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63-659: Historians are of the opinion that the first Kaimal of the temple was the Kulasekhara Perumal of the second Chera Empire a venerated saint in Vaishanavism Despite this, the Thachudaya Kaimal combined their instinctive conservatism with the most liberal views. Mahatma Gandhi , recognising that by ancient law and custom the Thachudaya Kaimal had ultimate spiritual authority over the Hindus, visited Irinjalakkuda during

126-628: A decade of lyrics; but of these two have not till now been discovered. Kannanar also lauds the Chera for conquering enemies from Kumari to the Himalayas (and carving the Chera bow emblem on the Himalayas). Nedum Cheral Athan, famous for his hospitality, gifted Kannanar with a part of Umbar Kattu. The greatest of his enemies were the Kadambus (possibly Kadambas ) whom he defeated in battles. Nedum Cheral Athan

189-770: A gopi in love with god Krishna. Kulasekhara Alvar is generally identified with Kulasekhara Varma, the medieval dramatist from the Chera royal family. Kulasekhara Varma describes himself as the Keralakula-chudamani or "the Crown Jewel of the Chera dynasty", the Keraladhinatha or "the King of the Chera Country" and Mahodayapura-paramesvara or "the Lord of the City of Makotai". He is known as

252-466: A little later. The reverse side of both coins are blank. The impure silver coins bearing Brahmi legends "Kollippurai", "Kollipporai", "Kol-Irumporai" and "Sa Irumporai" were also discovered from Karur . The portrait coins are generally considered as imitation of Roman coins. All legends, assumed to be the names of the Chera rulers, were in Tamil-Brahmi characters on the obverse. Reverse often contained

315-538: A number of punch marked coins discovered from Amaravati riverbed. The square coins of copper and its alloys or silver have also been discovered. Most of these early square coins show a bow and arrow, the traditional emblem of the Cheras on the obverse, with or without any legend. Silver-punch marked coins, an imitation of the Maurya coins, and with a Chera bow on the reverse, have been reported. Hundreds of copper coins, attributed to

378-496: A person wearing a Roman-type bristled-crown helmet was also discovered from Amaravati riverbed in Karur. Reverse side of the coin depicts a bow and arrow, the traditional symbol of the Chera family. A large body of Tamil works collectively known as the Sangam (Academy) texts ( c.  2nd century BCE - 3rd century CE) describes a number of Chera, Pandya and Chola rulers. Among them,

441-523: A pot containing snakes and drawing it out unscathed. Kulasekhara later threw off the reigns of kingdom and started out on a pilgrimage to the holy site of Srirangam . He spent there some years, worshiping his deity, and married his daughter Cherakula Valli Nachiyar to the Srirangam Temple. He also gave away his whole wealth as dowry, built the Chenaivenran Mandapa and repaired the prakara of

504-598: A strong case of identification with the location. Roman coins have over a period of time been discovered in large numbers from central Kerala and the Coimbatore-Karur region (from locations such as Kottayam-Kannur, Valluvally, Iyyal, Vellalur and Kattankanni). A number of coins, assumed to be of the Cheras, mostly found in the Amaravati riverbed in Tamil Nadu, are a major source of early Chera historiography. This includes

567-456: A temple ( virakkallu ) for the goddess Pattini (Kannaki) at Vanchi . A certain king called Gajabahu, often identified with Gajabahu , king of Sri Lanka (2nd century CE), was present at the Pattini festival at Vanchi. In this context, Chenguttuvan can be dated to either the first or last quarter of the 2nd century CE. as per akananuru Kaluvul was a velir chieftain of Kamur who fought against

630-622: Is considered as the Alvar's birthplace, located in modern-day Kerala region. He was the author of Perumal Tirumoli in Tamil and " Mukundamala " in Sanskrit . The Perumal Tirumoli, whose second decade is known as "Tetrarum Tiral", is compiled as a part of Nalayira Divya Prabandham . The Trikkulasekharapuram Temple in Kodungallur is considered as the Alvar's birthplace. Vaishnavite traditions describe

693-561: Is known about Cheras during this period. Cheras of Kongu country ( Karur ) initially appear as the rulers of western Tamil Nadu and central Kerala . There was a domination of present-day Kerala regions of the ancient Chera country by the Kongu Cheras/Keralas (probably via some form of viceregal rule). The family claimed that they were descended from the Cheras who flourished in pre- Pallava (early historic) south India. There are clear attestations of repeated Pandya conquests of

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756-554: Is now worshipped with a temple in its own right outside the Koodalmanikkam Temple Kulasekhara Alvar Kulasekhara ( Tamil : குலசேகரர் ; IAST : Kulaśekhara) ( fl. 9th century CE), one of the twelve Vaishnavite alvars , was a bhakti theologian and devotional poet from medieval south India.He is considered as the incarnation of kaustubh mani which hangs around the neck of Lord Vishnu . The Trikkulasekharapuram Temple in Kodungallur

819-606: Is said to have conquered an island, which had the kadambu tree as its guardian, by crossing the ocean. Poet Mamular also sings of his conquest of Mantai. He also punished and extracted ransom from the Yavanas. Chola Neytalankanal Ilam Set Chenni captured Pamalur, which belonged to the Chera Kudakko Nedum Cheral Athan. The Chera fought the Cholas at Por (and both combatants died in the battle) Kauthamanar Headquarters

882-466: Is the traditional biography of king Kulasekhara from sources generally dated to 12th-14th century AD. Kulasekhara was born at Vanchi , in the western country, in Kali Era 28 to the Chera ruler Dridhavrata. When the prince came of age, his father abdicated the kingdom and retired from public life, and the new king Kulasekhara ascended the throne. Kulasekhara was a great devotee of god Vishnu . His piety

945-456: Is used by some historians to date the events described in the early Tamil texts to c.  1st - 2nd century CE. Despite its dependency on numerous conjectures, the method is considered as the sheet anchor for the purpose of dating the events in the early Tamil texts. Ilango Adigal author of the legendary Tamil epic poem Chilapathikaram describes Chenguttuvan as his elder brother. He also mentions Chenguttuvan's decision to propitiate

1008-639: The British Raj authorities with an order from the Viceroy and Governor-General of India . Nominated by the Maharaja of Travancore , the Kaimal was raised to the status of Manikkam Keralar by an elaborate Brahminical ceremony called Jatakavarodham where all the ruling chiefs of Kerala had to be present. Once anointed, the Thachudaya Kaimal had no acknowledged superiors in spiritual matters. The Ruling Chief had an escort of

1071-564: The Chera Perumal kingdom and Kongu Chera kingdom (c. 9th–12th century CE). The exact nature of the relationships between the various branches of Chera rulers are unclear. After this, the present day parts of Kerala and Kongunadu became autonomous. Some of the major dynasties of medieval south India - Chalukya, Pallava, Pandya, Rashtrakuta, and Chola - seem to have conquered the Kongu Chera country. Kongu Cheras appear to have been absorbed into

1134-602: The Cholas and the Pandyas . The kingdom was attacked, and eventually forced into submission, by the Cholas in the early 11th century CE (in order to break the monopoly of trade with the Middle East). When the Perumal kingdom was eventually dissolved in the 12th century most of its autonomous chiefdoms became independent. The extent and nature of state formation of the Chera kingdoms, from

1197-513: The Graeco-Roman trade map Periplus Maris Erythraei refers to the Cheras as Keprobotras . All these Graeco-Roman names are evidently corruptions of "Kedala Puto/Kerala Putra" probably received through relations with northern India . The term Chera , derived from Dravidian words Cheran (meaning island), is a Classical Tamil name of Sri Lanka that takes root from the term "Chera". Recent studies on ancient south Indian history suggest that

1260-533: The western coast and western ghats in southern India to form the early Chera empire. The dynasty, known as one of the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam alongside the Chola and Pandya , has been documented as early as the 4th to 3rd centuries BCE. Their governance extended over diverse territories until the 12th century CE. The Chera country was geographically well placed to profit from maritime trade via

1323-455: The "Vyangyavyakhya", also mentions king Kulasekhara of Mahodayapuram. Kulasekhara Varma is sometimes identified with king Rama Kulashekhara (and as the patron of poet Vasubhatta). This identification is generally found unacceptable on several counts. Chera dynasty Kongu Cheras Chera Perumals The Chera dynasty ( or Cēra , IPA: [t͡ʃeːɾɐr] ), was a Sangam age Tamil dynasty which unified various regions of

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1386-622: The 1930s to persuade the Kaimal to order by decree the Temple Entry Proclamation and to persuade the Maharaja to issue an ordinance to abolish untouchability. Following Gandhi's visit and Temple Entry in Travancore, an attempt to depose the Thachudaya Kaimal as a ruling chief and outcaste the Maharaja of Travancore from Hinduism was instigated by the Raja of Cochin but the Kaimal was reinstated by

1449-533: The 1st century CE, in the Periplus of the 1st century CE, and by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2nd century CE. There are brief references in the present forms of the works by author and commentator Katyayana (c. 3rd - 4th century BCE), author and philosopher Patanjali (c. 5th century BCE) and Maurya statesman and philosopher Kautilya (Chanakya) ( c.  3rd - 4th century BCE ) [though Sanskrit grammarian Panini (c. 6th - 5th century BCE) does not mention either

1512-416: The Alvar as a king of the Chera royal family of the western coast (Kerala). Scholars identify Kulasekhara with royal Chera playwright Kulasekhara Varma and Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara (ruled 844/45 – c. 870/71 AD), the earliest known Chera Perumal king of Kerala. Scholars generally identify Kulasekhara with Sthanu Ravi Kulasekhara , the earliest known Chera Perumal king of Kerala. The following

1575-457: The Cheras, have been discovered from Pattanam in central Kerala. Bronze dyes for minting punch marked coins were discovered from a riverbed in Karur. Other discoveries include a coin with a portrait and the Brahmi legend "Mak-kotai" above it and another one with a portrait and the legend " Kuttuvan Kotai " above it. Both impure silver coins are tentatively dated to c.  1st century CE or

1638-457: The Himalayas to sculpt the idol of goddess Pattini. Controlled the port of Naravu. He married the sister of the wife of Nedum Cheral Athan. Selva Kadumko defeated the combined armies of the Pandyas and the Cholas . Father of Perum Cheral Irumporai. Died at Chikkar Palli. Identified with Mantharan Poraiyan Kadumko. Pasum Put-Poraiyan and Perumput-Poraiyan. He is sometimes identified as

1701-543: The Irumporai clan. Inscribed portrait coins with Brahmi legends give a number of Chera names, with the Chera symbols of the bow and the arrow depicted in the reverse. The anthologies of early Sangham texts are a major source of information about the early Cheras. Cenguttuvan , or the good Chera, is famous for the traditions surrounding Kannaki , the principal female character of the Sangam epic poem Cilappatikaram . After

1764-663: The Kadamba warriors took shelter was stormed. Later the Kadambas (helped by the Yavanas) attacked Kuttuvan by sea, but the Chera ruler destroyed their fleet. Kuttuvan is said to have defeated the Kongu people and a warrior called Mogur Mannan (one of the Chera's allies was Arugai, an enemy of the Mogurs). According to Chilapathikaram , Chenguttuvan led his army to north India to get the sacred stone from

1827-700: The Kerala or Chera country in the 7th and 8th centuries CE. While the Pallava and Pandya rulers in Tamil Nadu emerged into established kingship by c. 5th - 6th centuries CE, the formation of the monarchical polity in Kerala took place not before c. 9th century CE. The Chera Perumals are known to have ruled what is now Kerala between c. 9th and 12th century CE. Scholars tend to identify Alvar saint Kulasekhara and Nayanar saint Cherman Perumal (literally "the Chera king") with some of

1890-543: The Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai mentioned in the Aranattar-malai inscription of Pugalur ( c.  2nd century CE ). Described as the descendant of Nedum Cheral Athan . The following Cheras are knowns from Purananuru collection (some of the names are re-duplications) . After the 5th century   CE, the Chera family's political prestige and influence declined considerably. Comparatively little

1953-613: The Malabar and Kerala parts became autonomous of Karur. The Perumal kingdom derived most of its wealth from maritime trade relations (the spice trade) with the Middle East. The port of Kollam , in the kingdom, was a major point in overseas India trade to the West and the East Asia. Political units known as "nadus", controlled by powerful hereditary chiefs or by households, occupied central importance in

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2016-504: The Pandya political system by 10th/11th century CE. Even after the dissolution of the Perumal kingdom, royal inscriptions and temple grants, especially from outside Kerala proper, continued to refer the country and the people as the "Cheras or Keralas". The rulers of Venad (the Venad Cheras or the "Kulasekharas"), based out of the port of Kollam in south Kerala, claimed their ancestry from

2079-595: The Perumals. Cheranad was also the name of an erstwhile province in the kingdom of Zamorin of Calicut , which had included parts of present-day Tirurangadi and Tirur Taluks of Malappuram district in it. Later it became a Taluk of Malabar District , when Malabar came under the British Raj . The headquarters of Cheranad Taluk was the town of Tirurangadi . Later the Taluk was merged with Eranad Taluk. The term Chera — and its variant form "Keralaputas" — stands for

2142-601: The Sangam texts (and the possible hero of the lost first decade of Pathitrupattu ). Uthiyan Cheral was also known as "Vanavaramban" ( Purananuru ) . His headquarters were at Kuzhumur near Kuttanad ( Akananuru ). He is described as the Chera ruler who prepared food ("the Perum Chotru") for Pandavas and the Kauravas at the Kurukshetra War ( Purananuru and Akananuru ). He Married Nallini, daughter of Veliyan Venman, and

2205-713: The Travancore Nair Brigade . He had no acknowledged superiors and did not rise even in the presence of kings. The residence of the Thachudaya Kaimals is the Kottilakkal Palace in Irinjalakuda . The heraldry of the Kaimals bear the insignia of a coiled conch-shell with the words Manikkan Keralar . The rule of the empire was also vested in the Kaimal from time to time, especially when there is an interregnum between

2268-599: The area of Malabar Coast between Alappuzha in the south to Kasaragod in the north. The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during the Sangam period between c.  1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap , the principal trade route between the Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu . However the southern region of the present-day Kerala state (The coastal belt between Thiruvananthapuram and southern Alappuzha )

2331-496: The author of two Sanskrit plays called "Tapatisamvarana" and "Subhadradhananjaya" and the Sanskrit champu kavya "Ascharya Manjari" (perhaps also the author of the Sanskrit play "Vicchinnabhiseka"). An inscription from Chembra (954/55 AD) also mentions the performance of the play "Tapatisamvarana". The art-form known as Kudiyattam is traditionally associated Kulasekhara Varma and his courtier Tolan . "Dhananjaya Samvarana Dhvani", or

2394-500: The bow and arrow symbol. An alliance between the Cholas is evident from a joint coin bearing the Chola tiger on the obverse and the Chera bow and arrow on the reverse. Lakshmi-type coins of possible Sri Lankan origin have also been discovered from Karur. The macro analysis of the Mak-kotai coin shows close similarities with the contemporary Roman silver coin. A silver coin with the portrait of

2457-514: The bow and arrow, Roman amphorae and Roman coins. An ancient route, from the harbours in Kerala (such as Muchiri or Thondi) through the Palghat Gap to Karur in interior Tamil Nadu can be traced with the help of archaeological evidence. Historians have yet to precisely locate Muziris, known in Tamil as "Muchiri", a base of the Chera rulers. Archaeological excavations at Pattanam (near Cochin ) suggest

2520-405: The chera supremacy. Perum chera irumporai along with fourteen chieftains attacked kamur but perum chera irumporai was impressed with Kaluvuls resistance in battle field and let him rule kamur and accepted friendship from him. .Some of the velirs under Kaluvul joined the chera after the defeat. Uthiyan Cheral Athan is generally considered as the earliest known ruler of the Chera family from

2583-529: The chief trustee of the temple. The Thachudaya Kaimals enjoyed legal rights such as being preceded by a personal escort of attendants with lamp and sword despite the loss of pension. The last Thachudaya Kaimal was named Bhaskara at birth on 22 June 1895 in the Mundanad branch of the Kayamkulam royal family , by then residing at Valiyasala, Trivandrum . He was an upasaka of Ganesha and the thevaram idol he worshipped

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2646-617: The conquest of the Maldive Islands, the Malabar Coast, and northern Sri Lanka, all of which were essential to the Chola control over trade with Southeast Asia and with Arabia and eastern Africa. These were the transit areas, ports of call for the Arab traders and ships to Southeast Asia and China, which were the source of the valuable spices sold at a high profit to Europe." The Chera Perumal kingdom had alternating friendly or hostile relations with

2709-477: The daughter of king Kulasekhara. Kulasekhara was the author of "Perumal Tirumoli" in Tamil and " Mukundamala " in Sanskrit . Kulasekhara Alvar's poems are devotional in nature, being dedicated to the most prominent avataras of god Vishnu - Rama and Krishna . He identifies himself with several roles in the events of their lives. A devotee of god Rama, he considered the painful experiences of Rama or his aging father Dasaratha to be his own. His devotion

2772-566: The death of one king and anointing of an other. With the 26th amendment of the Indian constitution in 1971, the princely order in India was abolished by presidential decree and thus the Thachudaya Kaimals lost their claim to the temple and its estates. Those properties are now run by a Trust managed by the District Collector although a vestige of former power lies in the current Thachudaya Kaimal being

2835-482: The earliest Perumals. The exact nature of the relation between the Cheras of Kongu and the Chera Perumals remains obscure. The Later arrived Nambutiris from Northern land asked for a regent of the Chera king from Karur in Coimbatore and were granted lands from Tamil kings hailing from Pundurai . Hence the Tamil kings lost their power to Newly arrived Namboothris who created Zamorin and started to call themselves title 'Punthurakkon' (King from Punthura). After this,

2898-423: The early years of his rule, the Kuttuvan successfully intervened in a succession dispute in the Chola territory and established his relative Nalam Killi on the Chola throne. The rivals of Killi were defeated in the battle of Nerivayil, Uraiyur. The Kadambas are described as the arch enemies of the Chera ruler. Kuttuvan was able to defeat them in the battle of Idumbil, Valayur (Viyalur). The "fort" of Kodukur in which

2961-399: The end of the early historical period, around the 3rd-5th century CE, there seems to be a period where the Cheras' power declined considerably. Cheras of the Kongu country are known to have controlled eastern Kerala and only a few kilometres of current western Tamil Nadu in the early medieval period. Present-day central Kerala and Kongu Cheras detached around 8th–9th century CE to form

3024-456: The extensive Indian Ocean networks . Exchange of spices, especially black pepper , with Middle Eastern and Graeco-Roman merchants are attested in several sources. The Cheras of the early historical period (c. second century BCE – c. third century CE ) are known to have had their original centre at Kuttanad in Kerala, and harbours at Muchiri (Muziris) and Thondi (Tyndis) on the Indian Ocean coast ( Kerala ) and Kongunadu . They governed

3087-423: The grandson of Ko Athan Cheral Irumporai. Arunattarmalai, Velayudhampalayam A short Brahmi inscription, containing the word Chera ("Kadummi Pudha Chera") was found at Edakkal in the Western Ghats. Recent archaeological discoveries increasingly confirm Karur as a political, economic and cultural centre of ancient south India. Excavations at Karur yielded huge quantities of copper coins with Chera symbols such as

3150-453: The most important sources for the Cheras are the Pathitrupattu , the Akananuru , and the Purananuru . The Pathitrupattu , the fourth book in the Ettuthokai anthology, mentions a number of rulers and heirs-apparent of the Chera family. Each ruler is praised in ten songs sung by a court poet. However, the book is not worked into connected history and settled chronology so far. A method known as Gajabahu-Chenguttuvan synchronism ,

3213-436: The people or the land]. Archaeologists have found epigraphic and numismatic evidence of the Early Cheras. Two almost identical inscriptions discovered from Pugalur (near Karur ) dated to c.  1st - 2nd century CE, describe three generations of Chera rulers of the Irumporai lineage. They record the construction of a rock shelter for Jains on the occasion of the investiture of Ilam Kadungo, son of Perum Kadungo , and

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3276-449: The present day northern-central Kerala and Kongu region western Tamil Nadu. The rest of Kerala was under Ay dynasty (southern tip of Kerala) and Mushika dynasty (northern tip of Kerala).The political structure of the chiefdom was based on communal holding of resources and kinship-based production. The authority was determined by "the range of redistributive social relationships sustained through predatory accumulation of resources". There

3339-493: The ruling lineage and the country associated with them. The etymology of "Chera" is still a matter of considerable speculation among historians. One approach proposes that the word is derived from Cheral , a corruption of Charal meaning "declivity of a mountain" in Tamil , suggesting a connection with the mountainous geography of Kerala . Another theory argues that the "Cheralam" is derived from "cher" (sand) and "alam" (region), literally meaning, "the slushy land". Apart from

3402-409: The speculations mentioned, a number of other theories do appear in historical studies. In ancient non-Tamil sources, the Cheras are referred to by various names. The Cheras are referred as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor Ashoka 's Pali edicts (3rd century BCE). While Pliny the Elder and Claudius Ptolemy refer to the Cheras as Kaelobotros and Kerobottros respectively,

3465-406: The structuring of the Chera Perumal state. The rulers of the nadus usually acted with the help of a Tamil military retinue. The prominent nadus continued to exist even after the end of the Chera rule during the beginning of the 12th century. Nambudiri-Brahmin settlements of agriculturally rich areas (fertile wet land) were another major source of support to the kingdom. "A naval campaign led to

3528-430: The temple (which was thereafter called "Kulasekhara Tiruvidi"). He then visited the holy temples of Tiruvenkatam, Tiruvayodhya, Tillai-Chitrakutam, Tirukannapuram, Tirumalirunjolai and Tiruvitruvakkode and finally settled down at Brahmadesam near Tirukkurukur, the birthplace of Namma Alvar (where he died at the age of sixty seven). The shrine of Cherakula Valli Nachiyar within the Srirangam Temple complex commemorates

3591-429: The three major rulers – the Pandya , the Chera and the Chola – based originally in Madurai in Tamil Nadu, Vanchi , present day Karur , in Tamilnadu and Uraiyur ( Tiruchirappalli ) in Tamil Nadu, respectively. They had established outlets on the Indian Ocean namely Korkai , Muchiri (Muziris), and Kaveripattinam respectively. Territory of the Chera chiefdom of the early historical period (pre-Pallava ) consisted of

3654-400: Was located on the mouth river Periyar. Vel Kezhu Kuttuvan is often identified with the legendary "Chenguttuvan Chera", the most illustrious ruler of the Early Cheras. Under his reign, the Chera territory extended from Kollimalai (near Karur Vanchi) in the east to Thondi and Mantai (Kerala) on the western coast. The wife of Chenguttuvan was Illango Venmal (the daughter of a Velir chief). In

3717-407: Was more than one branch of the Chera family ruling at the same time and contenting for leadership (one in central Kerala and the other one in western Tamil Nadu). The Cheras are referred to as Kedalaputo (Sanskrit: "Kerala Putra") in the Emperor Ashoka 's Pali edicts (3rd century BCE, Rock Edicts II and XII). The earliest Graeco-Roman accounts referring to the Cheras are by Pliny the Elder in

3780-405: Was so great that on one occasion when the story was being narrated as to how demon king Ravana abducted princess Sita, he at once issued orders to marshal out his army for the invasion of Lanka. In another instance, a minister who felt jealous of the favor showered by the king on Vaishnavites , trumped up on the devotees a false charge. The king vindicated their innocence by inserting his own hand in

3843-414: Was so intense that he worshipped the devotees as forms of Vishnu. In one song, he identifies himself with Devaki , the real mother of Krishna, from whom Krishna was taken away to Gokula where Nanda and Yasoda , the foster parents, looked after him. Kulasekhara expresses Devaki's desolation at being separated from her child and for union with him. In some poems, Kulasekhara also identifies himself with

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3906-456: Was the father of Imayavaramban Nedum Cheralathan ( Pathitrupattu (II) ). Uthiyan Cheral Athan is probably identical with the Perum Cheral Athan who fought against the Chola Karikala at the battle of Venni. In the battle of Venni, the Chera was wounded on the back by the Chola ruler Karikala . Unable to bear the disgrace, the Chera committed suicide by slow starvation. As the name Pathitrupattu indicates, they were ten texts, each consisting

3969-403: Was under Ay dynasty , who was more related to the Pandya dynasty of Madurai . The early historic pre-Pallava polities are often described as a "kinship-based redistributive economies" largely shaped by "pastoral-cum-agrarian subsistence" and "predatory politics". Old Tamil Brahmi cave label inscriptions, describe Ilam Kadungo, son of Perum Kadungo , and the grandson of Ko Athan Cheral of

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