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121-918: The Hetmanate was founded by the Hetman of the Zaporizhian Host , Bohdan Khmelnytsky , during the Khmelnytsky Uprising from 1648 to 1657 in the eastern territories of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . Establishment of vassal relations with the Tsardom of Russia in the Treaty of Pereiaslav of 1654 is considered a benchmark of the Cossack Hetmanate in Soviet, Ukrainian, and Russian historiography . The second Pereiaslav Council in 1659 further restricted

242-600: A classic western education to their students. Many of those trained in Kyiv – such as Feofan Prokopovich – would later move to Moscow, so that Ivan Mazepa's patronage not only raised the level of culture in Ukraine but also in Moscow itself. A musical academy was established in 1737 in the Hetmanate's then-capital of Hlukhiv . Among its graduates were Maksym Berezovsky (the first composer from

363-604: A critic and as a journalist marked the birth of Russian magazine culture which included him devising and contributing heavily to one of the most influential literary magazines of the 19th century, the Sovremennik ( The Contemporary , or Современник ). Pushkin inspired the folk tales and genre pieces of other authors: Leskov , Yesenin and Gorky . His use of Russian formed the basis of the style of novelists Ivan Turgenev , Ivan Goncharov and Leo Tolstoy , as well as that of subsequent lyric poets such as Mikhail Lermontov . Pushkin

484-450: A dowry for daughters, and at the same time had a symbolic value, certifying status of their master, and were also family heirlooms. The household was important not only because it was the main source of livelihood for the master and his family, but also because it was the main support for military service. The fighting capacity of the Cossack army, the duration of military operations, and often

605-516: A gift for the Ottoman Sultan and later transferred to Russia as a gift for Peter the Great . Abram wrote in a letter to Empress Elizabeth, Peter the Great's daughter, that Gannibal was from the town of "Lagon", largely on the basis of a mythical biography by Gannibal's son-in-law Rotkirch. Vladimir Nabokov , when researching Eugene Onegin , cast serious doubt on this origin theory. Later research by

726-632: A military orientation and were a good means of physical training of the Cossacks. Among the Zaporozhian Cossacks, various systems of martial arts have become widespread. The most famous formed the basis of the Cossack hopak ( Ukrainian : гопак ) dance. In 1620 The Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople reestablished the Kyiv Metropolis for the Eastern Orthodox communities that refused to join

847-514: A present could be, for example, a horse. Often the Starshyna had large apiaries and treated this business not only as a source of income, but also liked to rest there. Also, drinking coffee became a certain means of rest and relaxation in the environment of the Starshyna society. The free time of the Cossacks was filled with various physical exercises: competitions in swimming, running, rowing, wrestling, fistfights, etc. All these and other exercises had

968-675: A result of which the Ottoman-Tatar army completely destroyed the Cossack capital Chyhyryn. In order to deprive the enemy of support, the Left-bank hetman government forcibly removed the entire population of the Dnieper region to the Left-bank. The war ended with the conclusion of the Bakhchysarai Peace in 1681. According to this treaty, the Russo-Ottoman border was established along the Dnieper;

1089-457: A result, the noble estate now consisted of a merger between the nobility that had stayed in the territory of the Hetmanate (old noble families that did not succumb to Polonization and lesser nobles who had participated in the uprising on the side of the Cossacks against Poland) with members of the emergent Cossack officer class. Unlike the Polish nobles whose lands were redistributed, the nobles loyal to

1210-490: A short story frequently anthologized in English translation. Pushkin's works also provided fertile ground for Russian composers. Glinka 's Ruslan and Lyudmila is the earliest important Pushkin-inspired opera, and a landmark in the tradition of Russian music. Tchaikovsky 's operas Eugene Onegin (1879) and The Queen of Spades ( Pikovaya Dama , 1890) became perhaps better known outside of Russia than Pushkin's own works of

1331-744: A total of 35.2% of appeals to the Poltava city court in 1777-1780 concerned insults of the noble honor. Similar lawsuits came from both starshyna and ordinary Cossacks, which suggest to the existence in the Cossack society of that period of ideas that were very similar to the ideas of the nobility of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth of the XVII century. During the Hetmanate, the Roman Catholic Church and Uniate clergy were driven from Ukraine. The "black", or monastic , Orthodox clergy enjoyed

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1452-426: A very high status in the Hetmanate, controlling 17% of the Hetmanate's land. Monasteries were exempt from taxes and at no times were peasants bound to monasteries allowed to forgo their duties. The Orthodox hierarchy became as wealthy and powerful as the most powerful nobles. The "white", or married, Orthodox clergy were also exempt from paying taxes. Priests' sons often entered the clergy or the Cossack civil service. It

1573-410: Is a work of such complexity that, though it is only about a hundred pages long, translator Vladimir Nabokov needed two full volumes of material to fully render its meaning into English. Because of this difficulty in translation, Pushkin's verse remains largely unknown to English readers. Even so Pushkin has profoundly influenced western writers such as Henry James . Pushkin wrote The Queen of Spades ,

1694-556: Is also known for his short stories. In particular his cycle The Tales of the Late Ivan Petrovich Belkin , including The Shot , were well received. According to the literary theorist Kornelije Kvas, "the narrative logic and the plausibility of that which is narrated, together with the precision, conciseness – economy of the presentation of reality – all of the above is achieved in Tales of Belkin , especially, and most of all in

1815-488: Is now a museum . Pushkin had four children from his marriage to Natalia: Maria (b. 1832), Alexander (b. 1833), Grigory (b. 1835) and Natalia (b. 1836), the last of whom married morganatically Prince Nikolaus Wilhelm of Nassau of the House of Nassau-Weilburg and was granted the title of Countess of Merenberg . Her daughter Sophie married Grand Duke Michael Mikhailovich of Russia , a grandson of Emperor Nicholas I . Only

1936-554: The British Consulate-General in Saint Petersburg , to be his second. Magenis did not formally accept but on 26 January (7 February) approached Viscount d'Archiac to attempt a reconciliation; however d'Archiac refused to speak with him as he was not yet officially Pushkin's second. Magenis, unable to find Pushkin in the evening, sent him a letter through a messenger at 2 o'clock in the morning declining to be his second, as

2057-680: The Crimean Tatars betrayed the Cossacks for the third time in 1653, Khmelnytsky realized he could no longer rely on Ottoman support against Poland, and he was forced to turn to Tsardom of Russia for help. Final attempts to negotiate took place in January 1654 in the town of Pereiaslav between Khmelnytsky with Cossack leaders and the Tsar's ambassador, Vasiliy Buturlin . The treaty was concluded in April in Moscow by

2178-627: The Dnieper and putting the Zaporozhian Sich under a formal joint Russian-Polish administration. After a failed attempt to break the union with Russia by Ivan Mazepa in 1708, the whole area was included into the Kiev Governorate , and Cossack autonomy was severely restricted. Catherine II of Russia officially abolished the institute of the Hetman in 1764, and from 1764 to 1781, the Cossack Hetmanate

2299-817: The Little Russia Office was created as a government department. The Cossack Hetmanate was called the "Country of Ukraine" ( Turkish : اوكراینا مملكتی/Ukrayna memleketi ) by the Ottoman Empire . In the text of Treaty of Buchach , it is mentioned as the Ukrainian State ( Polish : Państwo Ukraińskie ). The map of Ukraine made by Johann Homann , refers to it as Ukraine, or the Land of Cossacks ( Latin : Ukrania quae et Terra Cosaccorum ). The Russian poet Alexander Pushkin also talks about "Ukraine" rather than "Cossack Hetmanate" in his poem Poltava describing events around

2420-534: The Russian invasion of Ukraine . These monuments, along with any toponymy named after him, are now illegal in Ukraine following the implementation of a law that bans symbols "dedicated to persons who publicly, including … in literary and other artistic works, supported, glorified, or justified Russian imperial policy". The centennial of Pushkin's death in 1937 was one of the most significant literary commemorations of

2541-659: The Tsardom of Russia and, in 1663, they convened the Black Council of 1663 in Nizhyn which elected Ivan Briukhovetsky as an alternative hetman. Since the defeat of Petro Doroshenko in 1669, the title hetman was adapted by pro-Russian elected hetmans who resided in Baturyn . In the course of the Great Northern War one of them, Ivan Mazepa , decided to revolt against Russian rule in 1708, which later drew terrible consequences for

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2662-729: The Union of Brest . In 1686 the Orthodox Church in Ukraine changed from being under the jurisdiction of the Patriarch in Constantinople to being under the authority of the Patriarch of Moscow . Nevertheless, before and after this date local Church leaders pursued a policy of independence. Hetman Ivan Mazepa established very close relations with Metropolitan Varlaam Iasynsky (reigned 1690–1707). Mazepa provided donations of land, money and entire villages to

2783-405: The clavichord were widespread. Also violin and horns , husli ( Ukrainian : гуслі ) and bandura ( Ukrainian : бандура ). While on a campaign, the Starshyna society danced, on church holidays they sang. Cossacks were extremely fond of church singing. A common phenomenon of the cultural life of the Hetmanate was the performances of the so-called traveling diaks ( Ukrainian : дяки ), students of

2904-465: The 12th century. Pushkin's mother, Nadezhda (Nadya) Ossipovna Gannibal (1775–1836), was descended through her paternal grandmother from German and Scandinavian nobility . She was the daughter of Ossip Abramovich Gannibal (1744–1807) and his wife, Maria Alekseyevna Pushkina (1745–1818). Ossip Abramovich Gannibal's father, Pushkin's great-grandfather, was Abram Petrovich Gannibal (1696–1781), an African page kidnapped and taken to Constantinople as

3025-582: The 1709 Battle of Poltava . The founder of the Hetmanate, Bohdan Khmelnytsky , declared himself the ruler of the Ruthenian state to the Polish representative Adam Kysil in February 1649. His contemporary Metropolitan Sylvestr Kosiv recognized him as "the leader and the commander of our land". In his letter to Constantin Șerban (1657), he referred to himself as Clementiae divinae Generalis Dux Exercituum Zaporoviensium . Grand Principality of Ruthenia

3146-735: The 17th century. These resentments were frequently exploited by Russia. The Zaporizhian Sich served as a refuge for Cossacks fleeing the Hetmanate as it had been prior to Khmelnytsky's uprising. After 1735 Cossacks that were not part of starshyna, were split into Elected Cossacks ( Ukrainian : виборні козаки ) and Helper Cossacks ( Ukrainian : підпомічники ). Cossack privileges were preserved only for elected Cossacks, who were exempted from any duties, but were obliged to perform military service in person with their own equipment, weapons and horses. Similarly to Cossack starshyna, noble szlachta identity became widespread amongst ordinary Cossacks. Both Cossack and szlachta terms were used as synonyms. For example

3267-555: The Battle of Poltava, the Hetmanate's autonomy became nominal and the governorate of Kyiv was established. The Russian Empire also began to purge all suspected allies of Mazepa, culminating in the executions of Cossacks in Lebedyn . This resulted in the death of over 900 cossack officials, accused of treason. During the reign of Catherine II of Russia , the Cossack Hetmanate's autonomy was progressively destroyed. After several earlier attempts,

3388-513: The Church. He also financed the building of numerous churches in Kyiv, including the Church of the Epiphany and the cathedral of St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery , and restoration of older churches such as Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv , which had deteriorated to near ruin by the mid-17th century, in a style known as Ukrainian Baroque . The social structure of the Hetmanate consisted of five groups:

3509-691: The Cossack Hetmanate as well as the Zaporozhian Host. The administration was moved to Hlukhiv where Mazepa was publicly executed in effigy and anathema was declared upon him by the Russian Orthodox Church . By an edict of the Russian Governing Senate of 17 November 1764, the office was disestablished in the course of the expansion of Russian territory towards the Black Sea coast. The list includes only hetmans who belonged to

3630-537: The Cossack Hetmanate. For a full list of all Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks, see Hetmans of Ukrainian Cossacks . Some historians, including Mykola Arkas , question the legitimacy of the Teteria's elections, accusing him of corruption. Some sources claim that the election of Teteria took place in January 1663. The election of Teteria led to the Povoloch Regiment Uprising in 1663, followed by greater unrest in

3751-535: The Cossack noble and officer class acquired huge landed estates comparable to those of the Polish-Ruthenian magnates whom they had replaced and emulated. Most Cossacks failed to enter the noble estate and continued their role as free soldiers. The lower rank Cossacks often resented their wealthier brethren and were responsible for frequent rebellions, particularly during the Ruin , a period of instability and civil war in

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3872-657: The Cossacks Samiilo Bohdanovych-Zarudny and Pavlo Teteria , and by Aleksey Trubetskoy , Vasilii Buturlin, and other boyars . As a result of the treaty, the Zaporozhian Host became an autonomous Hetmanate within the Russian state. The treaty also led to the Russo-Polish War of 1654–1667 . The period of Hetmanate history known as "the Ruin ", lasting from 1657 to 1687, was marked by constant civil wars throughout

3993-626: The Dnieper-Buh confluence had to be uninhabited for 20 years. After the defeat of the Ottomans at the Battle of Vienna in 1683, the Tsardom of Russia and the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth concluded the Treaty of Perpetual Peace in 1686, which also established the division of the Hetmanate between them. On the Left-bank, Samoilovych was considered to be the culprit of the disintegration of the Cossack state between

4114-472: The French Enlightenment , to which he would remain permanently indebted throughout his life, especially Voltaire , whom he described as "the first to follow the new road, and to bring the lamp of philosophy into the dark archives of history". Pushkin gradually became committed to social reform, and emerged as a spokesman for literary radicals. That angered the government and led to his transfer from

4235-516: The Gregorian calendar) 1837 Pushkin sent a "highly insulting letter" to Gekkern. The only answer to that letter could be a challenge to a duel, as Pushkin knew. Pushkin received the formal challenge to a duel through his sister-in-law, Ekaterina Gekkerna, approved by d'Anthès, on the same day through the attaché of the French Embassy, Viscount d'Archiac. Pushkin asked Arthur Magenis , then attaché to

4356-528: The Hetmanate retained their privileges, their lands, and the services of the peasants. Together, the old nobles and the new Cossack officers became known as the Distinguished Military Fellows ( Znachni Viiskovi Tovaryshi ). Thus, the nature of noble status was fundamentally changed. It no longer depended on ancient heredity, but instead on loyalty to the Hetmanate. Over time, however, Cossack officer lands and privileges too became hereditary, and

4477-545: The Hetmanate's internal affairs. When the tsar refused to defend Ukraine against the Polish King Stanislaus Leszczynski , an ally of Charles XII of Sweden , Mazepa and some Zaporozhian Cossacks allied themselves with the Swedes on October 28, 1708. The decisive battle of Poltava (in 1709) was won by Russia, putting an end to Mazepa's goal of independence, promised in an earlier treaty with Sweden. Following

4598-537: The Hetmanate, Khmelnytsky engaged in state-building across multiple spheres: military, administration, finance, economics, and culture. He invested the Zaporozhian Host under the leadership of its hetman with supreme power in the new Ruthenian state, and he unified all the spheres of Ukrainian society under his authority. This involved building a government system and a developed military and civilian administration out of Cossack officers and Ruthenian nobles, as well as

4719-467: The Kyiv-Mohyla Academy or collegiums, who earned money for living and studying during the holidays by performing popular acts – interludes. There was also such a kind of intellectual pursuit of time as a game of chess. Among the popular leisure activities was playing cards, especially in winter. In 1727, such card games as picket, lumberjack, and fantas were mentioned. They played for money, sometimes

4840-588: The Ottoman and Swedish empires. Alexander Pushkin Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin (6 June [ O.S. 26 May] 1799 – 10 February [ O.S. 29 January] 1837) was a Russian poet, playwright, and novelist of the Romantic era . He is considered by many to be the greatest Russian poet, as well as the founder of modern Russian literature . Pushkin

4961-509: The Ottomans, who granted him Ukraine, while the hetman agreed to support Ottoman military action with his army. "By 1669 the Porte issued a patent (berat, nişan) granting Doroshenko all of Cossack Ukraine as an Ottoman sancak or province". This move sharply reduced his popularity among the Ukrainians and commoners, giving rise to the emergence of two self-proclaimed Right-bank hetmans, Petro Sukhovii and

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5082-564: The Poles that he wanted to be the Hetman of a Ruthenia stretching to Chelm and Halych , and build with the Tatar's help. He warned them he intended to resume his military campaign. When the delegation returned and informed John II Casimir of Khmelnytsky's new campaign, the king called for an all szlachta volunteer army, and sent regular troops against the cossacks in southern Volhynia . However, after obtaining intelligence of superior cossack forces,

5203-458: The Polish reinforcements and block their way at a river crossing near Zboriv . Caught by some degree of surprise, John Casimir started negotiations with the Tatar's khan. With the khan at his side, he forced Khmelnytsky to start peace negotiations. Khmelnytsky signed the Treaty of Zboriv in August 1649, with a result somewhat less than the Cossack leader had anticipated from his campaign. As ruler of

5324-541: The Polish troops retreated to Zbarazh to set up a defense. The forces of Jeremi Wiśniowiecki reinforced the Zbarazh defenders while he took the lead of all Polish forces. Khmelnytsky besieged the city, wearing it down through a series of random attacks and bombardments. The king, while rushing to help Wiśniowiecki, was ambushed with his newly gathered forces. Khmelnytsky, leaving part of his army with Ivan Cherniata near Zbarazh, moved together with İslâm III Giray to intercept

5445-418: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, zhupans and kuntush remained the main men's clothing until the end of the 18th century. The clothes of a Cossack Starshyna indicated belonging to a certain society, where the accepted style prevailed. At the same time, there was a formation of an individual style that distinguished a person among a certain social group. Clothes also had a family value. It was a tradition to leave

5566-456: The Romantic" and that "he is simultaneously Romantic and not Romantic". Pushkin is usually credited with developing Russian literature. He is seen as having originated the highly nuanced level of language which characterizes Russian literature after him, and he is also credited with substantially augmenting the Russian lexicon. Whenever he found gaps in the Russian vocabulary, he devised calques . His rich vocabulary and highly-sensitive style are

5687-538: The Ruin effectively ended when Ivan Mazepa was elected hetman, serving from 1687 to 1708. He brought stability to the Hetmanate, which was again united under a single hetman. The Hetmanate flourished under his rule, particularly in literature and architecture. The architectural style that developed during his reign was called the Cossack Baroque style. During his reign, the Great Northern War broke out between Russia and Sweden . Mazepa's alliance with Peter I caused heavy losses of cossacks and Russian interference in

5808-439: The Russian Empire to be recognized in Europe) and Dmitry Bortniansky . In addition to traditional printing presses in Kyiv , new printing shops were established in Novhorod-Siverskyi and Chernihiv . Most of the books published were religious in nature, such as the Peternik , a book about the lives of the monks of the Kyiv-Pechersk monasatary. Books on local history were compiled. In a book written by Inokentiy Gizel in 1674,

5929-404: The Tsardom of Russia, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Ottoman Empire. After the unsuccessful Crimean campaign of 1687, he was denounced, arrested and exiled to Siberia . At the same time, on the Right-bank, the Poles abolished the Cossack self-government and the regimental system in 1699. As a result, the Hetmanate continued to exist only on the Left-bank of the Dnieper. The period of

6050-415: The Tsardom of Russia, while Right-bank Ukraine remained part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and was temporarily occupied by the Ottoman Empire in the period of 1672-1699 (see the Treaty of Buchach and the Treaty of Karlowitz ). For a short time, Petro Doroshenko became the hetman of both banks. After treason by Demian Mnohohrishny and a new Polish offensive, Dorosenko concluded an alliance with

6171-403: The Ukrainian population of the Right-bank began to flee to the Left-bank of the Dnieper, Sloboda Ukraine , Galicia and Volhynia . In 1674, Samoilovych's Left-bank Cossacks, together with the Russian army, invaded the Right-bank, and in 1676, deprived of support, Doroshenko capitulated, surrendering the hetman's capital of Chyhyryn with kleinods. These events unleashed the Russo-Turkish War , as

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6292-469: The age of 15, and was widely recognized by the literary establishment by the time of his graduation from the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum . Upon graduation from the Lycée, Pushkin recited his controversial poem " Ode to Liberty ", one of several that led to his exile by Emperor Alexander I . While under strict surveillance by the Emperor's political police and unable to publish, Pushkin wrote his most famous play, Boris Godunov . His novel in verse Eugene Onegin

6413-410: The capital in May 1820. He went to the Caucasus and to Crimea and then to Kamianka and Chișinău in Bessarabia . He joined the Filiki Eteria , a secret organization whose purpose was to overthrow Ottoman rule in Greece and establish an independent Greek state. He was inspired by the Greek Revolution and when the war against the Ottoman Empire broke out, he kept a diary recording the events of

6534-431: The central town, where sotnyk resided with his council. merged with Kropyvna merged with Chernihiv merged with Chernihiv Волинський Волинський other formation: 1657-1658 Hetman of the Zaporizhian Host The Hetman of the Zaporozhian Host ( Ukrainian : Гетьман Війська Запорозького , Latin : Cosaccorum Zaporoviesium Supremus Belli Dux ) was the head of state of the Cossack Hetmanate . The office

6655-419: The clothes had value not only for women. According to sources, including diaries and property descriptions, men also attached importance to their wardrobe, although it was not as varied. The basic outerwear for men, kuntush, zhupan or kaftan , has been traditional for a long time. Zhupans or kaftans are mentioned in documents of the 16th century. Silk and cloth belts were quite expensive. In Ukraine, as well as in

6776-467: The clothes of the deceased in the family, giving away some of them after death. Among the things that were given great importance in the Starshyna society were jewelry. This can be traced to dowry registers, wills, property descriptions. Jewels, which are ornaments made of gold, silver, various precious stones – rubies , emeralds , sapphires , diamonds , pearls , corals – were called "jewels". They were used as capital investments, for example, to provide

6897-446: The conditions of the treaty, Ukraine would become a third and autonomous component of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, under the ultimate sovereignty of the King of Poland but with its own military, courts, and treasury. But the treaty, although ratified by the Diet in May 1659, was never implemented because it was unpopular among the lower classes of the Ruthenian society, where more rebellions occurred. Eventually Vyhovsky surrendered

7018-433: The death of Skoropadsky, the elections oh hetmans were discontinued and were awarded as a gift and a type of princely title, first to Moldavian noblemen and, later, to the Russian Empress's favorites. On 5 April 1710, the council of cossacks, veterans of the Battle at Poltava, elected Pylyp Orlyk as the Hetman of Ukraine in exile. Orlyk waged a guerrilla war at the southern borders of the Russian Empire with support from

7139-409: The diet was completely different, and the set of products also changed. When going on a campaign, a Cossack had to take with him a supply of food, which should last for several months. That is why they took something that did not spoil and could be used for a long time on the road. The basis of the ration in the campaigns was sukhari ( rusks ), cereals, flour, salo (salo is a high-calorie product – more

7260-432: The drama was not staged until 2007. Around 1825–1829 he met and befriended the Polish poet Adam Mickiewicz , during exile in central Russia. In 1829 he travelled through the Caucasus to Erzurum to visit friends fighting in the Russian army during the Russo-Turkish War . At the end of 1829 Pushkin wanted to set off on a journey abroad, the desire reflected in his poem Let's go, I'm ready . He applied for permission for

7381-565: The emperor's Titular Counsel of the National Archives. However, because insurgents in the Decembrist Uprising (1825) in Saint Petersburg had kept some of Pushkin's earlier political poems, the emperor retained strict control of everything Pushkin published and he was banned from travelling at will. During that same year (1825) Pushkin also wrote what would become his most famous play, the drama Boris Godunov , while at his mother's estate. He could not, however, gain permission to publish it until five years later. The original and uncensored version of

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7502-419: The establishment of an elite within the Cossack Hetman state. The Hetmanate used Polish currency, and Polish as an administrative language and language of command. However, after the Truce of Andrusovo in 1667, the "simple language" ( Ukrainian : проста мова ), or the commonly spoken vernacular language of Ukraine, began to be written down and widely used in official documents of the Cossack Hetmanate. After

7623-549: The expense of the lands owned by peasants and rank-and-file Cossacks, and the peasants were forced to work increasingly more days for their landlords. Nevertheless, their obligations remained lighter than they had been prior to the uprising; and until the end of the Hetmanate, peasants were never fully enserfed and retained the right to move. The Cossack Hetmanate was divided into military-administrative districts known as regiments ( regimental districts ; Ukrainian : полк , romanized :  polk ) whose number fluctuated with

7744-408: The final and complete integration of the Ukrainian lands and society into the Russian Empire. The Ukrainian people were turned into serfs of the Russian nobles, and an aggressive policy of Russification was also started. The Hetmanate coincided with a period of cultural flowering in Ukraine, particularly during the reign of hetman Ivan Mazepa . In the construction of dwelling , for a long time,

7865-555: The food was divided into daily, festive and fasting. There were differences in the diet of wealthy Cossacks and the poor. Often the poor were satisfied with empty borshch (without meat), fish and sauerkraut . Food was cooked in an oven (in the winter in the house, in the kitchen, in the summer in the summer kitchen or in the summer oven in the yard). Every family needed simple utensils: a Dutch oven ( Ukrainian : чавун , romanized :  chavun ), bowls, pans, rohachi ( Ukrainian : рогачі ), pokers. Visitors from abroad commented on

7986-517: The foundation for modern Russian literature. His accomplishments set new records for development of the Russian language and culture. He became the father of Russian literature in the 19th century, marking the highest achievements of the 18th century and the beginning of literary process of the 19th century. He introduced Russia to all the European literary genres as well as a great number of West European writers. He brought natural speech and foreign influences to create modern poetic Russian. Though his life

8107-431: The help of Tatars. During the battle Pushkar was killed and replaced with a new colonel, while the leaders of the uprising were strictly repressed. After this, Vyhovsky and General Starshyna considered the relationship with Russia to be broken. The newly elected Metropolitan Dionisi Balaban was transferred to Chyhyryn , away from Kyiv. A manifest nullifying the union with Russia was sent throughout Europe, mainly because it

8228-499: The heroine of Eugene Onegin . Authorities summoned Pushkin to Moscow after his poem Ode to Liberty was found among the belongings of the rebels from the Decembrist Uprising (1825). After his exile in 1820 Pushkin's friends and family continually petitioned for his release, sending letters and meeting Emperor Alexander I and then Emperor Nicholas I on the heels of the Decembrist Uprising. Upon meeting Emperor Nicholas I Pushkin obtained his release from exile and began to work as

8349-433: The high level of literacy, even among commoners, in the Hetmanate. There was a higher number of elementary schools per population in the Hetmanate than in either neighboring Russia or Poland. In the 1740s, of 1,099 settlements within seven regimental districts, as many as 866 had primary schools. The German visitor to the Hetmanate, writing in 1720, commented on how the son of Hetman Danylo Apostol , who had never left Ukraine,

8470-442: The houses were covered with wallpaper. The rooms were decorated with carpets made by local artisans. Stoves for heating were lined with tiles. Life was decorated with colourful and beautiful things. They bought mirrors, chandeliers , a lot of beautiful dishes – silver, porcelain dishes, teapots , coffee pots, spoons, knives, beer bottles, silver trays, cups, etc. Clothes do not only perform a purely utilitarian function, but are also

8591-403: The independence of the Hetmanate, and from the Russian side there were attempts to declare agreements reached with Yurii Khmelnytsky in 1659 as nothing more than the "former Bohdan's agreements" of 1654. The 1667 Treaty of Andrusovo , conducted without any representation from the Cossack Hetmanate, established the borders between the Polish and Russian states, dividing the Hetmanate in half along

8712-660: The journey but received negative response from Nicholas I on 17 January 1830. Around 1828 Pushkin met Natalia Goncharova , then 16 years old and one of the most talked-about beauties of Moscow. After much hesitation Natalia accepted a proposal of marriage from Pushkin in April 1830, but not before she received assurances that the Tsarist government had no intention of persecuting the libertarian poet. Later Pushkin and his wife became regulars of court society. They officially became engaged on 6 May 1830 and sent out wedding invitations. Owing to an outbreak of cholera and other circumstances,

8833-438: The latter name is found in various Polish, Russian, Ottoman and Arab sources. Following the Khmelnytsky Uprising in 1648, the name "Little Russia" gained ground and was used in relations with Moscow, while internally, the territory was called Ukraine and its inhabitants as the "Ruthenian nation". In Russian diplomatic correspondence, it was called Little Russia ( Russian : Малороссия , romanized :  Malorossiya ) and

8954-641: The lines of Alexander and Natalia still remain. Natalia's granddaughter, Nadejda , married into the extended British royal family, her husband being the uncle of Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh , and is the grandmother of the present Marquess of Milford Haven . Descendants of the poet now live around the globe in the United Kingdom, the Czech Republic, Germany, Belgium, Luxembourg and the United States. Critics consider many of his works masterpieces, such as

9075-669: The modern region of Kirovohrad Oblast , as well as Polesie (all in the Right-bank Ukraine ). Moreover, the political crisis that followed the Pushkar–Barabash Uprising divided the Cossack Hetmanate completely on both banks of the Dnieper River . Coincidentally, on 10 January 1663 the Tsardom of Muscovy created the new Little Russian Office ( Prikaz ) within its Ambassadorial Office. Vouched for by Charles Marie François Olier, marquis de Nointel , Yurii Khmelnytsky

9196-722: The national uprising. He stayed in Chișinău until 1823 and wrote two Romantic poems which brought him acclaim: The Prisoner of the Caucasus and The Fountain of Bakhchisaray . In 1823, Pushkin moved to Odessa , where he again clashed with the government, which sent him into exile on his mother's rural estate of Mikhailovskoye , near Pskov , from 1824 to 1826. In Mikhaylovskoye, Pushkin wrote nostalgic love poems which he dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova, wife of Malorossia 's General-Governor . Then Pushkin worked on his verse-novel Eugene Onegin . In Mikhaylovskoye, in 1825, Pushkin wrote

9317-464: The nobility, the Cossacks, the clergy, the townspeople, and the peasants. As had been the case under Poland, the nobility continued to be the dominant social class during the Hetmanate, although its composition and source of legitimacy within the new society had changed radically. During the Khmelnytsky Uprising , the Polish nobles and Polonized Ruthenian magnates fled the territory of the Hetmanate. As

9438-548: The office of hetman and fled to Poland. The newly re-installed Yurii Khmelnytsky signed the newly composed Pereiaslav Articles that were increasingly unfavorable for the Hetmanate and later led to introduction of serfdom rights. In 1667, the Russo-Polish war ended with the Treaty of Andrusovo , which split the Cossack Hetmanate along the Dnieper River: Left-bank Ukraine enjoyed a degree of autonomy within

9559-548: The office of the hetman was finally abolished by the Russian government in 1764, with the creation of the Little Russia Governorate . In 1781, the regimental administrative system of the Little Russia Governorate was completely abolished and viceroyalties were formed. The Little Russia Governorate was then divided into three viceroyalties (provinces): Kyiv, Chernihiv and Novhorod-Siverskyi. This step meant

9680-603: The outcome of the entire war depended on the supply of food. Daily food was fish. It was dried, salted and boiled. The typical food of the Cossacks was varenyky (dumplings), halushky , borshch . The Cossacks consumed mainly boiled, stewed and baked food, thus, peculiar taste stereotypes and habits developed. Popular food in the Sich was porridge-like dishes made from various grains: solomakha ( Ukrainian : соломаха ), teteria ( Ukrainian : тетеря ), shcherba ( Ukrainian : щерба ), bratko ( Ukrainian : братко ). Kulish ( Ukrainian : куліш )

9801-434: The peasants under their control to continue to provide their services. Thus as a result of the uprising, approximately 50% of the territory consisted of lands given to Cossack officers or free self-governing villages controlled by the peasants, 33% of the land was owned by Cossack officers and nobles, and 17% of the land was owned by the Church. With time, the amount of territory owned by the nobles and officers gradually grew at

9922-481: The period of Pushkin's growing literary influence, he met one of Russia's other influential early writers, Nikolai Gogol . After reading Gogol's 1831–1832 volume of short stories Evenings on a Farm Near Dikanka , Pushkin supported him and would feature some of Gogol's most famous short stories in the magazine The Contemporary , which he founded in 1836. By the autumn of 1836, Pushkin was falling into greater and greater debt and faced scandalous rumours that his wife

10043-474: The poem The Bronze Horseman and the drama The Stone Guest , a tale of the fall of Don Juan . His poetic short drama Mozart and Salieri (like The Stone Guest , one of the so-called four Little Tragedies , a collective characterization by Pushkin himself in 1830 letter to Pyotr Pletnyov ) was the inspiration for Peter Shaffer 's Amadeus as well as providing the libretto (almost verbatim) to Rimsky-Korsakov 's opera Mozart and Salieri . Pushkin

10164-595: The poem To*** . It is generally believed that he dedicated this poem to Anna Kern , but there are other opinions. Poet Mikhail Dudin believed that the poem was dedicated to the serf Olga Kalashnikova. Pushkinist Kira Victorova believed that the poem was dedicated to the Empress Elizaveta Alekseyevna. Vadim Nikolayev argued that the idea about the Empress was marginal and refused to discuss it, while trying to prove that poem had been dedicated to Tatyana Larina,

10285-497: The possibility of a peaceful settlement had already been quashed, and the traditional first task of the second was to try to bring about a reconciliation. The pistol duel with d'Anthès took place on 27 January (8 February) at the Black River , without the presence of a second for Pushkin. The duel they fought was of a kind known as a "barrier duel". The rules of this type dictated that the duellists began at an agreed distance. After

10406-583: The prestigious Imperial Lyceum in Tsarskoye Selo , near Saint Petersburg, his talent was already widely recognized on the Russian literary scene. At the Lyceum, he was a student of David Mara, known in Russia as David de Boudry  [ fr ] , a younger brother of French revolutionary Jean-Paul Marat . After school, Pushkin plunged into the vibrant and raucous intellectual youth culture of St. Petersburg, which

10527-465: The pro-Polish Mykhailo Khanenko . Direct armed support of the anti-Doroshenko forces by the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth forced Sultan Mehmed IV to intervene in the conflict. In 1672, Ottoman troops captured Podillia , the Bratslav region, and the southern Kyiv region and forced the Poles to sign the Treaty of Buchach . Doroshenko restored his power, but due to Tatar raids and violent islamization ,

10648-504: The regions of Cossack Hetmanate completely disregarding the authority of hetman and spreading rumors that in truth Russia did not support the candidacy of Vyhovsky. Vyhovsky, seeing the situation turning out of his control, went on to extinguish the revolt led by the Zaporozhian Kish otaman Yakiv Barabash and Poltava Colonel Martyn Pushkar . In the spring of 1658 Vyhovsky crossed Dnieper and confronted mutineers near Poltava with

10769-1318: The same name. Mussorgsky 's monumental Boris Godunov (two versions, 1868–9 and 1871–2) ranks as one of the very finest and most original of Russian operas. Other Russian operas based on Pushkin include Dargomyzhsky 's Rusalka and The Stone Guest ; Rimsky-Korsakov 's Mozart and Salieri , Tale of Tsar Saltan , and The Golden Cockerel ; Cui 's Prisoner of the Caucasus , Feast in Time of Plague , and The Captain's Daughter ; Tchaikovsky 's Mazeppa ; Rachmaninoff 's one-act operas Aleko (based on The Gypsies ) and The Miserly Knight ; Stravinsky 's Mavra , and Nápravník 's Dubrovsky . Additionally, ballets and cantatas , as well as innumerable songs , have been set to Pushkin's verse (including even his French-language poems, in Isabelle Aboulker 's song cycle " Caprice étrange "). Suppé , Leoncavallo and Malipiero have also based operas on his works. Composers Yudif Grigorevna Rozhavskaya , Galina Konstantinovna Smirnova , Yevgania Yosifovna Yakhina , Maria Semyonovna Zavalishina , Zinaida Petrovna Ziberova composed folk songs using Pushkin's text. The Desire of Glory , which has been dedicated to Elizaveta Vorontsova,

10890-549: The scholars Dieudonné Gnammankou and Hugh Barnes eventually conclusively established that Gannibal was instead born in Central Africa, in an area bordering Lake Chad in modern-day Cameroon . After education in France as a military engineer , Gannibal became governor of Reval and eventually Général en Chief (the third most senior army rank) in charge of the building of sea forts and canals in Russia. Born in Moscow, Pushkin

11011-531: The signal to begin, they walked towards each other, closing the distance. They could fire at any time they wished, but the duellist that shot first was required to stand still and wait for the other to shoot back at his leisure. D'Anthès fired first, critically wounding Pushkin; the bullet entered at his hip and penetrated his abdomen. D'Anthès was only lightly wounded in the right arm by Pushkin's shot. Two days later, at 2.45 pm on 29 January (10 February), Pushkin died of peritonitis . At Pushkin's wife's request he

11132-439: The size of the Hetmanate's territory. In 1649, when the Hetmanate controlled both the right and left banks, it included 16 such districts. After the loss of Right-bank Ukraine, this number was reduced to ten. The regimental districts were further divided into sotnias ( Ukrainian : сотня ), which were administered by sotnyks ( Ukrainian : сотник ). The lowest division was the kurin ( Ukrainian : курінь ). Sotnias were named by

11253-417: The state. After Bohdan Khmelnytsky died in 1657, his sixteen-year-old son Yurii Khmelnytsky was elected as successor. Bohdan's son was not only too young and inexperienced, but also clearly lacked the charisma and leadership qualities of his father. In response, Ivan Vyhovsky , the general scribe ( Ukrainian : писар , romanized :  pysar ) of the Hetmanate and an adviser to Bohdan Khmelnytsky,

11374-405: The steppe spaces in close contact with nomads . Meat was an essential addition to the diet of the Cossacks both in summer and in winter. The food reserves of the Cossacks were constantly replenished. Those who lived in winter quarters especially tried. Their main task was to supply the Cossacks with various foods – from meat, flour, lard, cereals to vegetables and fruits. During military campaigns,

11495-450: The story The Stationmaster . Pushkin is the progenitor of the long and fruitful development of Russian realist literature, for he manages to attain the realist ideal of a concise presentation of reality". Pushkin himself preferred his verse novel Eugene Onegin , which he wrote over the course of his life and which, starting a tradition of great Russian novels, follows a few central characters but varies widely in tone and focus. Onegin

11616-557: The subject of aesthetic tastes and preferences that form a style characteristic of different eras. In general, the clothes of the Starshyna society, both male and female, did not differ from the Eastern European style of the time. Men's zhupan (robes), kuntush , various belts were worn both in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and in Ukraine, just like the women's clothing – skirts, corsets (laces) were typical for

11737-517: The theory that Moscow was the heir of ancient Kyiv was developed and elaborated for the first time. Among the cultural and educational interests that characterize the leisure time of a Cossack Starshyna, there is a passion for music. A love of music, singing, and dancing was cultivated in the Cossack Starshyna environment. Things that brought aesthetic pleasure, provided comfort to everyday life, were musical instruments. Keyboard instruments such as

11858-404: The type of "house in two halves" characteristic of Ukrainian housing was preserved, but in the case of the Cossack Starshyna society, they differed in the number of rooms and interior decoration. In many respects, the interior of the home of the Cossack Starshyna still resembled folk dwellings. The traditions of painting windows, doors, strollers, and baby carriages were preserved. The inner walls of

11979-463: The wedding was delayed for a year. The ceremony took place on 18 February 1831 (Old Style) in the Great Ascension Church on Bolshaya Nikitskaya Street in Moscow. Pushkin's marriage to Goncharova was largely a happy one, but his wife’s characteristic flirtatiousness and frivolity would lead to his fatal duel seven years later, for Pushkin had a highly jealous temperament. In 1831, during

12100-411: The whole of Europe in the 18th century. The elements of the outfit differed, presumably, in the details of the cut, decorativeness, while the fabrics used were common to all of Europe: velvet , satin , brocade , taffeta , textile , silk , which were imported to Ukraine from Silesia and Saxony . Trade in these goods was conducted very actively, which indicates the demand for them. Interestingly,

12221-658: Was abolished by the Russian government in 1764. The position was established by Bohdan Khmelnytsky during the Cossack Hetmanate in the mid 17th century. During that period the office was electoral. All elections, except for the first one, took place in the Senior Council in Chyhyryn which, until 1669, served as the capital of the Hetmanate. After the Pereiaslav Agreement of 1654, several senior cossacks sided with

12342-467: Was also often prepared. One of the peculiarities of the Cossack diet was the insignificant consumption of baked bread, because there was not always enough flour. One of the most famous first courses is the Cossack teteria, which is quite similar to the kulish. Simple and easy-to-prepare meals were nutritious, but above all, they kept for a long time. Eastern influence is also felt on the derivative cuisine. Teteria and solomakha became dishes that were formed on

12463-598: Was analysed by Nikolai Gogol , his successor and pupil, and the great Russian critic Vissarion Belinsky , who produced the fullest and deepest critical study of Pushkin's work, which still retains much of its relevance. In the centennial year of Pushkin's death in 1937, a mass renaming of streets across the entire Soviet Union occurred in his honour. Prior to 2022, Pushkin was the third most common historical figure represented in Ukraine’s streets, but his monuments were removed and streets bearing his name were renamed following

12584-572: Was born into the Russian nobility in Moscow. His father, Sergey Lvovich Pushkin, belonged to an old noble family. One of his maternal great-grandfathers was Major-General Abram Petrovich Gannibal , a nobleman of African origin who was kidnapped from his homeland by the Ottomans , then freed by the Russian Emperor and raised in the Emperor's court household as his godson . He published his first poem at

12705-407: Was brief, he left examples of nearly every literary genre of his day: lyric poetry, narrative poetry, the novel, the short story, the drama, the critical essay and even the personal letter. According to Vladimir Nabokov , Pushkin's idiom combined all the contemporaneous elements of Russian with all he had learned from Derzhavin , Zhukovsky , Batyushkov , Karamzin and Krylov : His work as

12826-871: Was coined in the late 19th century, deriving from the word hetman , the title of the general of the Zaporizhian Army. Despite not being centered in Zaporizhia , the region's name ( lit.   ' beyond the rapids ' ) was derived from Cossacks in Southern Ukraine centered on the Zaporizhian Sich , as well as a general name for Ukrainian Cossacks as a political and military organization. The Constitution of Pylyp Orlyk refers to it as " Little Russia " ("кордони Малої Росії, Вітчизни нашої", lit.   ' borders of Little Russia, our Fatherland ' ) and "Ukraine" ( Ukrainian : Україна , Latin : Ucraina );

12947-541: Was conducting friendly relationships with Poland and supporting internal opposition within the Hetmanate. Negotiations with Sweden had frozen, while he had military support from the Crimean Khanate , so Vyhovsky decided to renegotiate with Poland, with whom talks continued for quite some time. On September 16, 1658 in Hadiach , an official document was signed between representatives of the Cossack Hetmanate and Poland. Under

13068-575: Was elected hetman in 1657 by the Starshyna council. His election caused widespread discontent among other regiments and the Zaporizhian Host, who sent runners to Moscow with complaints. As a result, new elections were called that same year at which Vyhovsky was reelected at the General Military Council. This election was also confirmed by Russian authorities who were informed according to the Pereiaslav treaty. Moscow continued to accept runners from

13189-407: Was entrusted to nursemaids and French tutors, and spoke mostly French until the age of ten. He became acquainted with the Russian language through communication with household serfs and his nanny, Arina Rodionovna, whom he loved dearly and to whom he was more attached than to his own mother. He published his first poem at the age of 15. When he finished school, as part of the first graduating class of

13310-554: Was fluent in the Latin, Italian, French, German, Polish and Russian languages. Under Mazepa, the Kyiv collegium was transformed into an academy and attracted some of the leading scholars of the Orthodox world. It was the largest educational institution in lands ruled by Russia. Mazepa established another collegium in Chernihiv. These schools largely used the Polish and Latin languages and provided

13431-514: Was freed from Ottoman captivity and, along with Pasha Ibragim, was sent to Ukraine to fight the Moscow forces of Samoilovych and Romadanovsky. In 1681, Mehmed IV appointed George Ducas hetman of Ukraine, replacing Khmelnytsky. Following the anathema on Mazepa and the election of Ivan Skoropadsky , the Cossack Hetmanate was included in the Russian Government of Kiev in December 1708. Upon

13552-584: Was having a love affair. On 4 November, he sent a challenge to a duel to Georges d'Anthès , also known as Dantes-Gekkern. Jacob van Heeckeren , d'Anthès' adoptive father, asked that the duel be delayed by two weeks. With efforts by the poet's friends, the duel was cancelled. On 17 November, d'Anthès proposed to Natalia Goncharova's sister, Ekaterina. The marriage did not resolve the conflict. D'Anthès continued to pursue Natalia Goncharova in public and rumours that d'Anthès had married Natalia's sister just to save her reputation circulated. On 26 January (7 February in

13673-560: Was incorporated as the Little Russia Governorate headed by Pyotr Rumyantsev , with the last remnants of the Hetmanate's administrative system abolished in 1781. The official name of the Cossack Hetmanate was the Zaporizhian Host or Army of Zaporizhia ([Військо Запорозьке] Error: {{Langx}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) ). The historiographic term Hetmanate ( Ukrainian : Гетьманщина , romanized :  Hetmanshchyna , lit.   ' Hetman state ' )

13794-460: Was not uncommon for nobles or Cossacks to become priests and vice versa. Twelve cities within the Hetmanate enjoyed Magdeburg rights , in which they were self-governing and controlled their own courts, finances and taxes. Wealthy townsmen were able to hold office within the Hetmanate or even to buy titles of nobility. Because the towns were generally small (the largest towns of Kyiv and Nizhyn had no more than 15,000 inhabitants), this social group

13915-425: Was not very significant relative to other social groups. Peasants comprised the majority of the Hetmanate's population. Although the institution of forced labor by the peasants was reduced significantly by the Khmelnytsky Uprising , in which the Polish and Ruthenian landlords and magnates were expelled from the territory controlled by the Hetman, those nobles loyal to the Hetman as well as the Orthodox Church expected

14036-508: Was put in the coffin in evening dress, not in chamber-cadet uniform, the uniform provided by the emperor. The funeral service was initially assigned to St Isaac's Cathedral but was moved to Konyushennaya church. Many people attended. After the funeral the coffin was lowered into the basement, where it stayed until 3 February, when it was removed to Pskov province. Pushkin was buried in the grounds of Svyatogorsky monastery in present-day Pushkinskiye Gory , near Pskov, beside his mother. His last home

14157-487: Was serialized between 1825 and 1832. Pushkin was fatally wounded in a duel with his wife's alleged lover and her sister's husband, Georges-Charles de Heeckeren d'Anthès , also known as Dantes-Gekkern, a French officer serving with the Chevalier Guard Regiment . Pushkin's father, Sergei Lvovich Pushkin (1767–1848), was descended from a distinguished family of the Russian nobility that traced its ancestry back to

14278-621: Was set to music by David Tukhmanov , as well as Keep Me, Mine Talisman – by Alexander Barykin and later by Tukhmanov. Pushkin is considered by many to be the central representative of Romanticism in Russian literature although he was not unequivocally known as a Romantic. Russian critics have traditionally argued that his works represent a path from Neoclassicism through Romanticism to Realism . An alternative assessment suggests that "he had an ability to entertain contrarities which may seem Romantic in origin, but are ultimately subversive of all fixed points of view, all single outlooks, including

14399-565: Was the proposed name of the Cossack Hetmanate as part of the Polish–Lithuanian–Ruthenian Commonwealth . After many successful military campaigns against the Poles, Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky made a triumphant entry into Kyiv on Christmas 1648, where he was hailed as a liberator of the people from Polish captivity. In February 1649, during negotiations in Pereiaslav with a Polish delegation, Khmelnytsky made it clear to

14520-509: Was then the capital of the Russian Empire . In 1820, he published his first long poem, Ruslan and Ludmila , with much controversy about its subject and style. While at the Lyceum, Pushkin was heavily influenced by the Kantian liberal individualist teachings of Alexander Kunitsyn , whom Pushkin would later commemorate in his poem 19 October . Pushkin also immersed himself in the thought of

14641-553: Was used in reserve: it can be stored for a long time, and also used in canning products). Cossacks carried water in wooden trunks tied to the saddle. Fishing nets were also taken on hikes. Among the sweet dishes in Cossack times, the following were known: kvas ( Ukrainian : квас ), kutia ( Ukrainian : кутя ) with honey, kutia with poppy seeds and nuts, rice with honey and cinnamon, kutia with raisins and nuts, soup made of dried apples, plums and cherries ( uzvar ). Traditional local tonic drinks were weak beer and fruit kvas. In general,

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