industries, food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based upon cash crops . Kerala produces a significant amount of national output of the cash crops such as coconut , tea , coffee , pepper , natural rubber , cardamom , and cashew in India. The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since
25527-408: The kani for the Malayalam New Year Vishu , also being used in resorts and hotels as decoration. This article about kitchenware or a tool used in preparation or serving of food is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Kerala Kerala ( English: / ˈ k ɛr ə l ə / / KERR -ə-lə ; Malayalam: [keːɾɐɭɐm] ), is a state on
25728-413: The king of Vijayanagara Empire. Later Kozhikode and Venad seem to have rebelled against their Vijayanagara overlords, but Deva Raya II quelled the rebellion. As the Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to prominence in Kerala. He built a fort at Ponnani in 1498. The maritime spice trade monopoly in the Arabian Sea stayed with the Arabs during
25929-443: The lands of Kerala were recovered from the sea by the axe-wielding warrior sage Parashurama , the sixth avatar of Vishnu (hence, Kerala is also called Parashurama Kshetram 'The Land of Parashurama' in Hindu mythology). Parashurama threw his axe across the sea, and the water receded as far as it reached. According to the legendary account, this new area of land extended from Gokarna to Kanyakumari . The land which rose from sea
26130-406: The leadership of Kozhikode admirals known as Kunjali Marakkars , which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited with organising the first naval defence of the Indian coast. Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan , who is considered as the father of modern Malayalam literature , was born at Tirur ( Vettathunadu ) during Portuguese period. In 1571, the Portuguese were defeated by
26331-405: The legal right to Marry and also making it illegal to dedicate girls to Hindu temples was passed on 9 October 1947. The Pitt's India Act of 1784 created an executive council with legislative powers to assist the Governor. The council initially consisted of four members, two of whom were from the Indian civil service or covenanted civil service and the third, an Indian of distinction. The fourth
26532-417: The legend as a source of history once generated much debate among South Indian historians. The legend was used by Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal). According to the legend, Rayar , the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the Ghats , invaded Kerala during
26733-550: The lowest positive population growth rate in India, 3.44%; the highest Human Development Index (HDI), 0.784 in 2018 (0.712 in 2015); the highest literacy rate, 96.2% in the 2018 literacy survey conducted by the National Statistical Office, India; the highest life expectancy, 77.3 years; and the highest sex ratio , 1,084 women per 1,000 men. Kerala is the least impoverished state in India according to NITI Aayog 's Sustainable Development Goals dashboard and Reserve Bank of India 's Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy . Kerala
26934-408: The major trading centres in the Indian subcontinent where traders from different parts of the world could be seen. The king Deva Raya II (1424–1446) of the Vijayanagara Empire conquered the entirety of present-day state of Kerala in the 15th century. He defeated the Zamorin of Kozhikode, as well as the ruler of Kollam around 1443. Fernão Nunes says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to
27135-503: The mountains of the eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of orographic precipitation : the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level. The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C. Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in
27336-411: The nearby village of Triplicane . In 1684, Fort St George Black Town where the 'natives' lived. The White Town was confined inside the walls of Fort St. George and the Black Town outside of it. The Black Town later came to be known as George Town . During this period, the presidency was significantly expanded and reached an extent which continued into the early 19th century. During the early years of
27537-403: The new system, land was handed over directly to the ryots who paid their rent directly to the government. The land was assessed and paid revenue fixed by the Government This system had a number of advantages as well as disadvantages for the ryots . In 1833, Lord William Bentinck implemented a new system called the "Mahalwari" or village system under which landlords as well as ryots entered into
27738-417: The northern part of the future Presidency were the Tamil Pandya dynasty (230 BC – AD 102). Following the decline of the Pandyas and the Cholas, the country was conquered by a little known race of people called the Kalabhras . The country recovered under the subsequent Pallava dynasty and its civilisation attained a peak when the chola kings started acquiring vast places in Tamil Nadu during
27939-441: The northwest, the Kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to the southwest, the Kingdom of Pudukkottai in the center, and the Nizam's Dominions of Hyderabad and Berar to the north. Some parts of the presidency were also flanked by Bombay Presidency ( Konkan ) and Central Provinces and Berar (modern Madhya Pradesh ). In 1639, the English East India Company purchased the village of Madraspatnam and one year later it established
28140-436: The oldest of the 18 Puranas , uses the Malaya Mountains as the setting for the story of Matsya , the first incarnation of Vishnu, and Manu , the first man and the king of the region. Poovar is often identified with biblical Ophir region, known for its wealth. The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition associated with the Cheraman Perumals (literally the Chera kings ) of Kerala. The validity of
28341-430: The outbreak of the Second World War in 1938. By 1908, the province comprised twenty-two districts, each under a District Collector , and it was further sub-divided into taluks and firqas with villages making up the smallest unit of administration. Following the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms of 1917, Madras was the first province of India to implement a system of dyarchy , and thereafter its Governor ruled alongside
28542-499: The parts of Jayashankar Bhupalapalli , Bhadradri Kothagudem districts of Telangana . The presidency had its winter capital at Madras and summer capital at Ootacamund . In 1822, the Madras Presidency underwent its first census, which returned a population of 13,476,923. A second census conducted between 1836 and 1837 recorded a population of 13,967,395, an increase of only 490,472 over 15 years. The first quinquennial population enumeration took place from 1851 until 1852. It returned
28743-399: The permission to "die, and kill, and seize"). A substantial portion of Kerala including the western coastal lowlands and the plains of the midland may have been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils have been found in an area near Changanassery , thus supporting the hypothesis. Pre-historical archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area of
28944-421: The personal expenses of the Raja were minimal. However, landlords lost their exemption from the taxes on land if they disposed of it meaning that mortgage of land was more common than sale. Individual proprietorship of land was also common in the Telugu-speaking areas of the presidency. The chieftains of the Telugu-speaking districts had more or less maintained an independent existence for a long time, furnishing
29145-423: The port of Muziris , but its southern tip was in the kingdom of Pandyas , which had a trading port sometimes identified in ancient Western sources as Nelcynda (or Neacyndi ) in Quilon . Tyndis was a major centre of trade, next only to Muziris , between the Cheras and the Roman Empire . The lesser known Ays and Mushikas kingdoms lay to the south and north of the Chera regions, respectively. Pliny
29346-404: The post. In 1899, V. Bhashyam Aiyangar became the first Indian to be appointed Advocate-General of the Madras Presidency. A number of roads, railways, dams and canals were constructed during this period. Two large famines occurred in Madras during this period, the Great Famine of 1876–78 and the Indian famine of 1896–97 . As a result of the first, the population of the presidency fell for
29547-425: The protests. In 1940, ministers of the Congress party resigned in protest over the Government of India's declaration of war on Germany without their consent. The Governor of Madras, Sir Arthur Hope , took over the administration and the unpopular law was eventually repealed by him on 21 February 1940. Most of the Congress leadership and erstwhile ministers were arrested in 1942, as a result of their participation in
29748-423: The rise of Travancore to pre-eminence in Kerala. The Kochi ruler sued for peace with Anizham Thirunal and the northern and north-central parts of Kerala ( Malabar District ), along with Fort Kochi , Tangasseri , and Anchuthengu in southern Kerala, came under direct British rule until India became independent . Travancore became the dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of Kozhikode in
29949-402: The rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal summoned the militia of his chieftains (like Udaya Varman Kolathiri , Manichchan , and Vikkiran of Eranad ). The Cheraman Perumal was assured by the Eradis (chief of Eranad) that they would take a fort established by the Rayar . The battle lasted for three days and the Rayar eventually evacuated his fort (and it
30150-442: The rulers of Mysore and were made a part of the larger Kingdom of Mysore . His son and successor, Tipu Sultan , launched campaigns against the expanding British East India Company , resulting in two of the four Anglo-Mysore Wars . Tipu ultimately ceded the Malabar District and South Kanara to the company in the 1790s as a result of the Third Anglo-Mysore War and the subsequent Treaty of Seringapatam ; both were annexed to
30351-411: The same time, the zamindari settlement established in Bengal by Lord Cornwallis proved highly successful and was later implemented in the Madras Presidency from 1799 onwards. However, the Permanent Settlement was not as successful as it had been in Bengal. When the Company did not reach the expected profit levels, a new system known as the "Village Settlement" was implemented between 1804 and 1814 in
30552-399: The same year, exports to other countries reached ₹ 11.74 crores while imports were valued at ₹ 66.2 million. At the time of India's independence, imports of the presidency amounted to ₹ 71.32 crores a year while exports were valued at ₹ 645.1 million. Trade with the United Kingdom made up 31.54% of the total trade of the presidency with Madras the chief port accounting for 49% of
30753-447: The seas between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to Ceylon . They established a trading centre at Tangasseri in Quilon during 1502 as per the invitation of the then Queen of Quilon to start spices trade from there. The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur , who was a vassal to the Zamorin of Calicut , sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode. As a result, the Kingdom of Tanur ( Vettathunadu ) became one of
30954-549: The shares from Union tax pool) amounted to ₹ 674 billion (US$ 8.1 billion) in 2020–21; up from ₹ 557 billion (US$ 6.7 billion) in 2019–20. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached ₹ 146 billion (US$ 1.7 billion) in 2020–2021. However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services. A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in
31155-432: The sovereign with armies and equipment in times of war. In return, their right to revenues from land remained unmolested. During the time of the British, most of land in the northern districts of the presidency were parcelled out among these petty "Rajahs". Islamic invasions caused minor changes in the land proprietorship system when taxes on Hindu land owners were raised and private ownership of property came down. When
31356-554: The state and the honour of a 21-gun salute. From 1801 until 1858, Madras was a part of British India and was ruled by the British East India Company. The last quarter of the 18th century was a period of rapid expansion. Successful wars against Tipu Sultan (1782–99), Maruthu Pandyar, Velu Thampi, and Polygars added vast areas of land and contributed to the exponential growth of the presidency. The system of subsidiary alliances originated by Lord Wellesley as Governor-General of India (1798–1805) also brought many princely states into
31557-416: The state government allocates around 40% of the state plan outlay to local governments. Kerala was declared the first digital state of India in 2016 and, according to the India Corruption Survey 2019 by Transparency International , is considered the least corrupt state in India. The Public Affairs Index-2020 designated Kerala as the best-governed state in India. Kerala hosts two major political alliances:
31758-481: The state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure. As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states. On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village. Unemployment in 2007
31959-407: The state of Kerala under the States Reorganisation Act . A Communist -led government under E. M. S. Namboodiripad resulted from the first elections for the new Kerala Legislative Assembly in 1957 . It was one of the earliest elected Communist governments anywhere. His government implemented land and educational reforms which in turn, reduced income inequality in the state. The state
32160-400: The state to mobilise funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state. In November 2015, the Ministry of Urban Development selected seven cities of Kerala for a comprehensive development program known as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). A package of ₹ 2.5 million (US$ 30,000)
32361-399: The state, occupied an aggregate area of nearly 8 million acres (32,000 km ). In 1945–46, there were 20,945,456 acres (84,763.25 km ) of Zamindari estates yielding revenues of ₹ 9,783,167 and 58,904,798 acres (238,379.26 km ) of ryotwari lands which produced ₹ 72,665,330. Madras had forest coverage of 15,782 square miles (40,880 km ). The Land Estates Act of 1908
32562-402: The term Kerala . From the time of Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, the Arab sailors used to call Kerala as Male . The first element of the name, however, is attested already in the Topography written by Cosmas Indicopleustes . This mentions a pepper emporium called Male , which clearly gave its name to Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name Male is thought to come from
32763-451: The time of Indian independence, Tamil and Telugu speakers made up over 78% of the total population of the presidency, with Kannada, Malayalam and Tulu speakers making up the rest. In 1901, the population breakdown was: Hindus (37,026,471), Muslims (2,732,931), and Christians (1,934,480). By the time of India's independence in 1947, Madras had an estimated population of 49,799,822 Hindus, 3,896,452 Muslims and 2,047,478 Christians Hinduism
32964-422: The time. The problem was compounded when the Sultan of Golconda started harassing the local officers. The East India Company's administrator Francis Day (1605–73) was sent south, and after negotiations with the Raja of Chandragiri, he obtained a land grant in 1639 to set up a factory in the village of Madraspatinam where the new Fort St George was built. An agency was created to govern the new settlement, and
33165-439: The way for European colonisation of India. At the time of Indian independence movement in the early 20th century, there were two major princely states in Kerala: Travancore and Cochin . They united to form the state of Thiru-Kochi in 1949. The Malabar region , in the northern part of Kerala, had been a part of the Madras province of British India , which later became a part of the Madras State post-independence. After
33366-407: The wealth from Kozhikode to develop his military power. Kozhikode became the most powerful kingdom in the Malayalam speaking region during the Middle Ages . At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam ( Quilon ) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam ( Koyilandy ) in the north. Ibn Battuta (1342–1347), who visited the city of Kozhikode six times, gives
33567-555: The west and Western Ghats mountain ranges to the east. The state's coastline extends for 595 kilometres (370 mi), and around 1.1 million people in the state are dependent on the fishery industry, which contributes 3% to the state's income. Named as one of the ten paradises of the world by National Geographic Traveler , Kerala is one of the prominent tourist destinations of India, with coconut-lined sandy beaches , backwaters , hill stations , Ayurvedic tourism and tropical greenery as its major attractions. The word Kerala
33768-454: The whole Indian State of Andhra Pradesh excluding the region of Banaganapalle Princely State, the Tondai Nadu , Kongu Nadu , Chola Nadu and part of Pandya Nadu regions of Tamil Nadu , the Malabar region of North Kerala , the Lakshadweep Islands , the Ganjam , Gajapati , Rayagada , Koraput , Nabarangapur and Malkangiri districts of southern Odisha and the Bellary , Dakshina Kannada , and Udupi districts of Karnataka and
33969-433: The word Malabar comes from a combination of the Dravidian word Mala (hill) and the Persian / Arabic word Barr (country/continent). According to the Sangam classic Purananuru , the Chera king Senkuttuvan conquered the lands between Kanyakumari and the Himalayas . Lacking worthy enemies, he besieged the sea by throwing his spear into it. According to the 17th-century Hindu mythology work Keralolpathi ,
34170-419: Was Annie Besant , who founded the Home Rule League in 1916. The Home Rule Movement was organised from Madras and found extensive support in the Province. Nationalistic newspapers such as The Hindu , the Swadesamitran and the Mathrubhumi actively endorsed the campaign for independence. India's first trade union was established in Madras in 1918 by V. Kalyanasundaram and B. P. Wadia . A dyarchy
34371-445: Was partitioned in 1947 into India and Pakistan , Travancore and Kochi , part of the Union of India were merged on 1 July 1949 to form Travancore-Cochin . On 1 November 1956, the taluk of Kasargod in the South Kanara district of Madras, the Malabar district of Madras (excluding the islands of Lakshadweep ), and Travancore-Cochin, without four southern taluks and Sengottai taluk (which joined Tamil Nadu), merged to form
34572-467: Was 80% and for cash crops, 15%. Of the gross area, rice occupied 26.4 percent; kambhu , 10 percent; ragi, 5.4 percent and Cholam , 13.8 percent. Cotton occupied 1,740,000 acres (7,000 km ), oilseeds, 2.08 million, spices,0.4 million and indigo, 0.2 million. In 1898, Madras produced 7.47 million tons of food grains from 21,570,000 acres (87,300 km ) of crops grown on 19,300,000 acres (78,000 km ) of ryotwari and inam lands, which supported
34773-451: Was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami , and in 2018 received the worst flooding in nearly a century. In 2024, Kerala experienced its worst landslides in history. With around 120–140 rainy days per year, Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon . Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to
34974-433: Was alternatively called Malabar in the foreign trade circles . Earlier, the term Malabar had also been used to denote Tulu Nadu and Kanyakumari which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the modern state of Kerala. The people of Malabar were known as Malabars . Until the arrival of the East India Company , the term Malabar was used as a general name for Kerala, along with
35175-467: Was annexed in 1839 and was constituted as a separate district of the Madras Presidency. For administrative convenience, the district of Kanara was split into North and South Kanara in 1859. North Kanara was transferred to Bombay Presidency in 1862. Between 1859–60 and 1870, the districts of Madras and Chingleput were put together into a single district. A separate Nilgiris district was carved out of Coimbatore district in 1868. As of 1908, Madras Presidency
35376-420: Was annexed in 1855, following the death of Shivaji II (1832–1855) who left no male heir. In 1858, under the terms of Queen's Proclamation issued by Queen Victoria, the Madras Presidency, along with the rest of British India, came under the direct rule of the British crown. During the period of governor Lord Harris (1854–1859), measures were taken to improve education and increase representation of Indians in
35577-405: Was appointed as Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, his headquarters was established at Fort Kochi ( Fort Emmanuel ) rather than in Kozhikode. During his reign, the Portuguese managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a few fortresses on the Malabar Coast. However, the Portuguese suffered setbacks from attacks by Zamorin forces in South Malabar ; especially from naval attacks under
35778-399: Was built in 1650 by Shivappa Nayaka of Keladi . The Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch East India Company , who during the conflicts between the Kozhikode and the Kochi , gained control of the trade. The arrival of British on Malabar Coast can be traced back to the year 1615, when a group under the leadership of Captain William Keeling arrived at Kozhikode, using three ships. It
35979-490: Was called the Ekabhogam . The mirasidar s were required to donate a certain amount of money known as mirei to the village administration. They also paid a specified sum to the Government. In return, the mirasidar s demanded non-interference by the government in the internal affairs of the villages. The proprietary system was entirely different in the district of Malabar and the states of Cochin and Travancore where communal ownership of land did not exist. Instead, land
36180-406: Was captured by the French, who ruled Madras as a part of French India until 1749, when Madras was handed back to the British under the terms of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle of the previous year. In 1801, the Nawab of Arcot , Azim-ud-Daula signed the Carnatic Treaty bringing the Carnatic region under British rule. In return, Azim-ud-Daula was entitled to one-fifth of the total revenue of
36381-415: Was created in Madras Presidency in 1920 as per the Montagu–Chelmsford Reforms with provisions made for elections in the presidency. Democratically elected governments would henceforth share power with the Governor's autocratic establishment. Following the first elections held in November 1920, the Justice Party , an organisation established in 1916 to campaign for increased representation of non-Brahmins in
36582-483: Was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad. The Grand Kerala Shopping Festival (GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes. Lulu International Mall at Thiruvananthapuram
36783-422: Was established by Gazulu Lakshminarasu Chetty on 26 February 1852. However, the organisation did not last long. The Madras Native Association was followed by the Madras Mahajana Sabha which was started on 16 May 1884. Of the 72 delegates who participated in the first session of the Indian National Congress at Bombay in December 1885, 22 hailed from the Madras Presidency. Most of the delegates were members of
36984-411: Was established by Kulasekhara Varman , which ruled over a territory comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of the Kulasekara period, the southern region from Nagercoil to Thiruvalla was ruled by Ay kings , who lost their power in the 10th century, making the region a part of the Kulasekara empire. Under Kulasekhara rule, Kerala witnessed
37185-434: Was estimated at 9.4%; chronic issues are underemployment , low employability of youth, and a low female labour participation rate of only 13.5%, as was the practice of Nokku kooli , "wages for looking on". By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively. The state's budget of 2020–2021 was ₹ 1.15 lakh crore (US$ 14 billion). The state government's tax revenues (excluding
37386-494: Was filled with salt and unsuitable for habitation; so Parashurama invoked the Snake King Vasuki , who spat holy poison and converted the soil into fertile lush green land. Out of respect, Vasuki and all snakes were appointed as protectors and guardians of the land. P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar theorised, that Senguttuvan may have been inspired by the Parashurama legendary account, which was brought by early Aryan settlers. Another much earlier Puranic character associated with Kerala
37587-417: Was in these ships that Sir Thomas Roe went to visit Jahangir , the fourth Mughal emperor , as British envoy . In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar , making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent , which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in the 18th century. The Dutch in turn were weakened by constant battles with Marthanda Varma of
37788-455: Was individual property mostly owned by the landowning gentry, to wit the Namboodiri and Nair people, who did not have to pay land-tax and held extensive freeholds of land rented to tenants for agricultural purposes. In return, the Nairs supplied the king with fighting men in times of war while the Namboodhiris managed the upkeep of Hindu temples. These landlords were somewhat self-sufficient and had their own police and judicial systems such that
37989-428: Was made up of 24 districts each administered by a District Collector who was from the Indian Civil Service. The districts were sometimes sub-divided into divisions each under a Deputy Collector. The divisions were further sub-divided into taluks and union panchayats or village committees. Agencies were sometimes created in British India out of volatile, rebellion-prone areas of the presidency. The two important agencies in
38190-445: Was nearly 16% of the US$ 71 billion remittances to the country. In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over ₹ 1 lakh crore (US$ 12 billion), amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about ₹ 7 lakh crore (US$ 84 billion). Malappuram district has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state. A study commissioned by the Kerala State Planning Board , suggested that
38391-420: Was not markedly different from that of its predecessor. Nevertheless, landlords never sold land without the consent of other members of the community. This communistic property rights system was known as kaniachi among the Vellalars , swastium among the Brahmins and mirasi among Muslims and Christians. In the Tanjore district , all mirasi in the village were vested in a single individual who
38592-420: Was obtained in 1640. This was followed by Fort St David which was acquired in 1690. Chingleput district , known as the "jaghire" of Chingleput, obtained in 1763, was the first district in the Madras Presidency. Salem and Malabar districts were obtained from Tipu Sultan in 1792 as per the Treaty of Seringapatam and Coimbatore and Kanara districts after the Fourth Mysore War in 1799. The territories of
38793-439: Was passed by the Madras Government in order to protect cultivators in Zamindaris from exploitation. Under the act, ryot s were made permanent occupants of the land. However, far from protecting the ryot s, the legislation proved to be detrimental to the interests of the cultivators in the Oriya-speaking northern districts of the presidency who were the intended beneficiaries, as it tied the cultivator to his land and landlord with
38994-413: Was seized by the Perumal's troops). Then the last Cheraman Perumal divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously. The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him. The Eradis of Nediyiruppu , who later came to be known as the Zamorins of Kozhikode , who were left out in cold during allocation of the land, was granted the Cheraman Perumal 's sword (with
39195-417: Was specially prized by the newly emerging corpus of educated Indians. The first Indian judge to be appointed was C. V. Runganada Sastri ; in 1877, T. Muthuswamy Iyer became the first Indian judge of the Madras High Court despite strong opposition from the Anglo-Indian media. He also acted as the Chief Justice of the Madras High Court for a few months in 1893, thereby becoming the first Indian to hold
39396-700: Was spoken by Anglo-Indians and Eurasians. It was also the link language for the presidency and the official language of British India in which all government proceedings and court hearings were conducted. According to the 1871 census, there were 14,715,000 people who spoke Tamil, 11,610,000 people who spoke Telugu, 2,324,000 people who spoke Malayalam, 1,699,000 spoke Canarese or Kannada, 640,000 people spoke Oriya and 29,400 people spoke Tulu. The 1901 census returned 15,182,957 speakers of Tamil, 14,276,509 Telugu-speakers, 2,861,297 speakers of Malayalam, 1,518,579 were speakers of Kannada, 1,809,314 spoke Oriya, 880,145 spoke Hindusthani/Urdu and 1,680,635 spoke other languages. At
39597-407: Was succeeded by O. P. Ramaswamy Reddiyar , who was the chief Minister of the province when India gained independence on 15 August 1947. The Madras Presidency became the Madras State in after the enactment of Constitution of India on 26 January 1950. At its greatest extent, the Madras Presidency included much of southern India . Present-day territories that were once part of the presidency are
39798-411: Was the Commander-in-chief of the Madras Army . The council was reduced to three members when the Madras Army was abolished in 1895. The legislative powers of this council were withdrawn as per the Government of India Act 1833 and it was reduced to the status of a mere advisory body. However, these powers were restored as per Indian Councils Act 1861. The council was expanded from time to time through
39999-401: Was the Resident of Sandur. The Resident of Pudukkottai from 1800 to 1840 and 1865 to 1873, was the District Collector of Tanjore, from 1840 to 1865, the District Collector of Madura and from 1873 to 1947, the District Collector of Trichinopoly. The English East India Company was first permitted to set up its own garrison in 1665 to guard its settlements. Notable amongst the early operations of
40200-401: Was the predominant religion in the presidency and practised by around 88% of the population. The main Hindu denominations were Saivite , Vaishnavite and Lingayat . Among the Brahmins, the Smartha doctrine was quite popular. Worship of village gods was strong in the southern districts of the presidency while the mathas at Kanchi , Sringeri and Ahobilam were regarded as the centres of
40401-424: Was the presidency's main source of income. In ancient times, land appears to have been held in common with an individual unable to sell it without the consent of the other owners, who in most cases were members of the same community. Prior to the arrival of the British, the concept of individual proprietorship of land had already emerged along India's west coast such that the new administration's land revenue system
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