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163-654: UCCLA's members met annually during conclaves held in different cities across the country, often co-ordinating their meeting dates with the unveiling of trilingual historical markers commemorating the internment operations at different camp locations or otherwise recalling important individuals or events in Ukrainian and Ukrainian Canadian history. The association and its supporters have also placed two dozen trilingual markers and four statues across Canada , in Ukraine and in France honouring

326-489: A temperate climate , tempering winters and summers, on much of the continent. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable producing more continental climates . European culture consists of a range of national and regional cultures, which form the central roots of the wider Western civilisation , and together commonly reference ancient Greece and ancient Rome , particularly through their Christian successors , as crucial and shared roots. Beginning with

489-842: A German naturalist, Peter Simon Pallas , as a valley that once connected the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and subsequently was proposed as a natural boundary between continents. By the mid-19th century, there were three main conventions, one following the Don, the Volga–Don Canal and the Volga, the other following the Kuma–Manych Depression to the Caspian and then the Ural River, and the third abandoning

652-598: A Greco-Scythian polity formed in this context, became a regional power, blending Greek traditions with local elements. It thrived until the 4th century AD, when invasions by the Goths and later the Huns disrupted its stability. The Roman Empire , expanding its reach into the region, briefly annexed the Bosporan Kingdom from 62 to 68 AD under Emperor Nero . During this period, the reigning Bosporan king , Tiberius Julius Cotys I ,

815-631: A Semitic term for west , this being either Akkadian erebu meaning 'to go down, set' (said of the sun) or Phoenician 'ereb 'evening, west', which is at the origin of Arabic maghreb and Hebrew ma'arav . Martin Litchfield West stated that "phonologically, the match between Europa's name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor", while Beekes considers a connection to Semitic languages improbable. Most major world languages use words derived from Eurṓpē or Europa to refer to

978-791: A boundary along the Terek and Kuban rivers, so southwards from the Kuma and the Manych, but still with the Caucasus entirely in Asia. However, most geographers in the Soviet Union favoured the boundary along the Caucasus crest, and this became the common convention in the later 20th century, although the Kuma–Manych boundary remained in use in some 20th-century maps. Some view the separation of Eurasia into Asia and Europe as

1141-567: A common currency, the euro , and participate in the European single market and a customs union . A large bloc of countries, the Schengen Area , have also abolished internal border and immigration controls. Regular popular elections take place every five years within the EU; they are considered to be the second-largest democratic elections in the world after India's . The EU is the third-largest economy in

1304-668: A complex social structure, with local chieftains leading tribal groups. They also practiced paganism , with a pantheon of gods tied to nature, such as Perun (god of thunder) and Dazhbog (sun god). By the time of the Antes Union's decline, the cultural and religious practices of the Slavs had already begun to influence neighboring peoples, laying the groundwork for the Slavic cultural sphere that would emerge later in Eastern and Southeastern Europe . In

1467-514: A devastating raid by the Pannonian Avars , led to a fragmentation of the early Slavic federation. Despite this, many of these tribes maintained their distinct identities until the formation of larger political entities in the early second millennium, such as Kievan Rus' , which began to consolidate Slavic lands. The Early Slavs were primarily agrarian, relying on subsistence farming, and lived in semi-nomadic communities. Over time, they developed

1630-520: A focus on fertility cults, as evidenced by numerous figurines and symbolic artifacts. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture began to decline around 3000 BC, possibly due to environmental changes, resource depletion, or pressures from neighboring steppe cultures. The Sredny Stog culture (ca. 4500–3500 BC) emerged to the east of the Cucuteni-Trypillian zone, on the Pontic-Caspian steppe . It marked

1793-406: A large land mass completely or almost completely surrounded by water at its borders. Prior to the adoption of the current convention that includes mountain divides, the border between Europe and Asia had been redefined several times since its first conception in classical antiquity , but always as a series of rivers, seas and straits that were believed to extend an unknown distance east and north from

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1956-730: A precise eastern boundary of Europe arises in the Early Modern period, as the eastern extension of Muscovy began to include North Asia . Throughout the Middle Ages and into the 18th century, the traditional division of the landmass of Eurasia into two continents, Europe and Asia, followed Ptolemy, with the boundary following the Turkish Straits , the Black Sea , the Kerch Strait , the Sea of Azov and

2119-701: A residue of Eurocentrism : "In physical, cultural and historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European country. [...]." During the 2.5 million years of the Pleistocene , numerous cold phases called glacials ( Quaternary ice age ), or significant advances of continental ice sheets, in Europe and North America, occurred at intervals of approximately 40,000 to 100,000 years. The long glacial periods were separated by more temperate and shorter interglacials which lasted about 10,000–15,000 years. The last cold episode of

2282-661: A result, the Reconquista took the greater part of eight hundred years, in which period a long list of Alfonsos, Sanchos, Ordoños, Ramiros, Fernandos, and Bermudos would be fighting their Christian rivals as much as the Muslim invaders. During the Dark Ages, the Western Roman Empire fell under the control of various tribes. The Germanic and Slav tribes established their domains over Western and Eastern Europe, respectively. Eventually

2445-499: A semi- nomadic lifestyle. They utilized copper and bronze tools and weapons , demonstrating early metallurgical skills. Many scholars associate the Yamna culture with Proto-Indo-European speakers , as their migrations and cultural diffusion likely influenced vast areas of Europe and Asia . Following the Yamna culture, the Catacomb culture (ca. 2800–2200 BC) emerged, encompassing much of

2608-493: A sophisticated hunter-gatherer culture, known for their blade-based lithic technologies and artistic expression. The region likely served as a vital hub for human activity, offering both shelter and access to diverse ecological resources. The archaeological record in Ukraine highlights the area's importance as a crossroads for early human populations migrating through Europe. From the earliest stone tools to evidence of complex social structures and artistic traditions, Ukraine offers

2771-463: A transitional phase between the Neolithic and the emergence of the early Bronze Age steppe cultures. This culture is among the earliest to show evidence of horse domestication , which became a defining feature of steppe societies. Early indications of mound burial (kurgans) began to appear, reflecting evolving social hierarchies and ritual practices. The Sredny Stog culture played a significant role in

2934-632: A unique Canadian historical site. UCCLA was a volunteer organization supported by the donations and efforts of thousands of Canadians of Ukrainian heritage . Some of the books and pamphlets published with the support of the UCCLA include: History of Ukraine The history of Ukraine spans thousands of years, rooted in the Pontic steppe , a region central to the spread of the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages , Indo-European migrations , and domestication of

3097-404: A valuable lens into the evolution and adaptation of early humans over hundreds of thousands of years. The Cucuteni-Trypillian culture (ca. 4,500–3,000 BC), centered in modern-day Romania , Moldova , and Ukraine , represents one of the most advanced Neolithic civilizations in Europe. These people were known for their impressive settlements, some of which were among the largest in the world at

3260-554: A word that probably derived from Varangians , who laid the foundation of the state itself. It emerged as one of the most powerful and advanced nations of Europe at that time, with Kyiv meeting its golden age and Christianization under Vladimir the Great and Yaroslav the Wise . Kievan Rus' started to disintegrate in High Middle Ages , with Kievan monarchs competing and fighting over

3423-401: Is also evidence that Homo sapiens arrived in Europe around 54,000 years ago, some 10,000 years earlier than previously thought. The earliest sites in Europe dated 48,000 years ago are Riparo Mochi (Italy), Geissenklösterle (Germany) and Isturitz (France). The European Neolithic period—marked by the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock, increased numbers of settlements and

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3586-481: Is closest to Anatolia (or Asia Minor), but is considered part of Europe politically and it is a member state of the EU. Malta was considered an island of North-western Africa for centuries, but now it is considered to be part of Europe as well. "Europe", as used specifically in British English , may also refer to Continental Europe exclusively. The term "continent" usually implies the physical geography of

3749-722: Is commonly considered to be separated from Asia by the watershed of the Ural Mountains , the Ural River , the Caspian Sea , the Greater Caucasus , the Black Sea , and the waterway of the Bosporus Strait . Europe covers about 10.18 million km (3.93 million sq mi), or 2% of Earth's surface (6.8% of land area), making it the second-smallest continent (using the seven-continent model ). Politically, Europe

3912-472: Is divided into about fifty sovereign states , of which Russia is the largest and most populous , spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of its population. Europe had a total population of about 745 million (about 10% of the world population ) in 2021; the third-largest after Asia and Africa. The European climate is affected by warm Atlantic currents, such as the Gulf Stream , which produce

4075-556: Is generally considered a transcontinental country divided entirely by water, while Russia and Kazakhstan are only partly divided by waterways. France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain are also transcontinental (or more properly, intercontinental, when oceans or large seas are involved) in that their main land areas are in Europe while pockets of their territories are located on other continents separated from Europe by large bodies of water. Spain, for example, has territories south of

4238-659: Is often regarded as the golden age of Kievan Rus'. One of Yaroslav's key achievements was his decisive defeat of the Pechenegs , who had long been a threat to the state. To commemorate this victory, Yaroslav ordered the construction of the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kiev, a structure that still stands as a symbol of this prosperous era. He also founded the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra and supported the election of Hilarion of Kiev as

4401-565: Is remembered as one of Kievan Rus' most capable leaders. He ascended the throne amid internal strife and external threats, yet worked diligently to stabilize the fragmented territories of Rus'. Monomakh's reign achieved relative unity through efforts to reduce feuds among princes and reinforce central authority. His military successes, particularly against the Polovtsy (Cumans), secured the region's borders. Diplomatically, he forged strong ties with Europe, notably through his marriage to Gytha of Wessex ,

4564-533: Is sometimes considered to mark the end of antiquity; alternatively antiquity is considered to end with the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE; the closure of the pagan Platonic Academy of Athens in 529 CE; or the rise of Islam in the early 7th century CE. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe. During

4727-422: Is somewhat arbitrary and inconsistent compared to any clear-cut definition of the term "continent". The current division of Eurasia into two continents now reflects East-West cultural, linguistic and ethnic differences which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. The geographic border between Europe and Asia does not follow any state boundaries and now only follows a few bodies of water. Turkey

4890-539: Is the Tale of Bygone Years (or Primary Chronicle ), written no earlier than the 11th century. In its 'legendary' part, it narrates the Rus' raid on Constantinople and the formation of a state centered in Kiev during the second half of the 9th century. The Chronicle, in particular, mentions the names of the leaders of the raid on Constantinople — Askold and Dir — and calls them retainers of

5053-612: Is the discovery of a dwelling constructed from mammoth bones , a testament to Neanderthal ingenuity and adaptation to harsh Ice Age environments. These structures highlight their ability to organize resources and create durable shelters. The Crimean Mountains hold significant evidence of early modern humans ( Homo sapiens ) during the Upper Paleolithic period. The Buran-Kaya cave sites have yielded artifacts, such as tools and ornaments, along with skeletal remains, dating to approximately 32,000 BC. These Gravettian settlements reflect

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5216-669: The Balkans . His primary goal was to create a lasting base in Bulgaria , strengthening his strategic position in southeastern Europe. However, his ambitions in the Balkans were thwarted after a Byzantine counterattack. In 972, while returning from his Balkan campaign, Sviatoslav was ambushed and killed by the Pechenegs near the Dnieper River. After Sviatoslav's death, a power struggle ensued among his sons. Yaropolk , Sviatoslav's eldest son, assumed

5379-809: The Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century. From that time, the term designated the sphere of influence of the Western Church , as opposed to both the Eastern Orthodox churches and to the Islamic world . A cultural definition of Europe as the lands of Latin Christendom coalesced in the 8th century, signifying the new cultural condominium created through the confluence of Germanic traditions and Christian-Latin culture, defined partly in contrast with Byzantium and Islam , and limited to northern Iberia ,

5542-509: The Don (ancient Tanais ). But maps produced during the 16th to 18th centuries tended to differ in how to continue the boundary beyond the Don bend at Kalach-na-Donu (where it is closest to the Volga, now joined with it by the Volga–Don Canal ), into territory not described in any detail by the ancient geographers. Around 1715, Herman Moll produced a map showing the northern part of the Ob River and

5705-557: The European population at the time. The plague had a devastating effect on Europe's social structure; it induced people to live for the moment as illustrated by Giovanni Boccaccio in The Decameron (1353). It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church and led to increased persecution of Jews , beggars and lepers . The plague is thought to have returned every generation with varying virulence and mortalities until

5868-456: The Frankish chronicle Annals of St. Bertin , where members of an embassy from the north, arriving in the Byzantine Empire , referred to themselves as Rus'. The second notable mention of the Rus' occurred in 860, when they launched a bold and unexpected naval raid on Constantinople from the territory around present-day Kiev. Commanding a fleet across the Black Sea , the Rus' forces struck at

6031-508: The Greeks and Phoenicians gave rise to early Mediterranean cities. Early Iron Age Italy and Greece from around the 8th century BCE gradually gave rise to historical Classical antiquity, whose beginning is sometimes dated to 776 BCE, the year of the first Olympic Games . Ancient Greece was the founding culture of Western civilisation. Western democratic and rationalist culture are often attributed to Ancient Greece. The Greek city-state,

6194-562: The Inquisition against heretics. In the Iberian Peninsula , the Reconquista concluded with the fall of Granada in 1492 , ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule in the south-western peninsula. In the east, a resurgent Byzantine Empire recaptured Crete and Cyprus from the Muslims, and reconquered the Balkans. Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe from the 9th to

6357-764: The Iron Curtain , with NATO in the West and the Warsaw Pact in the East . This divide ended with the Revolutions of 1989 , the fall of the Berlin Wall , and the dissolution of the Soviet Union , which allowed European integration to advance significantly. European integration is being advanced institutionally since 1948 with the founding of the Council of Europe , and significantly through

6520-706: The Irtysh River , a major tributary of the Ob, as components of a series of partly-joined waterways taking the boundary between Europe and Asia from the Turkish Straits, and the Don River all the way to the Arctic Ocean. In 1721, he produced a more up to date map that was easier to read. However, his proposal to adhere to major rivers as the line of demarcation was never taken up by other geographers who were beginning to move away from

6683-471: The Khazars , another semi-nomadic people from Central Asia. The Khazars founded the Khazar Khaganate , a powerful and influential state near the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus . The Khaganate's territory expanded to include parts of modern-day western Kazakhstan , eastern Ukraine , southern Russia , and northern Azerbaijan . The Khazars were noted for their religious tolerance and political pragmatism, famously adopting Judaism as their state religion in

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6846-499: The Kyiv Metropolitan , marking a significant step in the independence of the Kievan church. Yaroslav's reign was also notable for the introduction of the first written legal code — Rus' Truth , which established a foundation for legal governance in the state. Additionally, Yaroslav engaged in extensive marriage diplomacy, forming alliances by arranging marriages between his daughters and European royalty. However, after Yaroslav's death, Kievan Rus' began to fragment, as his sons divided

7009-419: The Mediterranean Sea —namely, Ceuta and Melilla —which are parts of Africa and share a border with Morocco. According to the current convention, Georgia and Azerbaijan are transcontinental countries where waterways have been completely replaced by mountains as the divide between continents. The first recorded usage of Eurṓpē as a geographic term is in the Homeric Hymn to Delian Apollo , in reference to

7172-490: The Megalithic Temples of Malta and Stonehenge , were constructed throughout Western and Southern Europe. The modern native populations of Europe largely descend from three distinct lineages: Mesolithic hunter-gatherers , descended from populations associated with the Paleolithic Epigravettian culture; Neolithic Early European Farmers who migrated from Anatolia during the Neolithic Revolution 9,000 years ago; and Yamnaya Steppe herders who expanded into Europe from

7335-427: The Neandertal valley in Germany ) appeared in Europe 150,000 years ago (115,000 years ago it is found already in the territory of present-day Poland ) and disappeared from the fossil record about 40,000 years ago, with their final refuge being the Iberian Peninsula. The Neanderthals were supplanted by modern humans ( Cro-Magnons ), who seem to have appeared in Europe around 43,000 to 40,000 years ago. However, there

7498-436: The Novgorod Republic , and others. Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere . It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east. Europe shares the landmass of Eurasia with Asia, and of Afro-Eurasia with both Asia and Africa . Europe

7661-448: The Ottoman Empire , major regional power in and around Black Sea , which also had some of its own directly-administrated areas as well. In the 17th century, the Cossack rebellion led by Bohdan Khmelnytsky marked a turning point in the Ukraine' history. The uprising , which began in 1648, was fueled by grievances against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth 's nobility, religious tensions, and social inequalities. This rebellion led to

7824-432: The Pechenegs and the Cuman-Kipchaks , caused a massive migration of Slavic populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, and temporarily halted the expansion of the Rus' state to the south and east. Like many other parts of Eurasia , these territories were overrun by the Mongols . The invaders, who became known as Tatars , were mostly Turkic-speaking peoples under Mongol suzerainty. They established

7987-409: The Pontic–Caspian steppe of Ukraine and southern Russia in the context of Indo-European migrations 5,000 years ago. The European Bronze Age began c. 3200 BCE in Greece with the Minoan civilisation on Crete , the first advanced civilisation in Europe. The Minoans were followed by the Myceneans , who collapsed suddenly around 1200 BCE, ushering the European Iron Age . Iron Age colonisation by

8150-403: The Radhanite Jews, to operate along vast routes that stretched from China to the Byzantine Empire . These trade routes facilitated the exchange of goods, culture, and ideas across Eurasia . The origins of the Kievan state and the etymology of its name, Rus', continue to be subjects of scholarly debate. One theory, often called the ' Norman theory ', posits that the term Rus' originated from

8313-403: The Scandinavian Varangians , who were active in trade and military ventures across Eastern Europe in the early medieval period. Proponents of this theory argue that the Varangians, also known as the Rus', initially brought a political and military influence that shaped the emerging state structure, with the term Rus' eventually becoming synonymous with the region and its people. In contrast,

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8476-406: The Serbian Principality (later Kingdom and Empire ), and the Duchy of Croatia (later Kingdom of Croatia ). To the east, Kievan Rus' expanded from its capital in Kiev to become the largest state in Europe by the 10th century. In 988, Vladimir the Great adopted Orthodox Christianity as the religion of state. Further east, Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in the 10th century, but

8639-471: The Serpent's Walls , which stretched for 1,000 kilometers, safeguarding Kievan Rus' from external threats. Despite these accomplishments, Kievan Rus' entered a turbulent period of internal strife following Vladimir's death in 1015, as his sons fought for control. This era of internecine conflict lasted until 1019, when Yaroslav the Wise emerged victorious and assumed the throne. Ruling jointly with his brother Mstislav until 1036, Yaroslav presided over what

8802-425: The Ukrainians , including the Polans , Severians , Drevlians , White Croats , Dulebes , Ulichs , and Tivertsi . The migration of these tribes from Ukraine throughout the Balkans contributed to the foundation of several South Slavic nations, while northern migrations, reaching as far as Lake Ilmen , gave rise to the Ilmen Slavs , Krivichs , and Radimichs . The collapse of the Antes Union in 602, following

8965-426: The decline of the Roman Empire , Europe entered a long period of change arising from what historians call the " Age of Migrations ". There were numerous invasions and migrations amongst the Ostrogoths , Visigoths , Goths , Vandals , Huns , Franks , Angles , Saxons , Slavs , Avars , Bulgars , Vikings , Pechenegs , Cumans , and Magyars . Renaissance thinkers such as Petrarch would later refer to this as

9128-465: The fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, Christian consolidation of Europe in the wake of the Migration Period marked the European post-classical Middle Ages . The Italian Renaissance spread in the continent a new humanist interest in art and science which led to the modern era . Since the Age of Discovery , led by Spain and Portugal , Europe played a predominant role in global affairs with multiple explorations and conquests around

9291-432: The last glacial period ended about 10,000 years ago. Earth is currently in an interglacial period of the Quaternary, called the Holocene . Homo erectus georgicus , which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in Georgia , is the earliest hominin to have been discovered in Europe. Other hominin remains, dating back roughly 1 million years, have been discovered in Atapuerca , Spain . Neanderthal man (named after

9454-517: The polis , was the fundamental political unit of classical Greece. In 508 BCE, Cleisthenes instituted the world's first democratic system of government in Athens . The Greek political ideals were rediscovered in the late 18th century by European philosophers and idealists. Greece also generated many cultural contributions: in philosophy , humanism and rationalism under Aristotle , Socrates and Plato ; in history with Herodotus and Thucydides ; in dramatic and narrative verse, starting with

9617-402: The "Dark Ages". Isolated monastic communities were the only places to safeguard and compile written knowledge accumulated previously; apart from this, very few written records survive. Much literature, philosophy, mathematics, and other thinking from the classical period disappeared from Western Europe, though they were preserved in the east, in the Byzantine Empire. While the Roman empire in

9780-418: The ' anti-Norman theory ' suggests that the term Rus' has indigenous Slavic or Baltic roots, developing independently of Scandinavian influence. Advocates of this theory assert that Eastern Slavic tribes already had established political and social frameworks before any contact with the Varangians, and that these tribes were naturally progressing toward political consolidation. According to this perspective,

9943-461: The 12th centuries, with a population of approximately 400,000. The Empire was weakened following the defeat at Manzikert , and was weakened considerably by the sack of Constantinople in 1204 , during the Fourth Crusade . Although it would recover Constantinople in 1261, Byzantium fell in 1453 when Constantinople was taken by the Ottoman Empire . In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic Turkic tribes, such as

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10106-401: The 12th to the 15th centuries, the Grand Duchy of Moscow grew from a small principality under Mongol rule to the largest state in Europe, overthrowing the Mongols in 1480, and eventually becoming the Tsardom of Russia . The state was consolidated under Ivan III the Great and Ivan the Terrible , steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries. The Great Famine of 1315–1317

10269-444: The 18th century. During this period, more than 100 plague epidemics swept across Europe. The Renaissance was a period of cultural change originating in Florence , and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The rise of a new humanism was accompanied by the recovery of forgotten classical Greek and Arabic knowledge from monastic libraries, often translated from Arabic into Latin . The Renaissance spread across Europe between

10432-531: The 370s with the arrival of the Huns , a nomadic group from Central Asia . The Huns were powerful warriors and ultimately brought the Ostrogoths under their control, leading to major shifts in Gothic society and governance. To the north of the Ostrogothic territory was the Kyiv culture , a Slavic archaeological culture that thrived from the 2nd to the 5th centuries AD. As the Huns expanded their influence across Eastern Europe, this culture also came under threat. Many Slavic and other local groups were affected by

10595-400: The 50 years of peace that followed are known as Golden Age of Athens , the seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of Western civilisation. Greece was followed by Rome , which left its mark on law , politics , language , engineering , architecture , government , and many more key aspects in western civilisation. By 200 BCE, Rome had conquered Italy and over

10758-454: The 7th century, the territory of modern Ukraine was at the core of the state of the Bulgars , often referred to as Old Great Bulgaria . This state, with its capital at Phanagoria (located in what is now the Taman Peninsula), controlled a significant part of the northern Black Sea region. The Bulgars, a semi- nomadic people from Central Asia , were known for their sophisticated society, military organization, and far-reaching influence. By

10921-437: The 8th century, although Christianity , Islam , and other faiths were also practiced within their borders. The Khazars played a key role in the politics and economy of Eastern Europe and the Pontic-Caspian steppe . Their control over trade routes contributed to the establishment of the Pax Khazarica , a period of relative peace and stability that fostered safe long-distance trade. This stability allowed traders, including

11084-421: The British Isles, France, Christianised western Germany, the Alpine regions and northern and central Italy. The concept is one of the lasting legacies of the Carolingian Renaissance : Europa often figures in the letters of Charlemagne's court scholar, Alcuin . The transition of Europe to being a cultural term as well as a geographic one led to the borders of Europe being affected by cultural considerations in

11247-448: The Don altogether, following the Greater Caucasus watershed to the Caspian. The question was still treated as a "controversy" in geographical literature of the 1860s, with Douglas Freshfield advocating the Caucasus crest boundary as the "best possible", citing support from various "modern geographers". In Russia and the Soviet Union , the boundary along the Kuma–Manych Depression was the most commonly used as early as 1906. In 1958,

11410-427: The Early Middle Ages, and soon spread throughout Europe. A struggle for influence between the nobility and the monarchy in England led to the writing of Magna Carta and the establishment of a parliament . The primary source of culture in this period came from the Roman Catholic Church . Through monasteries and cathedral schools , the Church was responsible for education in much of Europe. The Papacy reached

11573-517: The Early Slavs remain uncertain, though several theories suggest they may have originated near the Polesia region, a marshy area between modern-day Belarus and Ukraine . This period marks a transition from the Kyiv culture to the establishment of Slavic tribes across Eastern Europe. In the 5th and 6th centuries, the Antes Union (a tribal confederation) is generally believed to have been situated in present-day Ukraine. The Antes are considered ancestors of several Slavic tribes that would later form

11736-661: The East Slavic tribe of the Polans , inhabitants of the Middle Dnieper region, adopted the name Rus' for their land and were regarded as the most advanced among the East Slavs. Thus, they played a central role in forming a new tribal union centered around Kiev. From the first half of the 10th century, the first confirmed ruler of the Kievan state, as documented in foreign sources, was Igor

11899-550: The East, especially relating to areas under Byzantine, Ottoman, and Russian influence. Such questions were affected by the positive connotations associated with the term Europe by its users. Such cultural considerations were not applied to the Americas, despite their conquest and settlement by European states. Instead, the concept of "Western civilization" emerged as a way of grouping together Europe and these colonies. The question of defining

12062-680: The Frankish tribes were united under Clovis I . Charlemagne , a Frankish king of the Carolingian dynasty who had conquered most of Western Europe, was anointed " Holy Roman Emperor " by the Pope in 800. This led in 962 to the founding of the Holy Roman Empire , which eventually became centred in the German principalities of central Europe. East Central Europe saw the creation of the first Slavic states and

12225-461: The Great 's efforts to make Russia more European, ignored the whole boundary question with his claim that neither Russia, Scandinavia, northern Germany, nor Poland were fully part of Europe. Since then, many modern analytical geographers like Halford Mackinder have declared that they see little validity in the Ural Mountains as a boundary between continents. The mapmakers continued to differ on

12388-645: The Greeks '. A significant section of this route ran along the Dnieper River , and Kiev was an important transshipment point, allowing control over trade along the Dnieper, Pripyat , and Desna rivers. The Middle Dnieper region began to serve as a political, cultural, and economic center for the East Slavic world. It eventually came to be known as the Rus' land in the narrow sense of this term. According to The Tale of Bygone Years ,

12551-724: The Hunnic invasions, resulting in changes in settlement patterns and local governance. In 454 AD, a decisive battle known as the Battle of Nedao marked a turning point. The Ostrogoths, along with other Germanic tribes, rebelled against the Huns and contributed to their defeat. Following this victory, the Ostrogoths were permitted by the Romans to settle in Pannonia (modern-day Hungary ), marking their departure from

12714-634: The Levant and North Africa and making inroads into Asia Minor . In the mid-7th century, following the Muslim conquest of Persia , Islam penetrated into the Caucasus region. Over the next centuries Muslim forces took Cyprus , Malta , Crete , Sicily , and parts of southern Italy . Between 711 and 720, most of the lands of the Visigothic Kingdom of Iberia were brought under Muslim rule—save for small areas in

12877-625: The Mediterranean Sea without the inclusion of any mountain ranges. Cartographer Herman Moll suggested in 1715 Europe was bounded by a series of partly-joined waterways directed towards the Turkish straits, and the Irtysh River draining into the upper part of the Ob River and the Arctic Ocean . In contrast, the present eastern boundary of Europe partially adheres to the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, which

13040-617: The Middle Paleolithic period (approximately 45,000–43,000 BC), provide significant evidence of Neanderthal activity. Molodova is known for its rich cultural layers attributed to the Mousterian tradition, showcasing the use of fire, mammoth bone processing, and possible construction of primitive shelters. These sites, located along the Dniester River , are particularly notable for their evidence of advanced behavior. One remarkable feature

13203-558: The Old , whom the Primary Chronicle identifies as a prince. Information in the Chronicle regarding governance during this period is considered relatively reliable. The princely retinue played a significant role in governance, accompanying rulers on campaigns and collecting tribute from subjugated local Slavic tribes . The collected tribute (such as furs , honey , hides , wax , and slaves )

13366-652: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and Muscovy. The Cossack Hetmanate 's autonomy was progressively eroded, culminating in its abolition by Catherine the Great in the late 18th century. Simultaneously, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth's internal decline and external pressures from neighboring powers facilitated the partitions of Poland . These partitions allowed the Russian Empire to incorporate vast Ukrainian territories, including those previously under Polish control. Western Ukraine, however, came under

13529-536: The Scandinavian Rurik dynasty . According to the Chronicle, a representative of this dynasty, Oleg the Wise , allegedly came to Kiev from Novgorod in 882, killed Askold and Dir, and took control of the Kiev state. This narrative contains chronological errors—for example, it incorrectly dates the Constantinople raid to 867—and lacks corroboration from archaeological evidence, which suggests that Novgorod itself

13692-710: The Soviet Geographical Society formally recommended that the boundary between the Europe and Asia be drawn in textbooks from Baydaratskaya Bay , on the Kara Sea , along the eastern foot of Ural Mountains, then following the Ural River until the Mugodzhar Hills , and then the Emba River ; and Kuma–Manych Depression, thus placing the Caucasus entirely in Asia and the Urals entirely in Europe. The Flora Europaea adopted

13855-510: The Soviet Union. The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (UPA) fought for independence, though parts of Ukrainian society also collaborated with occupying forces. Post-war, Soviet control was reestablished, and Crimea was transferred to Ukraine in 1954. Ukraine became independent when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. This started a period of transition to a market economy , in which Ukraine suffered an eight-year recession . Subsequently however,

14018-593: The Soviets". In 2010 UCCLA strove to ensure that all 12 galleries in the publicly funded Canadian Museum for Human Rights were thematic , comparative and inclusive – rather than elevating the suffering of any one or two communities above all others. To that end the association distributed thousands of protest postcards nationally and published a notice raising their concerns in The Hill Times (31 January 2011). Some of UCCLA's critics have tried to censure or even call for

14181-500: The Tanais (the modern Don River) as the boundary. The Roman Empire did not attach a strong identity to the concept of continental divisions. However, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire , the culture that developed in its place , linked to Latin and the Catholic church, began to associate itself with the concept of "Europe". The term "Europe" is first used for a cultural sphere in

14344-621: The Ukrainian Canadian Victoria Cross recipient, Cpl Filip Konowal ; recalling the contributions of Ukrainian Canadian servicemen and women during the Second World War (London, England); and honouring the Welsh journalist, Gareth Jones , reported on the famine of 1932–33. UCCLA has also commissioned a number of articles and books that have been distributed internationally dealing with the famine, Anglo-American perspectives on

14507-478: The Ukrainian lands. Meanwhile, the Black Sea ’s northeastern shores were dotted with ancient Greek colonies , such as Tyras , Pontic Olbia , and Hermonassa . Established as early as the 6th century BC, these colonies developed into important cultural and trading centers under Roman and later Byzantine rule. These cities continued to thrive until the 6th century AD, when Byzantine influence began to wane. In

14670-706: The Wise's death, his sons divided the lands, which significantly accelerated political fragmentation. Although his succession plan aimed to prevent conflict, it ultimately sowed the seeds of feudal division. The Council of Liubech , convened by several princes, including Vladimir Monomakh , sought to settle disputes and clarify the inheritance of principalities. This agreement formalized Kievan Rus's division into regional hereditary principalities, thereby legalizing fragmentation. The adage "Let everyone hold his own" emerged, signifying that each prince would govern his own territory without interference from others. Vladimir Monomakh, who served as Grand Prince of Kiev from 1113 to 1125,

14833-486: The adoption of Christianity ( c. 1000 CE) . The powerful West Slavic state of Great Moravia spread its territory all the way south to the Balkans, reaching its largest territorial extent under Svatopluk I and causing a series of armed conflicts with East Francia . Further south, the first South Slavic states emerged in the late 7th and 8th century and adopted Christianity : the First Bulgarian Empire ,

14996-557: The area of modern Ukraine , which they referred to as Oium . This region is linked to the archaeological Chernyakhov culture , known for its unique mix of local and Gothic influences. The Goths in this region soon divided into two main groups: the Visigoths (Western Goths) and the Ostrogoths (Eastern Goths). The Ostrogoths established a stronghold in Ukraine but faced significant changes in

15159-562: The authority of the Grand Prince of Kiev was notably weakening. Regional princes, bolstered by local resources and armies, began to resist central control. Additionally, the vast geography and economic diversity of Rus' impeded unity, as various regions developed their own trade routes and systems. External threats from nomadic groups, such as the Pechenegs and Polovtsy ( Cumans ), further exacerbated regionalism, compelling local rulers to focus on defending their territories. After Yaroslav

15322-625: The basis of many modern legal systems, funded the construction of the Hagia Sophia and brought the Christian church under state control. From the 7th century onwards, as the Byzantines and neighbouring Sasanid Persians were severely weakened due to the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent Byzantine–Sasanian wars , the Muslim Arabs began to make inroads into historically Roman territory, taking

15485-517: The behaviors and adaptive strategies of early members of the genus Homo , likely Homo erectus , as they expanded into the continent during the Lower Paleolithic period. The Neanderthal presence in Ukraine is well-documented through archaeological findings, particularly at the Molodova sites, which are located in the modern-day Chernivtsi region in southwestern Ukraine. These sites, dating to

15648-556: The boundary between the lower Don and Samara well into the 19th century. The 1745 atlas published by the Russian Academy of Sciences has the boundary follow the Don beyond Kalach as far as Serafimovich before cutting north towards Arkhangelsk , while other 18th- to 19th-century mapmakers such as John Cary followed Strahlenberg's prescription. To the south, the Kuma–Manych Depression was identified c.  1773 by

15811-476: The conflict. However, after Oleg's death, he returned with a Varangian army. By 980, Vladimir had defeated Yaropolk and consolidated power, becoming the sole ruler of Kievan Rus'. During the reign of Vladimir the Great, Kievan Rus' expanded significantly, notably through the conquest and annexation of Red Ruthenia , Transcarpathia , and Korsun . These territorial gains made Kievan Rus' the largest state in Europe at

15974-460: The continent The prevalent definition of Europe as a geographical term has been in use since the mid-19th century. Europe is taken to be bounded by large bodies of water to the north, west and south; Europe's limits to the east and north-east are usually taken to be the Ural Mountains , the Ural River , and the Caspian Sea ; to the south-east, the Caucasus Mountains , the Black Sea , and

16137-561: The continent. Chinese, for example, uses the word Ōuzhōu ( 歐洲 / 欧洲 ), which is an abbreviation of the transliterated name Ōuluóbā zhōu ( 歐羅巴洲 ) ( zhōu means "continent"); a similar Chinese-derived term Ōshū ( 欧州 ) is also sometimes used in Japanese such as in the Japanese name of the European Union, Ōshū Rengō ( 欧州連合 ) , despite the katakana Yōroppa ( ヨーロッパ ) being more commonly used. In some Turkic languages,

16300-621: The continents as the lands given by Noah to his three sons; Europe was defined as stretching from the Pillars of Hercules at the Strait of Gibraltar , separating it from Northwest Africa , to the Don, separating it from Asia. The convention received by the Middle Ages and surviving into modern usage is that of the Roman era used by Roman-era authors such as Posidonius , Strabo , and Ptolemy , who took

16463-642: The creation of the Cossack Hetmanate , a semi-autonomous polity in central and eastern Ukraine. In 1654, the Cossack Hetmanate allied with the Tsardom of Moscow through the Treaty of Pereyaslav . The nature of this alliance has been widely debated by historians. Some argue that it established a protectorate relationship, with Muscovy offering military support in exchange for loyalty, while others believe it symbolized

16626-418: The daughter of English King Harold II . As an educated ruler, Monomakh authored The Instruction of Vladimir Monomakh , offering insights on governance, morality, and leadership. His reign is often regarded as one of the last periods of unity before Rus' descended further into division. Monomakh's son, Mstislav the Great , preserved some unity during his reign from 1125 to 1132. However, following his death,

16789-568: The development of major commercial routes along the coast of the Mediterranean and Baltic Seas . The growing wealth and independence acquired by some coastal cities gave the Maritime Republics a leading role in the European scene. The Middle Ages on the mainland were dominated by the two upper echelons of the social structure: the nobility and the clergy. Feudalism developed in France in

16952-574: The early 6th century AD, the Bosporan Kingdom on the Crimean Peninsula came under the rule of a Hunnic king named Gordas . Gordas maintained friendly relations with the Byzantine emperor Justinian I , but this ended when Gordas was killed in a local revolt around 527 AD. Justinian seized the opportunity to intervene, occupying the Bosporan Kingdom and further extending Byzantine influence over

17115-590: The eastern territories became the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic (part of the USSR ), while western Ukraine was absorbed by Poland, Romania , and Czechoslovakia . Under Soviet rule, initial policies of Ukrainianization gave way to oppressive Russification . The Holodomor famine of 1932–1933, a man-made disaster, caused the deaths of 4-5 millions Ukrainians. During World War II , Ukraine endured brutal occupations by both Nazi Germany and

17278-723: The economy experienced a high increase in GDP growth until it plunged during the Great Recession . This period was marked by economic challenges, the rise of nationalism , and growing tensions with Russian Federation . In 2013, the Euromaidan protests began in response to President Viktor Yanukovych ’s rejection of an EU association agreement . The Revolution of Dignity followed, leading to Yanukovych’s ousting. Russia annexed Crimea in 2014 and supported separatist movements in Donbas , initiating

17441-636: The end of the 18th century, gave rise to radical economic, cultural, and social change in Western Europe and eventually the wider world. Both world wars began and were fought to a great extent in Europe, contributing to a decline in Western European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the Soviet Union and the United States took prominence and competed over dominance in Europe and globally. The resulting Cold War divided Europe along

17604-548: The end of the 7th century, the Bulgars faced increasing pressure from neighboring tribes and empires. Most of the Bulgar tribes migrated in various directions—some settled in the Balkans , where they eventually established the First Bulgarian Empire . Other groups moved towards the Volga region, forming Volga Bulgaria , which became a prominent center of trade and culture. The remaining parts of Old Great Bulgaria were eventually absorbed by

17767-570: The epic poems of Homer ; in drama with Sophocles and Euripides ; in medicine with Hippocrates and Galen ; and in science with Pythagoras , Euclid , and Archimedes . In the course of the 5th century BCE, several of the Greek city states would ultimately check the Achaemenid Persian advance in Europe through the Greco-Persian Wars , considered a pivotal moment in world history, as

17930-410: The following two centuries it conquered Greece , Hispania ( Spain and Portugal ), the North African coast, much of the Middle East , Gaul ( France and Belgium ), and Britannia ( England and Wales ). Expanding from their base in central Italy beginning in the third century BCE, the Romans gradually expanded to eventually rule the entire Mediterranean basin and Western Europe by the turn of

18093-599: The genesis of the later Yamna culture . The Yamna culture (ca. 3300–2600 BC), also known as the Pit Grave culture, was a dominant force in the early Bronze Age across the Pontic-Caspian steppe. This culture is often linked with the spread of Indo-European languages and reflects a shift toward a more mobile, pastoralist lifestyle. The Yamna culture is characterized by its burial mounds (kurgans), often accompanied by grave goods such as weapons , ornaments , and animal sacrifices . The economy relied heavily on livestock, including sheep , cattle , and horses , which supported

18256-400: The height of its power during the High Middle Ages. An East-West Schism in 1054 split the former Roman Empire religiously, with the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire and the Roman Catholic Church in the former Western Roman Empire. In 1095 Pope Urban II called for a crusade against Muslims occupying Jerusalem and the Holy Land . In Europe itself, the Church organised

18419-479: The horse . In antiquity, the area was part of Scythia and later inhabited by Goths , Huns , and Slavic tribes . Southern Ukraine was colonized by the Greeks and Romans , leaving a significant cultural heritage. Ukraine enters into written history with the establishment of the medieval state of Kievan Rus' . In Dnieper Ukraine , the tribe of Polans served as the organizers of Kievan Rus' state, beginning to name themself and their land Rus' in 9th century,

18582-399: The idea of water boundaries as the only legitimate divides between Europe and Asia. Four years later, in 1725, Philip Johan von Strahlenberg was the first to depart from the classical Don boundary. He drew a new line along the Volga , following the Volga north until the Samara Bend , along Obshchy Syrt (the drainage divide between the Volga and Ural Rivers ), then north and east along

18745-532: The latter waterway to its source in the Ural Mountains . At this point he proposed that mountain ranges could be included as boundaries between continents as alternatives to nearby waterways. Accordingly, he drew the new boundary north along Ural Mountains rather than the nearby and parallel running Ob and Irtysh rivers. This was endorsed by the Russian Empire and introduced the convention that would eventually become commonly accepted. However, this did not come without criticism. Voltaire , writing in 1760 about Peter

18908-474: The local Ruthenian traditions, and was gradually influenced by Ruthenian language , law and culture , until Lithuania itself came under Polish influence , following the Union of Krewo and Union of Lublin , resulting in two countries merging into Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth , leaving Ukrainian lands under the dominance of Polish crown . Meanwhile Southern Ukraine was dominated by Golden Horde and then Crimean Khanate , which came under protection of

19071-432: The mass baptism of the people of Kiev in the Pochaina River and built the first stone church in Kievan Rus' — Church of the Tithes . He also introduced the Charter on Church Courts and Tithes , thereby securing a strong relationship between the church and state. Unlike the earlier attempts of his grandmother, Princess Olga, Vladimir's reforms had a lasting impact, deeply influencing the religious and cultural development of

19234-464: The millennium. The Roman Republic ended in 27 BCE, when Augustus proclaimed the Roman Empire . The two centuries that followed are known as the pax romana , a period of unprecedented peace, prosperity and political stability in most of Europe. The empire continued to expand under emperors such as Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius , who spent time on the Empire's northern border fighting Germanic , Pictish and Scottish tribes. Christianity

19397-414: The name Rus' could be linked to the Ros River , a historically significant waterway flowing through present-day Ukraine , which was home to various Slavic communities. In this view, Rus' may have referred to a collective identity tied to a specific geographic region or a union of native tribes, rather than to foreign invaders or rulers. The first reliable mention of the Rus' dates back to the year 839 in

19560-441: The northwest ( Asturias ) and largely Basque regions in the Pyrenees . This territory, under the Arabic name Al-Andalus , became part of the expanding Umayyad Caliphate . The unsuccessful second siege of Constantinople (717) weakened the Umayyad dynasty and reduced their prestige. The Umayyads were then defeated by the Frankish leader Charles Martel at the Battle of Poitiers in 732, which ended their northward advance. In

19723-544: The notable events in Scythian history was the campaign of Darius the Great in 513 BC. The Achaemenid Persian king led an expedition aimed at subjugating the Scythians. While the Scythians employed their signature scorched-earth and guerrilla tactics to evade outright defeat, the campaign resulted in the Persian domination of several Thracian peoples and regions along the Black Sea ’s northern coast. These territories, encompassing parts of modern-day Bulgaria , Romania , Ukraine , and southern Russia , were incorporated into

19886-405: The ongoing Russo-Ukrainian War . This escalated on 24 February 2022, with Russia’s full-scale invasion , marking a critical phase in Ukraine’s fight for sovereignty and territorial integrity. The discovery of 1.4-million-year-old stone tools in Korolevo , located in western Ukraine, marks one of the earliest securely dated presences of hominins in Europe . These tools offer crucial insights into

20049-431: The originally Persian name Frangistan ("land of the Franks ") is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as Avrupa or Evropa . Clickable map of Europe, showing one of the most commonly used continental boundaries Key: blue : states which straddle the border between Europe and Asia ; green : countries not geographically in Europe, but closely associated with

20212-444: The poetry devoted to it. An alternative view is that of Robert Beekes , who has argued in favour of a pre-Indo-European origin for the name, explaining that a derivation from eurus would yield a different toponym than Europa. Beekes has located toponyms related to that of Europa in the territory of ancient Greece, and localities such as that of Europos in ancient Macedonia . There have been attempts to connect Eurṓpē to

20375-419: The principality fractured. The division of lands among Monomakh's sons and other relatives resulted in multiple competing power centers. The process of feudal fragmentation marked a turning point in the history of Rus', culminating in its eventual decline and the rise of smaller, more independent states. These would later evolve into the medieval powers of the Kingdom of Ruthenia , the Principality of Polotsk ,

20538-477: The question of Ukraine's independence, the Ukrainian nationalist movement before, during and after the Second World War, and Soviet military operations. In 2003–2004, UCCLA campaigned to have the 1932 Pulitzer Prize of Walter Duranty , the New York Times correspondent in Moscow from 1922 to 1934, revoked. Duranty wrote in 1933, during the Great Famine, that "there was no famine" and criticized articles by other Western journalists as "failed predictions of doom for

20701-417: The realisation of the European Union (EU), which represents today the majority of Europe. The European Union is a supranational political entity that lies between a confederation and a federation and is based on a system of European treaties . The EU originated in Western Europe but has been expanding eastward since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. A majority of its members have adopted

20864-509: The region witnessed the rise and interaction of diverse peoples and cultures. Following earlier Bronze Age societies, the Dacians , alongside nomadic groups such as the Cimmerians (associated with the Novocherkassk archaeological culture ), Scythians , and Sarmatians , dominated the landscape. Among these, the Scythians established a powerful kingdom that flourished between 750 and 250 BC, characterized by their mastery of mounted warfare and trade networks spanning vast territories. One of

21027-420: The region. Vladimir's rule also saw administrative, monetary, and military reforms. He appointed governors and entrusted his sons with ruling major cities, also minted his own gold (Zlatnik) and silver (Srebrenik) coins, and granted borderlands to loyal vassals in exchange for military defense. To protect the realm, Vladimir oversaw the construction of an extensive system of defensive fortifications, known as

21190-431: The region. However, even into the 12th century, Byzantine emperors continued to claim dominion over the Crimean region, known as the Cimmerian Bosporus . Following the power vacuum left by the fall of Hunnic and Gothic dominance, the Early Slavs began to expand over much of the territory that is now Ukraine during the 5th century, continuing their migration into the Balkans in the 6th century. The exact origins of

21353-456: The remote regions of north-western Iberia and the middle Pyrenees the power of the Muslims in the south was scarcely felt. It was here that the foundations of the Christian kingdoms of Asturias , Leon , and Galicia were laid and from where the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula would start. However, no coordinated attempt would be made to drive the Moors out. The Christian kingdoms were mainly focused on their own internal power struggles. As

21516-400: The rule of the Habsburg Monarchy . This division set the stage for the different historical trajectories of Ukrainian lands under Russian and Austrian influence. The 20th century began with a renewed struggle for Ukrainian statehood. Following the collapse of empires during World War I , the Ukrainian People’s Republic (UPR) was proclaimed in 1917 with Kyiv as its capital. Meanwhile, in

21679-410: The same geographic area. It is distinguished by its unique burial practices, where bodies were interred in specially carved niches within grave pits. They further advanced bronze metallurgy, producing a variety of tools, weapons, and ornaments. The Catacomb culture maintained many traditions of the Yamna culture while also interacting with neighboring groups to the west and south. During the Iron Age ,

21842-513: The silencing of its voice in the public debate over the proposed contents and governance of the tax payer funded Canadian Museum for Human Rights. One of UCCLA's other recent campaigns (February 2016) involved an appeal to the then- Minister of Canadian Heritage , the Honourable Mélanie Joly , requesting her intervention to help save and re-consecrate the internment camp cemetery at Spirit Lake (La Ferme), Quebec . That internee cemetery remains abandoned and in ever-deteriorating condition, despite being

22005-422: The state of the Golden Horde with headquarters in Crimea, which later adopted Islam as a religion, and ruled over modern-day southern and central Russia for more than three centuries. After the collapse of Mongol dominions, the first Romanian states (principalities) emerged in the 14th century: Moldavia and Walachia . Previously, these territories were under the successive control of Pechenegs and Cumans. From

22168-492: The subdued Slavs, which led to a rebellion by the Drevlians , who killed him in 945. Following Igor's death in 945, his widow, Princess Olga , assumed the role of regent for their young son, Sviatoslav , who was still too young to rule. Olga is best known for her calculated and fierce retaliation against the Drevlians, a campaign that culminated in the annexation of their lands into the expanding Kievan Rus'. Olga also implemented significant reforms, particularly by restructuring

22331-430: The subordination of the Hetmanate to the Tsar . The ambiguity of the treaty's terms and differing interpretations contributed to tensions over the following decades. Over time, the relationship between the Cossack Hetmanate and Muscovy evolved, with Muscovy increasingly asserting dominance. This process intensified in the late 17th and 18th centuries, especially after the Treaty of Andrusovo , which divided Ukraine between

22494-747: The territory among themselves, leading to further internecine conflicts and the eventual decline of centralized power. The feudal fragmentation of Kievan Rus' began in the late 11th century, driven by a complex interplay of internal and external factors. One significant factor was the rotational succession system, allowing power to pass among male relatives instead of directly from father to son. This system often sparked conflicts, as competing claims to power emerged. With princes often granted specific territories, autonomous principalities began to emerge clearly. Regional cities such as Chernihiv , Polotsk , and Novgorod gained power and asserted their independence, with local elites increasing their influence. By this time,

22657-541: The throne in the core Rus' land, while experiencing Turkic raids from Southern Ukraine . In 13th century Kievan Rus' was destroyed by the Mongol invasion , leaving its core in Dnieper Ukraine absolutely devastated, but the Kingdom of Ruthenia (Galicia-Volhynia) succeeded Kievan Rus' under King Daniel . In 14th and 15th centuries, majority of Ukrainian territories became part of Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Ruthenia and Samogitia , while Galicia and Zakarpattia came under Polish and Hungarian rule. Lithuania kept

22820-535: The time, covering over 800,000 square kilometers and boasting a population of more than 5 million. The socio-economic structure of Kievan Rus' was similar to that of other European states of the period, characterized by a natural economy, communal land ownership, and reliance on slash-and-burn agriculture, and animal husbandry. Vladimir reformed local governance by abolishing the traditional tribal autonomies and installing his own appointed governors, further centralizing his authority. Under his rule, Kiev emerged as one of

22983-421: The time, with populations reaching up to 10,000 inhabitants. They built concentric layouts of houses, often using clay and wood , demonstrating advanced planning. They are renowned for their intricate painted ceramics , featuring geometric and symbolic designs in red, black, and white. Their economy was primarily agrarian, complemented by animal husbandry and small-scale trade. Archaeological findings suggest

23146-437: The title of Grand Prince of Kiev and worked to consolidate power across the vast territory, leading to conflicts with his brothers. Oleg , Sviatoslav's second son, governed the Drevlian lands, and rivalry between him and Yaropolk escalated into open warfare. During one of their clashes around 977, Oleg was killed, further intensifying the conflict. Initially, Vladimir , Sviatoslav's youngest son, fled to avoid being entangled in

23309-645: The tribute collection system known as poliudie . This new system made revenue collection more systematic and centralized, reducing the likelihood of rebellion by ensuring a more balanced distribution of power. In a landmark decision, Olga became the first ruler of Kievan Rus' to embrace Christianity around 957 during a diplomatic visit to Constantinople. However, despite her conversion, the state under her rule remained predominantly pagan, with Christianity gaining influence only later under her descendants. When Sviatoslav assumed rule over Kievan Rus', he launched an ambitious military expansion. His most notable achievement

23472-487: The vast Achaemenid sphere of influence, though direct control remained tenuous. Meanwhile, Greek colonization left a lasting imprint on the region. Beginning in the 7th or 6th century BC during the Archaic period , Greek settlers established colonies along the northern Black Sea coast , including Crimea and parts of modern Ukraine. These colonies, such as Chersonesus and Olbia , served as hubs of trade, cultural exchange, and Hellenic influence. The Bosporan Kingdom ,

23635-426: The very heart of the Byzantine Empire , quickly reaching the city’s outskirts. According to accounts from Greek eyewitnesses, the Rus' not only managed to pillage the suburbs of Constantinople but also instilled widespread fear among its residents. The Byzantine defenses were unprepared, allowing the Rus' to withdraw without significant resistance. The earliest source about the history of the Middle Dnieper region

23798-407: The waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea . Islands are generally grouped with the nearest continental landmass, hence Iceland is considered to be part of Europe, while the nearby island of Greenland is usually assigned to North America , although politically belonging to Denmark. Nevertheless, there are some exceptions based on sociopolitical and cultural differences. Cyprus

23961-415: The wealthiest commercial centers in Europe during the 10th and 11th centuries, benefiting from its strategic location on trade routes and its growing political influence. Initially, Vladimir supported the worship of Slavic deities such as Perun . However, in 988, he made a historic decision to convert Kievan Rus' to Christianity , adopting Eastern Orthodoxy from the Byzantine Empire . He personally led

24124-445: The west and the north, transmitting newly acquired skills in producing copper artifacts. In Western Europe the Neolithic period was characterised not by large agricultural settlements but by field monuments, such as causewayed enclosures , burial mounds and megalithic tombs . The Corded Ware cultural horizon flourished at the transition from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic . During this period giant megalithic monuments, such as

24287-416: The west continued to decline, Roman traditions and the Roman state remained strong in the predominantly Greek-speaking Eastern Roman Empire , also known as the Byzantine Empire . During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. Emperor Justinian I presided over Constantinople's first golden age: he established a legal code that forms

24450-399: The western shore of the Aegean Sea . As a name for a part of the known world, it is first used in the 6th century BCE by Anaximander and Hecataeus . Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River (the modern Rioni River on the territory of Georgia ) in the Caucasus, a convention still followed by Herodotus in the 5th century BCE. Herodotus mentioned that

24613-435: The western territories, the West Ukrainian People’s Republic (WUPR) was established in 1918, centered in Lviv . Both republics sought to unite, forming the Unification Act (Act Zluky) on 22 January 1919. However, their independence was short-lived. The UPR faced constant military conflict with Bolshevik forces, Poland , and White Army factions. By 1921, following the Soviet-Ukrainian War , Ukrainian lands were divided:

24776-419: The widespread use of pottery—began around 7000 BCE in Greece and the Balkans , probably influenced by earlier farming practices in Anatolia and the Near East . It spread from the Balkans along the valleys of the Danube and the Rhine ( Linear Pottery culture ), and along the Mediterranean coast ( Cardial culture ). Between 4500 and 3000 BCE, these central European neolithic cultures developed further to

24939-411: The world had been divided by unknown persons into three parts—Europe, Asia, and Libya (Africa)—with the Nile and the Phasis forming their boundaries—though he also states that some considered the River Don , rather than the Phasis, as the boundary between Europe and Asia. Europe's eastern frontier was defined in the 1st century by geographer Strabo at the River Don. The Book of Jubilees described

25102-410: The world. The place name Evros was first used by the ancient Greeks to refer to their northernmost province, which bears the same name today. The principal river there – Evros (today's Maritsa ) – flows through the fertile valleys of Thrace , which itself was also called Europe, before the term meant the continent. In classical Greek mythology , Europa ( Ancient Greek : Εὐρώπη , Eurṓpē )

25265-452: The world. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, European powers colonised at various times the Americas , almost all of Africa and Oceania , and the majority of Asia. The Age of Enlightenment , the French Revolution , and the Napoleonic Wars shaped the continent culturally, politically, and economically from the end of the 17th century until the first half of the 19th century. The Industrial Revolution , which began in Great Britain at

25428-422: Was legalised by Constantine I in 313 CE after three centuries of imperial persecution . Constantine also permanently moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the city of Byzantium (modern-day Istanbul ) which was renamed Constantinople in his honour in 330 CE. Christianity became the sole official religion of the empire in 380 CE, and in 391–392 CE the emperor Theodosius outlawed pagan religions. This

25591-399: Was a Phoenician princess. One view is that her name derives from the Ancient Greek elements εὐρύς ( eurús ) 'wide, broad', and ὤψ ( ōps , gen. ὠπός , ōpós ) 'eye, face, countenance', hence their composite Eurṓpē would mean 'wide-gazing' or 'broad of aspect'. Broad has been an epithet of Earth herself in the reconstructed Proto-Indo-European religion and

25754-531: Was deposed, and the kingdom was directly administered by Rome . Following Nero’s rule, the Bosporan Kingdom was restored as a Roman client state , retaining local governance but under Roman military oversight. This arrangement ensured the region remained within Rome’s economic and strategic sphere during the middle of the 1st century AD. In the 3rd century AD, the Goths , a Germanic people originally from Scandinavia , began migrating toward Eastern Europe . By approximately 250 to 375 AD, they had settled in

25917-428: Was eventually absorbed into Russia several centuries later. The period between the year 1000 and 1250 is known as the High Middle Ages , followed by the Late Middle Ages until c. 1500. During the High Middle Ages the population of Europe experienced significant growth, culminating in the Renaissance of the 12th century . Economic growth, together with the lack of safety on the mainland trading routes, made possible

26080-421: Was mainly exported to Byzantium, with the proceeds used to purchase weapons , luxury goods , and wine —constituting the core of imports. When trade conditions no longer met the prince's expectations, he led an unsuccessful campaign against Constantinople in 941, which eventually resulted in a new Rus-Byzantine trade treaty in 944. The Tale of Bygone Years recounts Igor's attempt to levy additional tribute from

26243-410: Was only established in the 10th century. Therefore, modern historians view the Chronicle's account of the 9th century as largely speculative and likely a later construction by the Chronicle's author. Scholars associate the state-building processes in the Middle Dnieper region with the emergence of the well-known trade route from Scandinavia to Constantinople, known as the ' Route from the Varangians to

26406-414: Was the decisive defeat of the Khazar Khaganate , a once-dominant regional power that had controlled key trade routes for centuries. The fall of the Khazars opened opportunities for Kievan Rus' to extend its influence into the Caucasus and beyond. In addition to his campaigns in the east, Sviatoslav waged numerous battles against the Byzantine Empire , seeking to establish Kievan Rus' as a formidable power in

26569-495: Was the first crisis that would strike Europe in the late Middle Ages. The period between 1348 and 1420 witnessed the heaviest loss. The population of France was reduced by half. Medieval Britain was afflicted by 95 famines, and France suffered the effects of 75 or more in the same period. Europe was devastated in the mid-14th century by the Black Death , one of the most deadly pandemics in human history which killed an estimated 25 million people in Europe alone—a third of

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