Misplaced Pages

#459540

158-539: The movement occurred mostly during the reigns of Carolingian rulers Charlemagne and Louis the Pious . It was supported by the scholars of the Carolingian court , notably Alcuin of York . Charlemagne's Admonitio generalis (789) and Epistola de litteris colendis served as manifestos. Alcuin wrote on subjects ranging from grammar and biblical exegesis to arithmetic and astronomy. He also collected rare books, which formed

316-813: A 'destroyer of many monasteries, and embezzler of Church revenues for his own use...', condemning him for his use of Church property. This is supported by the second source, the Contintuations , which related that, in 733 in Burgundy, Charles split the Lyonnais between his followers, this likely including Church land. Further chronicles like the Gesta episcoporum Autissiodorensium and the Gesta Sanctorum Patrum Fontanellensis Coenobii recorded monasteries losing substantial land. The monastery at Auxerre

474-457: A decline in the economy. By the 830s, under the control of Louis the Pious , the expansion of the harbour had halted altogether, but coins continued to be minted for some time. A division occurred in the Frankish Empire, and Louis the Pious was removed from the throne by his son. However, Lothair I was unable to protect Dorestad and the other Frankish territories from economic turmoil. As

632-531: A different chronology and reading of the LHF , which places Sigibert's death on 1 February 651. According to a Gerberding narrative, Grimoald and Dido organised Dagobert's exile around 16 January 651 to Ireland at Nivelles and then, when Sigibert died a month later, they acted out the plan and tonsured Dagobert, replacing him with Childebert, who ruled until 657. Clovis II then immediately acted and invaded Austrasia, executing Grimoald and his son. Then, either in 657 or 662,

790-670: A famous description of Sigibert being 'seized with the wildest grief and sat there on his horse weeping unrestrainedly for those he had lost' as Radulf returned to his camp victorious. Upon Sigibert's return from Unstruct, Grimoald, now mayor, began to build power for the Pippinid clan. He utilized the existing links between the family and ecclesiastical community to gain control over local holy men and women who, in turn, supported Pippinid assertions of power. Grimoald established links with Aquitanian and Columbianan missionaries Amandus and Remaclus , both of whom came to be influential bishops within

948-453: A few years later, at the Council of Tours , to instruct priests to read sermons aloud in the old way, in rusticam romanam linguam or 'plain roman[ce] speech' (while the liturgy retained the new pronunciation to this day). As there was now no unambiguous way to indicate whether a given text was to be read aloud as Latin or Romance, and native Germanic speakers (such as church singers) numerous in

1106-545: A gang of men to attack the coast. In 846, Dorestad and two other settlements were plundered once again. While Frankish defence was organized, that did not stop the Danes from capturing Dorestad and a large portion of the Frisian Coast in 850. According to Forte, Oram , and Pedersen, Dorestad, "...despite the slaughter and sack of the 830s seems quickly to have recovered its prosperity after each episode, and its disappearance in

1264-673: A limit to the division of the realm. In the late ninth century, however, the lack of suitable adults among the Carolingians necessitated the rise of Arnulf of Carinthia as the king of East Francia , a bastard child of a legitimate Carolingian king, Carloman of Bavaria , himself a son of the First King of the Eastern division of the Frankish kingdom, Louis the German. It was after Charlemagne's death that

1422-849: A lively trade city ( emporium ) because of its location at the crossing of two important river trade routes. Along one route, Dorestad was connected to the Dutch mudflats and Frisian area in the north of the Netherlands via the Kromme Rijn , the Utrechtse Vecht and the Almere Lake . It was a connection of the German Rhineland via the Rhine with Scandinavia and the Baltic Sea . The second trade route ran from

1580-678: A major demand for slaves in the Muslim world , with European slaves particularly prized. As a result of Charlemagne's wars of conquest in Eastern Europe , a steady supply of captured Slavs , Avars , Saxons , and Danes reached merchants in Western Europe, who then exported the slaves via Ampurias , Girona , and the Pyrenees passes to Muslim Spain and other parts of the Arab world. The market for slaves

1738-478: A more legible, classicizing script, with clearly distinct capital and minuscule letters. It was the Carolingian minuscule that Renaissance humanists took to be Roman and employed as humanist minuscule , from which has developed early modern Italic script . They also applied rational ideas to social issues for the first time in centuries, providing a common language and writing style that enabled communication throughout most of Europe. As Pierre Riché points out,

SECTION 10

#1732837246460

1896-616: A position of prime importance with the Merovingian royal court. The mayor of the palace would act as the mediator between the King and the magnates of the region; as Paul Fouracre summarises, they were 'regarded as the most important non-royal person in the kingdom.' The reason Pippin was not rewarded sooner is not certain, but two mayors, Rado (613 – c.  617 ) and Chucus ( c.  617  – c.  624 ), are believed to have preceded him and were potentially political rivals connected to

2054-620: A result, Louis the Pious quickly took back Dorestad and exiled his son to Italy. At this time, two things occurred in Dorestad that led to its eventual downfall. The first was that the Franks lost even more interest in Dorestad and as a result, even more control was transferred to the Church. The second was that Lothair I was stirring up trouble for the Franks by encouraging Viking raids on the Frisian coast when he

2212-572: A small group of court literati . According to John Contreni , "it had a spectacular effect on education and culture in Francia , a debatable effect on artistic endeavors, and an unmeasurable effect on what mattered most to the Carolingians, the moral regeneration of society". The secular and ecclesiastical leaders of the Carolingian Renaissance made efforts to write better Latin, to copy and preserve patristic and classical texts, and to develop

2370-476: A soldier to fight in their place. Institutions, such as monasteries or churches were also required to send soldiers to fight based on the wealth and the amount of lands they held. In fact, the use of ecclesiastical institutions for their resources for the military was a tradition that the Carolingians continued and greatly benefitted from. It was "highly unlikely that armies of many more than a hundred thousand effectives with their support systems could be supplied in

2528-439: A surplus of primarily grain, wine and salt. In turn, inter-regional trade in these commodities facilitated the expansion of towns. Archaeological data shows the continuation of this upward trend in the early eighth century. The zenith of the early Carolingian economy was reached from 775 to 830, coinciding with the largest surpluses of the period, large-scale building of churches as well as overpopulation and three famines that showed

2686-415: A system based on a new .940-fine silver penny ( Latin : denarius ; French : denier ) weighing 1/240 of a pound ( librum , libra , or lira ; livre ). (The Carolingian pound seems to have been about 489.5  grams , making each penny about 2  grams .) As the debased solidus was then roughly equivalent to 11 of these pennies, the shilling ( solidus ; sol )

2844-404: Is a position he would hold until his retirement in 629 after Chlotar's death, when he left for a small ecclesiastical community near Habendum; he was later buried at the monastery of Remiremont after his death c.  645 . Pippin was not immediately rewarded, but eventually was given the position of maior palatti or ' mayor of the palace ' of Austrasia in 624. This reward secured Pippin

3002-610: Is apparent that Charles' expansion of control consumed plenty of reallocated properties, many of which were ecclesiastical domains. When King Theuderic IV died in 737, Charles did not install a Merovingian successor. Unlike his Carolingian predecessors, Charles was clearly strong enough by the end of his reign to not rely on Merovingian loyalties. He had created his own power bloc through the vassals he installed in Frankish heartlands and peripheral states. Even prior to Theuderic's death, Charles did act with complete sovereignty in Austrasia. It

3160-413: Is best understood using the theory of a Carolingian grand strategy . A grand strategy is a long term military and political strategy that lasts for longer than a typical campaigning season, and can span long periods of time. The Carolingians followed a set course of action that discounts the idea of a random rise in power and can be considered as a grand strategy. Another major part of the grand strategy of

3318-447: Is known about Pippin's early life, but a controversial story from AMP suggests that Pippin reclaimed power in Austrasia by killing a legendary ' Gundoin ' as revenge for the assassination of his father Ansegisel. This story is regarded as slightly fantastical by Paul Fouracre , who argues the AMP, a pro-Carolingian source potentially written by Giselle (Charlemagne's sister) in 805 at Chelles,

SECTION 20

#1732837246460

3476-460: Is less and less sought after and is now becoming rare again in most men's minds. A lack of Latin literacy in eighth-century western Europe caused problems for the Carolingian rulers by severely limiting the number of people capable of serving as court scribes in societies where Latin was valued. Of even greater concern to some rulers was the fact that not all parish priests possessed the skill to read

3634-483: Is likely due to Childebrand's sponsorship of the manuscript that his involvement is so extensively recorded in the Continuations . According to the manuscript, Childebrand and Charles noticed the Arab army, with Maurontus' welcome, entering Avignon and quickly moved against the alliance. They besieged the city and claimed victory; the Franks then made the decision to invade Septimania , taking Narbonne and flanking

3792-428: Is that Pippin's role primes him perfectly for his future and demonstrates his family to be 'natural leaders of Austrasia.' However, Fouracre does also acknowledge his existence in charter evidence and confirms that he was a political link to rival mayor Wulfoald . These rivalries would make Pippin natural enemies with Gundoin, making the murder plausible as part of Pippin's rise to power. The Arnulfing clan reappear in

3950-637: The Lex Alamannorum without Carolingian consultation. As recorded in the Alemannia source, the Breviary of Erchanbert , the Alemanni 'refused to obey the duces of the Franks because they were no longer able to serve the Merovingian kings. Therefore, each of them kept to himself.' This statement was true for more than just Alemannia and, just like in those regions, Charles brutally forced them into submission. Charles

4108-496: The Abbey of Saint Wandrille in 701, which was later owned along with Fleury Abbey (founded by Pippin in 703). Imbued with internal strength, Pippin also began to look outwards from the Frankish Empire to subdue the people, that the AMP records, who once were 'subjected to the Franks ... [such as] the Saxons, Frisians, Alemans, Bavarians, Aquitainians, Gascons and Britons.' Pippin defeated

4266-516: The Carlovingians , Carolingus , Carolings , Karolinger or Karlings ) was a Frankish noble family named after Charles Martel and his grandson Charlemagne , descendants of the Arnulfing and Pippinid clans of the 7th century AD. The dynasty consolidated its power in the 8th century, eventually making the offices of mayor of the palace and dux et princeps Francorum hereditary, and becoming

4424-472: The Continuations , Pippin made arrangements with his rival, Archbishop Cunibert , to get Austrasian support for the 10-year-old King Sigibert III, who ruled Austrasia whilst his brother Clovis II ruled over Neustria and Burgundy . Soon after securing his position once again, he unexpectedly died in 640. Following Pippin's sudden death, the Pippinid family worked swiftly to secure their position. Pippin's daughter Gertrude and wife Itta founded and entered

4582-580: The Early Middle Ages , thanks to which the disciplines of liberal arts were preserved. The 7th century saw the " Isidorian Renaissance " in the Visigothic Kingdom of Hispania in which sciences flourished and the integration of Christian and pre-Christian thought occurred , while the spread of Irish monastic schools ( scriptoria ) over Europe laid the groundwork for the Carolingian Renaissance. There were numerous factors in this cultural expansion,

4740-458: The Frisians fought for control of the territory, until the Franks gained control of the Frisian Coast in 719. Dorestad flourished between the 7th century and the mid-9th century. The settlement was well known for minting coins under the control of several Frankish rulers. In the 7th century, it was clear that Dorestad had the potential to become a major port. It was the meeting point for traders at

4898-540: The Gundoinings , whose connections in Adalgesil , Cunibert, archbishop of Cologne , Otto and Radulf (who would later revolt in 642) once again removed the Pippinid and Arnulfing influence in the Austrasia assemblies. Pippin did not reappear in the historical record until Dagobert's death in 638, when he had seemingly been reinstated as mayor of Austrasia and began to support the new young King Sigebert III . According to

Carolingian Renaissance - Misplaced Pages Continue

5056-487: The LHF , the Arnulfing army met Ebroin, who had gained the support of King Theuderic III , at Bois-du-Fays , and they were easily defeated. Martin fled to Laon , from where he was lured and murdered by Ebroin at Asfeld . Pippin fled to Austrasia and soon received Ermenfred , an officer of a royal fisc who had assassinated Ebroin. The Neustrians, with Ebroin dead, installed Waratto as mayor, and he looked for peace with

5214-565: The Latinised name of multiple Frankish kings including Charlemagne and Charles Martel . The name originates from a common Germanic word, rendered in Old High German as Karl or Kerl , meaning ' man ' , ' husband ' , or ' freeman ' . The Carolingian line first began with two important rival Frankish families, the Pippinids and Arnulfings , whose destinies became intermingled in

5372-566: The Lek to the west coast and formed the connection between the Rhineland and England . This route could also be used to reach the Scheldt river, through which Neustria could be reached. Because of its wealth and success as a trade centre, Dorestad got the attention of Vikings in the 9th century. This resulted in large groups of Vikings attacking and looting the city. The first attack took place in 834 and

5530-541: The Lex Baiuvariorum . When Charles moved, the region was experiencing a power struggle between Grimoald of Bavaria and his nephew Hugbert , but when Grimoald died in 725, Hugbert gained the position and Charles reaffirmed their support. The Continuations records that when Charles left Bavaria, he took hostages, one of which was Swanachild , who later would become Charles' second wife. Paul Fouracre believes this marriage could have been intentionally forced, based upon

5688-470: The Nivelles Abbey , and his only son Grimoald worked to secure his father's position of maior palatii. The position was not hereditary and therefore passed to another Austrasian noble, Otto, the tutor of Sigebert III. According to the Continuations , Grimoald began to work with his father's accomplice Cunibert to remove Otto from office. He finally succeeded in c.  641 , when Leuthar, Duke of

5846-467: The Vulgate Bible . An additional problem was that the vulgar Latin of the later Western Roman Empire had begun to diverge into the regional dialects, the precursors to today's Romance languages , that were becoming mutually unintelligible and preventing scholars from one part of Europe being able to communicate with persons from another part of Europe. To address these problems, Charlemagne ordered

6004-657: The de facto rulers of the Franks as the real powers behind the Merovingian throne. In 751 the Merovingian dynasty which had ruled the Franks was overthrown with the consent of the Papacy and the aristocracy, and Pepin the Short , son of Martel, was crowned King of the Franks . The Carolingian dynasty reached its peak in 800 with the crowning of Charlemagne as the first Emperor of the Romans in

6162-465: The "upper town" was never excavated, the soil of the site has been examined and tested positive for phosphates that confirm its existence. Some Carolingian artefacts have been found over the years in the trading centre; however, the majority of items discovered date back to the Roman fortress that was established prior to the 7th Century. This may be because the residents of Dorestad used the tufa blocks from

6320-451: The 860s was a consequence of a shift in the course of the river channel along which its trade flowed rather than a result of Viking raids." The site remained uninhabited from the later 9th until the construction of a keep , the nucleus of Duurstede Castle , in around 1270, about 800 m south of the old settlement. The modern settlement of Wijk bij Duurstede grew up around the castle, gaining city rights in 1300. Dorestad grew to be

6478-642: The Adopted taking the Austrasian throne from the true Merovingian King Dagobert II , son of the late Sigibert who died young at 26 years old. Historians like Pierre Riché are certain that Sigibert died in 656, having adopted Childebert due to his lack of an adult male heir. Following this, young Dagobert II was then exiled and tonsured by Grimoald and Dido of Poitiers , who then installed Childebert as King of Austrasia. Clovis II in Neustria, uncle to Dagobert, then reacted to

Carolingian Renaissance - Misplaced Pages Continue

6636-569: The Alamans killed Otto under Grimoald's and, we must assume, Cunibert's orders. Grimoald then became mayor of Austrasia. His power at this time was extensive, with properties in Utrecht , Nijmegen , Tongeren and Maastricht ; he was even called 'ruler of the realm' by Desiderius of Cahors in 643. This could not have been done if Grimoald had not secured Sigibert III's support. The Pippinids already gained royal patronage from Pippin I's support, but this

6794-504: The Arab army. The Franks then fought off a support army sent from Spain under Omar-ibn Chaled at the River Berre . From there the Franks then pursued the retreating Arabs and ravaged the cities of Nîmes , Agde and Béziers before returning to Francia. Later that year, Charles and Childebrand returned to Provence, likely collecting more forces, and then forcing the rebellious Maurontus into 'impenetrable rocky fastnesses out to sea.' Paul

6952-763: The Austrasians met Radulf on the River Unstrut where he had set up a stronghold. What followed was a disorganized battle spread over several days, in which the Austrasian lords disagreed on tactics. Grimoald and Adalgesil strengthened their position by defending Sigibert's interests, but could not establish a unanimous agreement. During their final assault, the 'men of Mainz ' betrayed the Austrasians and joined with Radulf. This penultimate battle killed many important Austrasian lords, including Duke Bobo and Count Innowales , and resulted in Sigibert's defeat. The Continuations offers

7110-620: The Austrasians. Despite an exchange of hostages, Warrato's son Gistemar attacked Pippin at Namur and displaced his father. He died shortly thereafter and Warrato resumed his position, wherein peace was reached but tense relations remained until Warrato's death in 686. He left behind his wife Ansfled and his son Berchar , whom the Neustrians installed as mayor. Against his father's policy, Berchar did not maintain peace and incited Pippin into violence. In 687, Pippin rallied an Austrasian army and led an assault on Neustria, facing Theuderic III and

7268-564: The Bald , fought a three-year civil war ending only with the Treaty of Verdun in 843, which divided the empire into three regna while according imperial status and a nominal lordship to Lothair who, at 48, was the eldest. The Carolingians differed markedly from the Merovingians in that they disallowed inheritance to illegitimate offspring, possibly in an effort to prevent infighting among heirs and assure

7426-561: The Carolingian renaissance was Theodulf of Orléans , a refugee from the Umayyad invasion of Spain who became involved in the cultural circle at the imperial court before Charlemagne appointed him bishop of Orléans. Theodulf’s greatest contribution to learning was his scholarly edition of the Vulgate Bible, drawing on manuscripts from Spain, Italy, and Gaul, and even the original Hebrew. The effects of this cultural revival were mostly limited to

7584-764: The Carolingians relative local support that potentially allowed Charles to assert dominance over Eudo's son and successor Hunald of Aquitaine , but records of continued hostilities in 736 only further cemented that relations were strained. With a stronger establishment in Aquitaine, Charles made moves to assert his dominance into Burgundy. The region, at least in the Northern areas, had remained controlled and allied with Frankish interest. Influential nobility like Savaric of Auxerre , who had maintained near-autonomy and led military forces against Burgundian towns like Orléans , Nevers and Troyes , even dying whilst besieging Lyon , were

7742-491: The Carolingians themselves seemingly became increasingly powerful due to their generosity. By giving away their land, the Merovingians allowed themselves to become figureheads and the 'do nothing kings' that Einhard prefaced in the Vita Karoli Magni . Due to his vast military conquests, Charles often reallocated existing land settlements, including Church property, to new tenants. Ecclesiastical property and monasteries in

7900-690: The Carolingians, who allocated and spread their power to their subordinates. Ganshof's arguments connect these ties to a military-tenure relationship; however, this is never represented in primary material, and instead is only implied, and likely derived from, an understanding of 'feudalism' in the High Middle Ages. Recent historians like Paul Fouracre have criticised Ganshof's review for being too simplistic, and in reality, even though these systems of vassalage did exist between lord and populace, they were not as standardised as older historiography has suggested. For example, Fouracre has drawn particular attention to

8058-523: The Civil War years. This was most apparent in Provence , where local magnates, like Abbo of Provence , were incredibly supportive of Charles' attempts to reinstate Frankish power. In 739, he used his power in Burgundy and Aquitaine to lead an attack with his brother Childebrand I against Arab invaders and Duke Maurontus , who had been claiming independence and allying himself with Muslim emir Abd ar-Rahman. It

SECTION 50

#1732837246460

8216-527: The Danes attacked in 837. The Frisian count Gerulf I of Frisia in Westergo was accused of neglect, but regained his possessions in 839. One of the most famous archaeological finds in the Netherlands is the Dorestad Fibula  [ nl ] (see image). It was found in an old well in Dorestad in 1969. The valuable piece of jewellery may have been placed in the well to protect it from danger, for example

8374-678: The Danish Warlords that were situated in Rüstringen, Dorestad and Walcheren . The devastating effects of the civil wars were much worse than that of the 'modest' Viking attacks. The Frisians and Danes got along well, and went as far as to exchange goods. Frisia stayed related to the Heathen Baltic Sea culture, and felt threatened and repressed by the centralized way of leadership and the Christian beliefs. The Frisians did not defend Walcheren when

8532-695: The Deacon later records in his Historia Langobardorum Maurontus received help from the Lombards, and his Arab allies then fled. At this time, Charles then assumed control of the region and, judging from Charter evidence, appointed Abbo of Provence as patricius (Patrician) in the region. Charles also ruled the Frankish realm, although the majority of his policies were centred upon his conquests and his military ventures. In 19th century historiography, historians like Heinrich Brunner even centred their arguments around Charles' necessity for military resources, in particular

8690-457: The Deacon was brought to court in 782 and remained until 787, when Charles nominated him abbot of Montecassino . Theodulf of Orléans was a Spanish Goth who served at court from 782 to 797 when nominated as bishop of Orléans . Theodulf had been in friendly competition over the standardization of the Vulgate with the chief among the Charlemagne's scholars, Alcuin of York . Alcuin was a Northumbrian monk and deacon who served as head of

8848-406: The Dorestad area, supporting the idea of rapid growth and control of the harbour as well as the presence of a mint. Many of the coins that have been discovered bear resemblance to other Frankish coins of the period. The numismatic evidence supports the victory of the Franks over the Frisians. It seems that the expansion of Dorestad, Lower Town in particular, lasted until the early 9th century, when

9006-524: The East-Frisian county Rüstringen , of which the Gaus Östringen , Wangerland , Harlingerland and a part of Norderland may have consisted. Harald was driven from Denmark and spent his last 25 years of his life in the county. When Lothair got in a feud with his father Louis over his reassignment of the Empire in 829, he gave orders to Harald the Younger , the nephew of Harald Klak, to make Frisia an unviable asset to King Louis by means of making crucial trade routes unsafe to travel and burning Dorestad to

9164-438: The Empire was also accepted. The Carolingians had the practice of making their sons minor kings in the various regions ( regna ) of the Empire, which they would inherit on the death of their father, which Charlemagne and his son Louis the Pious both did for their sons. Following the death of the Emperor Louis the Pious in 840, his surviving adult sons, Lothair I and Louis the German , along with their adolescent brother Charles

9322-437: The Franks and Aquitainians through a marriage to Eudo's daughter. Abd ar-Rahman then besieged Cerdanya and forced Munuza into retreat into France, at which point he continued his advance into Aquitaine, moving as far as Tours before he was met by Charles Martel. Carolingian sources attest that Duke Eudo begged Charles for assistance, but Ian N. Wood claims these embassies have been invented by later pro-Carolingian annalists. Eudo

9480-446: The Franks slowly lost interest in the town and granted the Church of Utrecht responsibility over a sizeable portion of Dorestad. By expanding the power of the Church, the local élite was weakened providing substantial security for the Franks. It is generally believed that the township reached its peak around the 820s and 830s and declined considerably thereafter. It is thought that the decline occurred because of Viking raids as well as

9638-438: The Late Empire, the population had become militarized and were thus available for military use. The existence of the remaining Roman infrastructure that could be used for military purposes, such as roads, strongholds and fortified cities meant that the reformed strategies of the Late Romans would still be relevant. Civilian men who lived either in or near a walled city or strong point were required to learn how to fight and defend

SECTION 60

#1732837246460

9796-440: The Latin West in the 7th and 8th centuries. According to Roger Wright , the Carolingian Renaissance is responsible for the modern-day pronunciation of Ecclesiastical Latin . Up until that point there had been no conceptual distinction between Latin and Romance ; the former was simply regarded as the written form of the latter. For instance in early medieval Spain the word for 'century'—which would have been pronounced */sjeglo/—

9954-481: The Merovingian court. Remaclus, in particular, was important as after becoming bishop of Maastricht, he established two monasteries: Stavelot Abbey and Malmedy . Under Grimoald's direction, the Arnulfings were also further established with Chlodulf of Metz , son of St. Arnulf, taking the bishopric of Metz in 656. The final moment of Grimoald's life is an area that is disputed in both date and event, titled: 'Grimoald's coup'. It involves Grimoald and his son Childebert

10112-461: The Merovingian power within these border regions remained. Charles first set out to reinstate Carolingian dominance internally within Francia: the Continuations lists Charles' continuous maneuvers which solidified the campaigns generating the Carolingian military foundation. In 718, the AMP records that Charles fought against the Saxons, pushing them as far as the river Weser and following up with subsequent campaigns in 720 and 724 which secured

10270-404: The Merovingian royalty. Charles Martel has become notorious in historiography for his role in the development of the concept of feudalism . The debates are rooted in the arguments of historians like François-Louis Ganshof , who viewed Charles' reign as the birth of the 'feudal' relationship between power and property. This results from the increased use of precaria or temporary land grants by

10428-430: The Neustrian mayor, now Berchar, in combat. They met at the Battle of Tertry , where the AMP records that Pippin, after offering peace which was rejected by Theuderic at Berchar's behest, crossed the river Omignon at the break of dawn and attacked the Neustrians, who believed the battle won when they saw Pippin's camp abandoned. This surprise attack was successful and the Neustrians fled. Following this victory, Berchar

10586-420: The Neustrians (either Clovis II who died in 657 or his son Chlothar III ) installed infant King Childeric II to the throne of Austrasia, marrying him to Bilichild , the daughter of Sigibert's widow Chimnechild of Burgundy . Grimoald and Childebert's deaths brought an end to the direct Pippinid line of the family, leaving the Arnulfing descendants from Begga and Ansegisel to continue the faction. Very little

10744-446: The Neustrians and Charles as the Frankish king. With his ascension to the throne, several significant moments in Frankish history occurred. Firstly, the LHF ended, likely composed several years later in 727 and ended one of the several perspectives we have on Charles' ascension. Secondly, and more importantly, the Arnulfing predominance in the faction ended and the Carolingian (translating to 'sons of Charles') officially began. Once

10902-516: The Palace School from 782 to 796, except for the years 790 to 793 when he returned to England . After 796, he continued his scholarly work as abbot of St. Martin's Monastery in Tours . Among those to follow Alcuin across the Channel to the Frankish court was Joseph Scottus , an Irishman who left some original biblical commentary and acrostic experiments. After this first generation of non-Frankish scholars, their Frankish pupils, such as Angilbert , would make their own mark. The later courts of Louis

11060-415: The Pious and Charles the Bald had similar groups of scholars many of whom were of Irish origin . The Irish monk Dicuil attended the former court, and the more famous Irishman John Scotus Eriugena attended the latter becoming head of the Palace School at Aachen . One of the primary efforts was the creation of a standardized curriculum for use at the recently created schools. Alcuin led this effort and

11218-423: The Rhine, Charles had the opportunity to assert his dominance over Aquitaine and began committing military resources and performing raids in 731. However, before he could make any major movements, Aquitaine was invaded by Umayyad warlord Abd al-Rahman I . Following Abd al-Rahman's ascension in Spain in 731, another local Berber lord Munuza revolted, set himself up at Cerdanya and forged defensive alliances with

11376-550: The Roman fortress as building material. It is thought that the royal administrators were situated in the Upper Town. The Christian church was granted a piece of land in both the Upper and Lower Town. Next to the agricultural sector remains of a building were found as well as many graves. It is assumed that this area comprised the Lower church. The conception of the Upper and Lower township

11534-657: The West in over three centuries. Nearly every monarch of France from Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious till the penultimate monarch of France Louis Philippe have been his descendants. His death in 814 began an extended period of fragmentation of the Carolingian Empire and decline that would eventually lead to the evolution of the Kingdom of France and the Holy Roman Empire . The Carolingian dynasty takes its name from Carolus ,

11692-599: The Younger and his brother Rorik . With the Treaty of Verdun in 843 the feud between the brothers ended and the Empire got divided once again, and Lothair got to rule over all of Frisia north of the Schelde, which became part of Middle Francia . After the death of Louis the Pious in 840 a new feud developed between his three sons, but over in Frisia, Lothair had a strong position because of

11850-433: The areas in which they lived. These men were rarely used in the course of Carolingian grand strategy because they were used for defensive purposes, and the Carolingians were for the most part on the offensive most of the time. Another class of civilians were required to serve in the military which included going on campaigns. Depending on one's wealth, one would be required to render different sorts of service, and "the richer

12008-620: The attacks of the Vikings on Dorestad. To find out more about the settlement and its prominence in the early Middle Ages the site was excavated. Some excavations took place in the middle of the nineteenth century and the finds from them are now in the National Museum of Antiquities and the British Museum . The most important findings were discovered during an excavation that took place between 1967 and 1977. About 30 hectare were exposed during

12166-456: The coast from Viking invasions. The coast was battered by Viking attacks, but it seems that Dorestad was left relatively unscathed. The Danish rulers held court on the coast for quite some time despite being not well liked by the people that they ruled. By the 9th century, it seems that the need for international trade was waning as regional trade gained importance. Under Danish control, Dorestad became less significant. Trading had slowed and now

12324-426: The coining of new words while retaining the grammatical rules of Classical Latin . This Medieval Latin became a common language of scholarship and allowed administrators and travellers to make themselves understood in various regions of Europe. The earliest concept of Europe as a distinct cultural region (instead of simply a geographic area) appeared during the Carolingian Renaissance of the 9th century, and included

12482-492: The construction of 27 new cathedrals, 417 monasteries, and 100 royal residences". Around AD 755, Charlemagne's father Pepin the Short reformed the currency of the Frankish Kingdom . A variety of local systems was standardized. Minor mints were closed and royal control over the remaining bigger mints strengthened, increasing purity. In place of the gold Roman and Byzantine solidus then common, he established

12640-462: The contemporary historical record in c.  676 , when the LHF mentions ' Pippin and Martin' rising up against a tyrannical Ebroin , mayor of Austrasia. Pippin II, now head of the faction, and Martin, who was either Pippin's brother or relative, rose up against Ebroin and gathered an army (potentially with the aid of Dagobert II who had been brought back to Austrasia by mayor Wulfoald). According to

12798-629: The creation of schools in a capitulary known as the Charter of Modern Thought , issued in 787. A major part of his program of reform was to attract many of the leading scholars of the Christendom of his day to his court. Among the first called to court were Italians : Peter of Pisa , who from 776 to about 790 instructed Charlemagne in Latin, and from 776 to 787 Paulinus of Aquileia , whom Charlemagne nominated as patriarch of Aquileia in 787. The Lombard Paul

12956-489: The development of mounted warrior or cavalry that would peak in the High Middle Ages . However, in modern historiography, historians like Pierre Riche and Paul Fouracre have discredited his ideas as too simplistic and have aimed to depict more realistic fragments of development that may or not have been interdependent. This was the period in which the Carolingians first began to establish themselves as fully independent from

13114-466: The development of trade on the Rhine . It is believed that wine from the vineyards South of Mainz was one of the most prominent products traded in Dorestad. Old wine barrels have been excavated in Dorestad. It is also thought that glassware and lava querns for grinding corn were also transported to Dorestad for trading. The existence of these imports allowed Dorestad's economy to grow substantially. While

13272-618: The dynasty began slowly to crumble. His kingdom was split into three parts, each being ruled over by one of his grandsons. Only the kingdoms of the eastern and western portions survived, becoming the predecessors of modern Germany and France. The Carolingians were displaced in most of the regna of the Empire by 888. They ruled in East Francia until 911 and held the throne of West Francia intermittently until 987. Carolingian cadet branches continued to rule in Vermandois and Lower Lorraine after

13430-721: The early 7th century. Both men came from noble backgrounds on the western borders of the Austrasia territory between the Meuse and Moselle rivers, north of Liège . The first two figures, Pippin I of Landen and Arnulf of Metz , from whom historians have taken the family names, both first appeared in the fourth book of the Continuations of Fredegar as advisers to Chlotar II of Neustria , who 'incited' revolt against King Theuderic II and Brunhild of Austrasia in 613. Through shared interests, Pippin and Arnulf allied their families through

13588-441: The early Carolingians encompassed their political alliance with the aristocracy. This political relationship gave the Carolingians authority and power in the Frankish kingdom. Beginning with Pippin II, the Carolingians set out to put the regnum Francorum ("kingdom of the Franks") back together, after its fragmentation after the death of Dagobert I , a Merovingian king. After an early failed attempt in c.  651 to usurp

13746-405: The eastern Neustrian borders and faced Duke Eudo in battle at Soissons. Duke Eudo, realising he was outmatched, retreated to Paris, where he took Chilperic and the royal treasury and left for Aquitaine . Charles pursued them, according to the Continuations , as far as Orleans, but Eudo and the Neustrians managed to escape. In 718, King Chlothar IV died and was not replaced; instead, Charles became

13904-419: The elite. By the late 7th century, developed urban settlements had emerged, populated mostly by craftsmen, merchants and boaters and boasting street grids, artisanal production as well as regional and long-distance trade. A prime example of this type of emporium was Dorestad . The development of the Carolingian economy was fueled by the efficient organization and exploitation of labor on large estates, producing

14062-633: The empire might have struggled to read words in Latin orthography according to Romance orthoepy, various attempts were made in France to devise a new orthography for the latter; among the earliest examples are parts of the Oaths of Strasbourg and the Sequence of Saint Eulalia . As the Carolingian Reforms spread the 'proper' Latin pronunciation from France to other Romance-speaking areas, local scholars eventually felt

14220-531: The encroaching Radbod and the Neustrians. In 716, Charles finally met the Frisians as they approached and, although the AMP attempts equalize the losses, it is confirmed from the descriptions in the LHF and the Continuations that Charles was defeated with heavy losses. Chilperic, Raganfred and, according to the Continuations , Radbod, then travelled from Neustria through the forest of the Ardennes and raided around

14378-403: The excavation and much was learned about the physical parameters of the settlement. It was discovered Dorestad was situated one mile north of Wijk bij Duurstede and was approximately 3 square kilometres in size. This is considered a large settlement for the time period. It is believed that the settlement was separated into three districts: a harbour ("Lower town"), a trading centre located on

14536-501: The expression "Carolingian Renaissance" does not imply that Western Europe was barbaric or obscurantist before the Carolingian era. The centuries following the dissolution of the Roman Empire in the West did not see an abrupt disappearance of the ancient schools. Indeed, from them emerged Martianus Capella , Cassiodorus , and Boethius , essential icons of the Roman cultural heritage in

14694-504: The fact that Swanchild's heritage related her both to Alemannia and Bavaria. Not only would their marriage have allowed greater control over both regions, but it also would have cut the existing family ties that the Agilofings had to the Pippinid family branch. Plectrude's sister Regintrud was married to Theodo of Bavaria , and this relation provided an opportunity for disenfranchised family members to defect. Following his conquest east of

14852-551: The fellow Austrasian 'Gundoinings' noble family. Once elected, Pippin served faithfully under Chlotar until the latter's death in 629, and solidified the Pippinids' position of power within Austrasia by supporting Chlotar's son Dagobert, who became King of Austrasia in 623. Pippin, with support from Arnulf and other Austrasian magnates, even used the opportunity to support the killing of an important political rival Chrodoald , an Agilolfing lord. Following King Dagobert I's ascent to

15010-592: The field in a single theatre of operation." Because of this, each landholder would not be required to mobilize all of his men each year for the campaigning season, but instead, the Carolingians would decide which kinds of troops were needed from each landholder, and what they should bring with them. In some cases, sending men to fight could be substituted for different types of war machines. In order to send effective fighting men, many institutions would have well trained soldiers that were skilled in fighting as heavily armored troops. These men would be trained, armored, and given

15168-415: The first time to native speakers as well. No longer would, for instance, the word ⟨viridiarium⟩ 'orchard' be read aloud as the equivalent Old French word */verdʒjǽr/. It now had to be pronounced precisely as spelled, with all six syllables: /viridiarium/. Such a radical change had the effect of rendering Latin sermons completely unintelligible to the general Romance-speaking public, which prompted officials

15326-427: The first time, setting the stage for the rise of Romanesque art and eventually Gothic art in the West. Illuminated manuscripts , metalwork , small-scale sculpture , mosaics , and frescos survive from the period. Carolingian architecture is the style of North European architecture promoted by Charlemagne. The period of architecture spans the late eighth and ninth centuries until the reign of Otto I in 936, and

15484-487: The fork in the Rhine , with access to Germany via the Nederrijn (the northernmost branch of the Rhine ), to the southern Netherlands , northern France , and England (via the Lek ), and to the northern Netherlands , northern Germany, and Scandinavia (via the Kromme Rijn ). The township was established at the base of the former Roman fortress of Levefanum in the 7th century. The Frankish Carolingian Empire and

15642-462: The ground. This would stagnate the transport of goods to the main areas of Francia, therefore forcing Louis to admit to the demands of Lothair. This resulted in Dorestad undergoing many attacks and lootings until Louis and Lothair came to terms in Worms in 839. Frisia got divided between Lothair and his half-brother Charles the Bald , where the river Meuse became the border. Lothair gave Dorestad to Harald

15800-446: The immediate dangers were dealt with, Charles then began to consolidate his position as sole mayor of the Frankish kingdom. The civil unrest between 714 and 721 had destroyed the continental political cohesion, and peripheral kingdoms like Aquitaine, Alemannia , Burgundy and Bavaria had slipped from the Carolingian's grasp. Even though the faction had, by Charles Martel's time, established strong political control over Francia, loyalty to

15958-452: The importance of this victory. Marios Costambeys , Matthew Innes and Simon MacLean all show that the Tertry victory did not establish solid authority over Neustria immediately, evidenced by the fact that Pippin immediately installed 'Norbert, one of his followers' (as written in the LHF ) and then his son Grimoald in 696 to ensure continued influence. Pippin II then became overall mayor of

16116-441: The incentives that drew lords and warriors into the Carolingian armies, arguing that the primary draw was 'booty' and treasure gained from conquest rather than 'feudal' obligation. Although Charles' reign is no longer considered transitional in its feudal developments, it is seen as a transitional period in the spread of the existing system of vassals and precaria land rights. Due to Charles' continued military and missionary work,

16274-400: The key to Charles' support. As such, Charles made multiple attempts to both gain the faction's support and remove their authority. When Savaric died during Charles' early reign, he agreed to support Savaric's nephew Bishop Eucherius of Orléans ' claim to the bishopric. However, once Charles had established a powerful basis by 737, he exiled Eucherius, with the help of a man called Chrodobert, to

16432-617: The king directed all the affairs of state under a separate government', a system which created tensions with the Neustrians. Theudoald ruled uncontested for around six months, until June 715, when the Neustrians revolted. Theudoald and the Arnulfings' supporters met at the Battle of Compiègne on 26 September 715, and after a decisive victory, the Neustrians installed a new mayor Ragenfrid and, following Dagobert's death, their own Merovingian king Chilperic II . Charter evidence suggests that Chilperic

16590-462: The last attack in 863. The Danish King Sigfred felt threatened by the advancement of the Franks under the leadership of Charlemagne . Charlemagne's attempt to subject the Saxons east of the Elbe by annexing Nordalbingia led to a feud between the factions of Halfdan and Godfred , two supposed sons of Sigfred. The throne of Denmark was briefly under control of the son of Halfdan, Harald Klak , but he

16748-457: The last king died in 987, but they never sought the royal or imperial thrones and made peace with the new ruling families. One chronicler of Sens dates the end of Carolingian rule with the coronation of Robert II of France as junior co-ruler with his father, Hugh Capet , thus beginning the Capetian dynasty . The historian Bernard Bachrach argues that the rise of the Carolingians to power

16906-437: The late Merovingian and Carolingian period were political centres and often closely related to the royal court; as such they often became involved in political matters, which often overlapped with Charles' reallocation of land. This 'secularisation' of Church property caused serious tension between the Carolingian church and state, and often gave Charles a negative depiction in ecclastical sources. The reallocation of church land

17064-499: The left bank ("Upper town"), and an agricultural area located further inland. Upper and lower town were connected by a single road which acted as the 'backbone' of the town. The remnants of this road can still be seen today. Only the "lower town" was excavated by archaeologists as much of Dorestad was eroded away by the river bend. When the harbour was excavated the remains of wooden causeways which would have allowed for easy unloading of goods were discovered. These findings correlate to

17222-507: The limits of the system. After a period of disruption from 830 to 850, caused by civil wars and Viking raids, economic development resumed in the 850s, with the emporiums disappearing completely and being replaced by fortified commercial towns. One of the major causes of the sudden economic growth was the Arab slave trade . Following the rise of the Arab Muslim caliphates , the Arab elites created

17380-532: The man was, the greater was his military obligation for service". For example, if rich, one might be required as a knight. Or one might be required to provide a number of fighting men. In addition to those who owed military service for the lands they had, there were also professional soldiers who fought for the Carolingians. If the holder of a certain amount of land was ineligible for military service (women, old men, sickly men or cowards) they would still owe military service. Instead of going themselves, they would hire

17538-427: The marriage of Pippin's daughter Begga and Arnulf's son Ansegisel . As repayment for their help during the Austrasian conquest, Chlotar rewarded both men with important positions of power in Austrasia. However, Arnulf was the first to gain. He was bestowed the bishopric of Metz in 614, entrusting him with the management of the Austrasian capital and the education of Chlotar's young son, the future Dagobert I . This

17696-460: The monasteries of Ohrdruf , Tauberbischofsheim , Kitzingen and Ochsenfurt . Charles, realising the potential of establishing Carolingian-supportive episcopal centres, utilised Saint Pirmin , an itinerant monk, to establish an ecclesiastical foundation on Reichenau Island in Lake Constance . He was expelled in 727 by Lantfrid and he retreated to Alsace , where he established monasteries with

17854-443: The monastery of St Trond . Charles took further military action in the same year to fully assert his authority, and installed his sons Pippin and Remigius as magnates. This was followed by the installation of political supporters from Bavaria and local supporters like Theuderic of Autun and Adalhard of Chalon . This acquisition of land in southern France was supported by the increased social chaos that seemingly developed during

18012-536: The most important "core of the standing army in the" regnum Francorum . Dorestad Dorestad ( Dorestat, Duristat ) was an early medieval emporium , located in the Provence of South holland (province) in the Netherlands , close to the modern-day town of Wijk bij Duurstede . It flourished during the 8th to early 9th centuries, as an important port on the northeastern shipping routes due to its proximity to

18170-513: The most obvious of which was that Charlemagne's uniting of most of Western Europe brought about peace and stability, which set the stage for prosperity. This period marked an economic revival in Western Europe, following the fall of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century. Local economies in the West had degenerated into largely subsistence agriculture by the early 7th century, with towns functioning merely as places of gift-exchange for

18328-608: The need to create distinct spelling systems for their own vernaculars as well, thereby initiating the literary phase of Medieval Romance. Writing in Romance does not appear to have become widespread until the Renaissance of the Twelfth Century , however. Carolingian art spans the roughly hundred-year period from about 800–900. Although brief, it was an influential period. Northern Europe embraced classical Mediterranean Roman art forms for

18486-556: The new pennies, however, they were repeatedly rejected by traders throughout the Carolingian period in favor of the gold coins used elsewhere, a situation that led to repeated legislation against such refusal to accept the king's currency. The Carolingian system was imported to England by Offa of Mercia and other kings, where it formed the basis of English currency until the late 20th century. Carolingian The Carolingian dynasty ( / ˌ k ær ə ˈ l ɪ n dʒ i ə n / KARR -ə- LIN -jee-ən ; known variously as

18644-517: The northern borders of Austrasia and Neustria. He subdued his former enemy Raganfred at Angers in 724 and secured his patronage, removing the remaining political resistance that had continued to thrive in western Neustria. In 725, Charles set out against the peripheral kingdoms, starting with Alemannia. The region had almost gained independence during the reign of Pippin II and under the leadership of Lantfrid , Duke of Alemannia, as (710–730) they acted without Frankish authority, issuing law codes like

18802-499: The nucleus of the library at York Cathedral. His enthusiasm for learning made him an effective teacher. Alcuin writes: In the morning, at the height of my powers, I sowed the seed in Britain, now in the evening when my blood is growing cold I am still sowing in France, hoping both will grow, by the grace of God, giving some the honey of the holy scriptures, making others drunk on the old wine of ancient learning Another prominent figure in

18960-515: The pagan chieftain Radbod in Frisia, an area that had been slowly encroached upon by Austrasian nobles and Anglo-Saxon missionaries like Willibrord , whose links would later make him a connection between the Arnulfings and the papacy. Following Gotfrid, Duke of Alemannia in 709, Pippin also moved against the Alemans and subjugated them again to royal control. As Pippin approached his death in late 714, he

19118-620: The political systems that existed in the heartlands, Austrasia and Neustria, officially began to spread to the periphery. Those whom Charles appointed as new nobility in these regions, often with lifetime tenures, ensured that Carolingian loyalties and systems was maintained across the kingdoms. The Carolingians were also far more strict with their land rights and tenure than their Merovingian predecessors, carefully distributing their new land to new families temporarily, but maintaining their control. Merovingians kings weakened themselves by allocating too much of their royal domains to supporting factions;

19276-495: The primary authority in Francia. He established a peace treaty with Duke Eudo that ensured Chilperic II was returned to Francia; thereafter, until Chilperic's death in 720 at Noyon , the kingship was restored with Carolingian control and Charles became the maior palatii in both Neustria and Austrasia. Following Chilperic II's death, the Merovingian king Theuderic IV , son of Dagobert III, was taken from Chelles Abbey and appointed by

19434-537: The revolt and lured Grimoald and Childebert into Neustria, where they were executed. This story is only confirmed by the pro-Neustrian source, the Liber Historia Francorum ( LHF ) and selected charter evidence. Other contemporary sources like the Continuations fail to mention the event and Carolingian sources like Annales Mettenses Priores ( AMP ) ignore the event and even deny Grimoald's existence. As such, historian Richard Gerberding has suggested

19592-486: The river Rhine and Cologne , taking treasure from Plectrude and her supporters. As they returned, Charles ambushed the returning party at the Battle of Amblève and was victorious, inflicting heavy losses on the Neustrian invaders. In 717, Charles mustered his army again and marched on Neustria, taking the city of Verdun during his conquest. He met Chilperic and Raganfred again at the Battle of Vinchy on 21 March 717 and

19750-648: The royal palace under Theuderic II, becoming mayor of Austrasia, Neustria and Burgundy. His son Drogo , from his wife Plectrude , was also imbued with power when he married Berchar's widow Adaltrude (potentially maneuvered by Ansfled) and was made Duke of Champagne. Pippin was politically dominating and had the power to elect the next two Merovingian kings after Theuderic II died in 691; he installed King Clovis IV (691-695), Childebert III (695-711) and Dagobert III (711-715). Pippin moved to secure further power by consolidating his position in Neustria, installing several bishops like Gripho , Bishop of Rouen and Bainus at

19908-560: The same time in Jarrow , England , recorded the event in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , and his victory gained Charles Martel the admiration of seminal historian Edward Gibbon who considered him the Christian saviour of Europe. Although his victory was considered famous, in reality his victory was far less impactful, and Charles would not gain much control in Aquitaine until Eudo's death in 735. The victory may have given

20066-405: The skin of its teeth. However, the use of the term renaissance to describe this period is contested, notably by Lynn Thorndike , due to the majority of changes brought about by this period being confined almost entirely to the clergy , and due to the period lacking the wide-ranging social movements of the later Italian Renaissance . Instead of being a rebirth of new cultural movements, the period

20224-448: The strength of the international trade of luxury items was weakened by the rise of regional trade. The shift in the character of trade occurred as more and more trading towns popped up in the region. The Franks seemed to be networking with Byzantium and the Muslim world . As the trade increased across the board, the Franks required more trading settlements to support the economy. As a result,

20382-611: The support of the Etichonid clan, who were Carolingian supporters. This relationship gave the Carolingians long-term benefit from Pirmin's future achievements, which brought abbeys in the eastern provinces into Carolingian favour. In 725, Charles continued his conquest from Alemannia and invaded Bavaria. Like Alemannia, Bavaria had continued to gain independence under the rule of the Agilolfings clan who, in recent years, had increased links with Lombardy and affirmed their own law codes, like

20540-425: The territories which practiced Western Christianity at the time. Carolingian workshops produced over 100,000 manuscripts in the 9th century, of which some 6000 to 7000 survive. The Carolingians produced the earliest surviving copies of the works of Cicero , Horace , Martial , Statius , Lucretius , Terence , Julius Caesar , Boethius and Martianus Capella . No copies of the texts of these authors were made in

20698-416: The things they needed in order to fight as heavy troops at the expense of the household or institution for whom they fought. These armed retinues served almost as private armies, "which were supported at the expense of the great magnates, [and] were of considerable importance to early Carolingian military organization and warfare." The Carolingians themselves supported their own military household and they were

20856-408: The throne from the Merovingians, the early Carolingians began to slowly gain power and influence as they consolidated military power as mayors of the palace. In order to do this, the Carolingians used a combination of Late Roman military organization along with the incremental changes that occurred between the fifth and eighth centuries. Because of the defensive strategy the Romans had implemented during

21014-467: The throne in c.  629 , he returned the Frankish capital back to Paris in Neustria , from whence it had been removed by Chlotar in 613. As a result, Pippin lost his position as mayor and the support of the Austrasian magnates, who were seemingly irritated by his inability to persuade the King to return the political centre to Austrasia. Instead, Dagobert turned to the Pippinids' political rival family,

21172-465: The time. As a result, the Franks and the Frisians fought over control of the township. The Franks won out at the end of the 7th century and closely monitored the growth of Dorestad, which led to Dorestad's economic expansion via international trade and the establishment of a mint in the Upper town. It is assumed that there was a toll as well as harbour fees, collected by the king's representatives at Dorestad. Over time, many coins have been discovered in

21330-472: Was Charlemagne , Pepin's son. Charlemagne was crowned Emperor by Pope Leo III at Rome in 800. His empire, ostensibly a continuation of the Western Roman Empire , is referred to historiographically as the Carolingian Empire . The Carolingian rulers did not give up the traditional Frankish (and Merovingian ) practice of dividing inheritances among heirs, though the concept of the indivisibility of

21488-576: Was a conscious attempt to create a Roman Renaissance, emulating Roman , Early Christian and Byzantine architecture , with its own innovation, resulting in having a unique character. This syncretic architectural style can be exemplified by the first church of St Mark's in Venice, fusing proto-Romanesque and Byzantine influences. There was a profusion of new clerical and secular buildings constructed during this period, John Contreni calculated that "The little more than eight decades between 768 to 855 alone saw

21646-547: Was a main protagonist in the Battle of Toulouse (721) , which famously stopped Muslim lord Al-Samh ibn Malik al-Khawlani 's advances in Narbonne and gained Eudo praise in the Liber Pontificalis . Charles met the Muslim force at the famous Battle of Poitiers (732) and came out victorious, killing Abd ar-Rahman. This moment cemented Charles Martel in historical records and gained him international praise. Bede , writing at

21804-414: Was able to offer the cultureless and, I might say, almost completely unenlightened territory of the realm which God had entrusted to him, a new enthusiasm for all human knowledge. In its earlier state of barbarousness, his kingdom had been hardly touched at all by any such zeal, but now it opened its eyes to God's illumination. In our own time the thirst for knowledge is disappearing again: the light of wisdom

21962-413: Was almost nonexistent. The mint was shut down when Hroerekr took control of the lands. As the settlement no longer held much economic or cultural significance. From around 840, the threat of the Vikings receded, as a truce was reached. The Franks no longer needed the help of the Danes and began to look for ways to dispose of them. That created conflict between the Franks and the Danes as Hroerekr established

22120-510: Was buried at St Denis in Paris. He made secure succession plans, likely learning from his father, that ensured Francia was effectively divided between his sons, Carloman and Pippin as maior palatii . According to the Continuations , the eldest son, Carloman, was given control of the eastern kingdoms in Austrasia, Alammania and Thuringia, while Pippin was given the western kingdoms in Burgundy, Neustria and Provence. The greatest Carolingian monarch

22278-533: Was clearly a political choice from within the direct family line, as Pippin had two adult illegitimate children, Charles Martel and Childebrand I , from a second wife or concubine named Alpaida . They were ousted so Theudoald (with Plectrude's regency) could take the throne, a choice that would result in disaster. When Pippin II died in December 714, the Arnulfings' dominance over Francia disintegrated. The LHF tells us that 'Plectrude along with her grandchildren and

22436-474: Was clearly weak at this time and he required the support of the established Merovingians to gather military support. Despite his weaknesses, Charles' recent success had made him a greater political entity; as such, Chilperic and Raganfred could not win a decisive victory against him. So, in 718 they too sent embassies and won the support of Duke Eudo of Aquitaine who, at their request, mustered 'a Gascon army' to face Charles. In response, Charles brought an army to

22594-650: Was driven away by the sons of Godfred. The eldest son of Louis the Pious , Lothair , made use of the services provided by the Danish clan of the former King Harald Klak, who fled to Francia in 814. Harald was a vassal of King Louis with a place in Saxony . In the year 819 Harald became one of multiple kings in Denmark by the hand of Louis' negotiations with the Danes. In 826 Harald and his clan were baptised in Mainz , after which he received

22752-448: Was either killed, as the AMP argues, by his own people, but the LHF suggests that it is more likely that he was murdered by his mother-in-law, Ansfled. This moment was decisive in Arnulfing history as it was the first time that any of the faction had national control. Paul Fouracre even argues it is for this that the AMP starts with Pippin II, as a false dawn upon which Charles Martel would rebuild. However, historians have discredited

22910-419: Was established at that value, making it 1/22 of the silver pound. This was later adjusted to 12 and 1/20, respectively. During the Carolingian period, however, neither shillings or pounds were minted, being instead used as notional units of account . (For instance, a "shilling" or "solidus" of grain was a measure equivalent to the amount of grain that 12 pennies could purchase.) Despite the purity and quality of

23068-513: Was exiled. Between 834 and 839, there were extensive raids. Although Dorestad was raided only once, in 834, it seems that the town never fully recovered afterwards. To protect the Frisian coastline, Frankish kings enlisted the help of the Danes and appointed Haraldr Junior and his brother, Hroerekr , to protect the emporium. The Franks allowed Hroerekr to take control of the land as long as he protected

23226-488: Was faced with a succession crisis. Drogo, Pippin's oldest son, died in 707 and his second son Grimoald, according to the LHF , was killed whilst praying to Saint Lambert in Liège in 714 by Rantgar, suspected by Paul Fouracre to be a pagan. Pippin, before his death, made his six-year-old grandson Theudoald (Grimoald's son) his successor in Neustria, a choice that is believed to have been promoted by his wife Plectrude, which

23384-456: Was further bolstered by Grimoald's role in Duke Radulf of Thuringia's rebellion. Just prior to Otto's assassination, in c.  640 Radulf revolted against the Merovingians and made himself King of Thuringia. Sigibert, with an Austrasian army including Grimoald and Duke Adalgisel , went on campaign and after a brief victory against Fara , son of the assassinated Agilofing lord Chrodoald,

23542-466: Was more an attempt to recreate the previous culture of the Roman Empire . The Carolingian Renaissance in retrospect also has some of the character of a false dawn, in that its cultural gains were largely dissipated within a couple of generations, a perception voiced by Walahfrid Strabo (died 849), in his introduction to Einhard 's Life of Charlemagne , summing up the generation of renewal: Charlemagne

23700-474: Was not new by Charles' reign; Ian Wood has managed to identify the practice going back to the reigns of Dagobert I (629–639) and Clovis II (639–657). The majority of the sources that depict Charles' involvement in Church land rights come from the 9th century, and are therefore less reliable, but two supposedly contemporary sources also identify this issue. The first, a letter sent by missionary Saint Boniface to Anglo-Saxon king Æthelbald of Mercia , called Charles'

23858-413: Was once again victorious, forcing them back to Paris . He then swiftly returned to Austrasia and besieged Cologne, defeating Plectrude and reclaiming his father's wealth and treasure. Charles bolstered his position by installing the Merovingian king Chlothar IV in Austrasia as an opposing Merovingian to Chilperic II. Despite not having a Merovingian king for around 40 years in Austrasia, Charles' position

24016-516: Was only in areas like Neustria, where Carolingian opposition historically existed, that Charles knew he would face criticism if he usurped the throne. Therefore, until his death, Charles ruled as Princeps or First Man/First Citizen, officially gaining the title with his uncontested leadership with the acquisition of Provence in 737. This meant that the issue of kingship remained ever present for his successors who would have to work further to establish themselves as royal. When Charles died in 741, he

24174-538: Was properly spelled ⟨saeculum⟩, as it had been for the better part of a millennium. The scribe would not have read aloud ⟨saeculum⟩ as /sɛkulum/ any more than an English speaker today would pronounce ⟨knight⟩ as */knɪxt/ rather than /naɪt/. Non-native speakers of Latin, however—such as clergy of Anglo-Saxon or Irish origin—appear to have used a rather different pronunciation, presumably attempting to sound out each word according to its spelling. The Carolingian Renaissance in France introduced this artificial pronunciation for

24332-477: Was reduced to a hundred mansus by Pippin III's reign, and at the Abbey of Saint Wandrille under Abbot Teutsind , who was appointed by Charles in 735/6, the Church's local property was reduced to a third its size. Wood has also criticised this point and proven that the loss of land by the Church was in reality very small, the remaining land being simply leased as it went beyond the Church's capabilities. Regardless, it

24490-414: Was responsible for the writing of textbooks, creation of word lists, and establishing the trivium and quadrivium as the basis for education. Another contribution from this period was the development of Carolingian minuscule , a "book-hand" first used at the monasteries of Corbie and Tours that introduced the use of lower-case letters. A standardized version of Latin was also developed that allowed for

24648-626: Was so lucrative that it almost immediately transformed the long-distance trade of the European economies. The slave trade enabled the West to re-engage with the Arab Muslim caliphates and the Eastern Roman Empire , so that other industries, such as textiles, were able to grow in Europe as well. Kenneth Clark was of the view that by means of the Carolingian Renaissance, Western civilization survived by

24806-423: Was successful in his first campaign, but returned in 730, the same year that Duke Lantfrid died and was succeeded by his brother Theudebald, Duke of Alamannia . As successful as campaigning had been, Charles seemingly took inspiration from Anglo-Saxon missionary Saint Boniface , who in 719 was sent by Pope Gregory II to convert Germany, in particular the areas of Thuringia and Hesse , where he established

24964-577: Was the son of the former King Childeric II, but this would make Daniel in his 40s, which is quite old to take the throne. Following their victory, the Neustrians joined with Radbod, King of the Frisians and invaded Austrasia, aiming towards the Meuse river to take the heartland of the faction's support. It is at this moment that Charles Martel is first mentioned in historical records, which note him surviving imprisonment by his step-mother, Plectrude. Charles managed to escape and mustered an Austrasian army to face

#459540