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42-499: Starshina (Russian: старшина , IPA: [stərʂɨˈna] or Starshyna in Russian transliteration ) is a senior military rank or designation in the military forces of some Slavic states, and a historical military designation. Depending on a country, it had different meanings. In the 19th century with the expansion of the Imperial Russia into Turkestan and

84-853: A Latin alphabet for the Russian language was discussed in 1929–30 during the campaign of latinisation of the languages of the USSR , when a special commission was created to propose a latinisation system for Russian. The letters of the Latin script are named in Russian as following (and are borrowed from French and/or German ): Romanization There are many consistent or standardized romanization systems. They can be classified by their characteristics. A particular system's characteristics may make it better-suited for various, sometimes contradictory applications, including document retrieval, linguistic analysis, easy readability, faithful representation of pronunciation. If

126-428: A keyboard or word processor set up for inputting Cyrillic, or else are not capable of typing rapidly using a native Russian keyboard layout ( JCUKEN ). In the latter case, they would type using a system of transliteration fitted for their keyboard layout , such as for English QWERTY keyboards, and then use an automated tool to convert the text into Cyrillic. There are a number of distinct and competing standards for

168-479: Is a perfectly mutually intelligible language, essentially meaning that any kind of text-based open source collaboration is impossible among devanagari and nastaʿlīq readers. Initiated in 2011, the Hamari Boli Initiative is a full-scale open-source language planning initiative aimed at Hindustani script, style, status & lexical reform and modernization. One of primary stated objectives of Hamari Boli

210-520: Is called " rōmaji " in Japanese . The most common systems are: While romanization has taken various and at times seemingly unstructured forms, some sets of rules do exist: Several problems with MR led to the development of the newer systems: Thai , spoken in Thailand and some areas of Laos, Burma and China, is written with its own script , probably descended from mixture of Tai–Laotian and Old Khmer , in

252-445: Is no single universally accepted system of writing Russian using the Latin script—in fact there are a huge number of such systems: some are adjusted for a particular target language (e.g. German or French), some are designed as a librarian's transliteration, some are prescribed for Russian travellers' passports; the transcription of some names is purely traditional.   All this has resulted in great reduplication of names.   E.g.

294-689: Is the main system of the Oxford University Press, and a variation was used by the British Library to catalogue publications acquired up to 1975. The Library of Congress system (ALA-LC) is used for newer acquisitions. The BGN/PCGN system is relatively intuitive for Anglophones to read and pronounce. In many publications, a simplified form of the system is used to render English versions of Russian names, typically converting ë to yo , simplifying -iy and -yy endings to -y , and omitting apostrophes for ъ and ь . It can be rendered using only

336-506: Is the most common system of phonetic transcription. For most language pairs, building a usable romanization involves trade between the two extremes. Pure transcriptions are generally not possible, as the source language usually contains sounds and distinctions not found in the target language, but which must be shown for the romanized form to be comprehensible. Furthermore, due to diachronic and synchronic variance no written language represents any spoken language with perfect accuracy and

378-538: Is to relieve Hindustani of the crippling devanagari–nastaʿlīq digraphia by way of romanization. Romanization of the Sinitic languages , particularly Mandarin , has proved a very difficult problem, although the issue is further complicated by political considerations. Because of this, many romanization tables contain Chinese characters plus one or more romanizations or Zhuyin . Romanization (or, more generally, Roman letters )

420-523: Is used for languages of the Indian subcontinent and south-east Asia. There is a long tradition in the west to study Sanskrit and other Indic texts in Latin transliteration. Various transliteration conventions have been used for Indic scripts since the time of Sir William Jones. Hindustani is an Indo-Aryan language with extreme digraphia and diglossia resulting from the Hindi–Urdu controversy starting in

462-805: The Brahmic family . The Nuosu language , spoken in southern China, is written with its own script, the Yi script . The only existing romanisation system is YYPY (Yi Yu Pin Yin), which represents tone with letters attached to the end of syllables, as Nuosu forbids codas. It does not use diacritics, and as such due to the large phonemic inventory of Nuosu, it requires frequent use of digraphs, including for monophthong vowels. The Tibetan script has two official romanization systems: Tibetan Pinyin (for Lhasa Tibetan ) and Roman Dzongkha (for Dzongkha ). In English language library catalogues, bibliographies, and most academic publications,

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504-474: The Central Asia , the word was even used to identify some Turkic leaders as a basic Russian word for aqsaqal (white-beard). In Cossack armies the term initially identified a commissioned officer. During the times of Cossack Hetmanate , starshyna was a collective noun , and people described with this word were divided into starshyna (officers) and general starshyna (general officers) the latter being part of

546-553: The Hetman 's General Officers Council. In Russia the term was later adopted to describe a non-commissioned officer rank. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union , most of post-Soviet countries have adopted the Russian interpretation of the word. Since the 1930s in the Soviet and later Russian army terminology, a starshina has been equivalent to " Sergeant Major " (Most senior member at

588-499: The Library of Congress transliteration method is used worldwide. In linguistics, scientific transliteration is used for both Cyrillic and Glagolitic alphabets . This applies to Old Church Slavonic , as well as modern Slavic languages that use these alphabets. A system based on scientific transliteration and ISO/R 9:1968 was considered official in Bulgaria since the 1970s. Since

630-776: The Soviet Navy , the term starshina was introduced between 1940 and 1943 as term equivalent to " Petty Officer " for every enlisted seaman above " Matros , 1st class. " There was also created a rank equal to starshina in the Army, but termed Glavnyy korabel'nyy starshina ( transl.  Chief Petty Officer of the Ship ) – this is the naval rank depicted in the tables below. Airborne Forces (service dress) (1994–2010) (dress uniform) (1994–2010) kursant ("cadet") with rank of Starshina (dress uniform) (1994–2011) some internal troops In some former communist state ,

672-682: The Soviet Union , with some material published. The 2010 Ukrainian National system has been adopted by the UNGEGN in 2012 and by the BGN/PCGN in 2020. It is also very close to the modified (simplified) ALA-LC system, which has remained unchanged since 1941. The chart below shows the most common phonemic transcription romanization used for several different alphabets. While it is sufficient for many casual users, there are multiple alternatives used for each alphabet, and many exceptions. For details, consult each of

714-458: The 1800s. Technically, Hindustani itself is recognized by neither the language community nor any governments. Two standardized registers , Standard Hindi and Standard Urdu , are recognized as official languages in India and Pakistan. However, in practice the situation is, The digraphia renders any work in either script largely inaccessible to users of the other script, though otherwise Hindustani

756-456: The British Library since 1975. The formal, unambiguous version of the system for bibliographic cataloguing requires some diacritics, two-letter tie characters , and prime marks. The standard is also often adapted as a "simplified" or "modified Library of Congress system" for use in text for a non-specialized audience, omitting the special characters and diacritics, simplifying endings, and modifying iotated initials. British Standard 2979:1958

798-627: The Cyrillic Characters Using the Latin Alphabet is an adoption of ISO 9:1995 . It is the official standard of both Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). GOST 52535.1-2006 Identification cards. Machine readable travel documents. Part 1. Machine readable passports is an adoption of an ICAO standard for travel documents. It was used in Russian passports for a short period during 2010–2013 ( see below ). The standard

840-573: The Japanese martial art 柔術: the Nihon-shiki romanization zyûzyutu may allow someone who knows Japanese to reconstruct the kana syllables じゅうじゅつ , but most native English speakers, or rather readers, would find it easier to guess the pronunciation from the Hepburn version, jūjutsu . The Arabic script is used to write Arabic , Persian , Urdu , Pashto and Sindhi as well as numerous other languages in

882-450: The Muslim world, particularly African and Asian languages without alphabets of their own. Romanization standards include the following: or G as in genre اِ || e || e || i || e || e || e || e Notes : Notes : There are romanization systems for both Modern and Ancient Greek . The Hebrew alphabet is romanized using several standards: The Brahmic family of abugidas

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924-542: The Red Army, and is a hangover from the functional titles (like "Brigade Commander" or "Assistant Platoon Leader") that were initially used by that force – the word literally means "senior". Most functional titles in the Red Army were abolished in 1942, but starshina remained. Starshina was the highest non-commissioned rank in the Soviet Army until the reintroduction of the imperial rank of Praporshchik in 1972. In

966-599: The basic letters and punctuation found on English-language keyboards: no diacritics or unusual letters are required, although the interpunct character (·) may be used to avoid ambiguity. This particular standard is part of the BGN/PCGN romanization system which was developed by the United States Board on Geographic Names and by the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use . The portion of

1008-519: The casual reader who is unfamiliar with the original script to pronounce the source language reasonably accurately. Such romanizations follow the principle of phonemic transcription and attempt to render the significant sounds ( phonemes ) of the original as faithfully as possible in the target language. The popular Hepburn Romanization of Japanese is an example of a transcriptive romanization designed for English speakers. A phonetic conversion goes one step further and attempts to depict all phones in

1050-487: The company level) or a rank equal to a NATO OR-8 . In naval terminology, starshina is a general term for junior and middle-ranking non-commissioned officers, similar in usage to " Chief Petty Officer ". The word originates from Old East Slavic language «*старъ»(star) Later, in the Tsardom of Russia and Imperial Russia , a volostnoy starshina was the chief of a volost (a rural administrative unit), in charge of

1092-571: The distribution of taxes, resolving conflicts within obshchina (communes), distributing community lands and military conscription. The rank of Voiskovoi starshina ( Войсковой старшина – Starshina of the Army (Host) ) was introduced into the ranks of the Imperial military in 1826, as the equivalent of a " Lieutenant Colonel " in the Cossack cavalry . The word starshina gained its modern meaning in

1134-443: The introduction of a dedicated Latin alphabet for writing the Russian language. Such an alphabet would not necessarily bind closely to the traditional Cyrillic orthography. The transition from Cyrillic to Latin has been proposed several times throughout history (especially during the Soviet era), but was never conducted on a large scale, except for informal romanizations in the computer era. The most serious possibility of adoption of

1176-457: The late 1990s, Bulgarian authorities have switched to the so-called Streamlined System avoiding the use of diacritics and optimized for compatibility with English. This system became mandatory for public use with a law passed in 2009. Where the old system uses <č,š,ž,št,c,j,ă>, the new system uses <ch,sh,zh,sht,ts,y,a>. The new Bulgarian system was endorsed for official use also by UN in 2012, and by BGN and PCGN in 2013. There

1218-420: The name of the Russian composer Tchaikovsky may also be written as Tchaykovsky , Tchajkovskij , Tchaikowski , Tschaikowski , Czajkowski , Čajkovskij , Čajkovski , Chajkovskij , Çaykovski , Chaykovsky , Chaykovskiy , Chaikovski , Tshaikovski , Tšaikovski , Tsjajkovskij etc. Systems include: The Latin script for Syriac was developed in the 1930s, following the state policy for minority languages of

1260-473: The new system and the old one, citizens who wanted to retain the old version of a name's transliteration, especially one that had been in the old pre-2010 passport, could apply to the local migration office before they acquired a new passport. The standard was abandoned in 2013. In 2013, Order No. 320 of the Federal Migration Service of Russia came into force. It states that all personal names in

1302-549: The passports must be transliterated by using the ICAO system , which is published in Doc 9303 " Machine Readable Travel Documents, Part 3 ". The system differs from the GOST R 52535.1-2006 system in two things: ц is transliterated into ts (as in pre-2010 systems), ъ is transliterated into ie (a novelty). In a second sense, the romanization or Latinization of Russian may also indicate

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1344-516: The rank of "older" is used with the local language variants. Romanization of Russian The romanization of the Russian language (the transliteration of Russian text from the Cyrillic script into the Latin script ), aside from its primary use for including Russian names and words in text written in a Latin alphabet, is also essential for computer users to input Russian text who either do not have

1386-583: The romanization attempts to transliterate the original script, the guiding principle is a one-to-one mapping of characters in the source language into the target script, with less emphasis on how the result sounds when pronounced according to the reader's language. For example, the Nihon-shiki romanization of Japanese allows the informed reader to reconstruct the original Japanese kana syllables with 100% accuracy, but requires additional knowledge for correct pronunciation. Most romanizations are intended to enable

1428-549: The romanization of Russian Cyrillic , with none of them having received much popularity, and, in reality, transliteration is often carried out without any consistent standards. Scientific transliteration, also known as the International Scholarly System , is a system that has been used in linguistics since the 19th century. It is based on the Czech alphabet and formed the basis of the GOST and ISO systems. OST 8483

1470-398: The source language, sacrificing legibility if necessary by using characters or conventions not found in the target script. In practice such a representation almost never tries to represent every possible allophone—especially those that occur naturally due to coarticulation effects—and instead limits itself to the most significant allophonic distinctions. The International Phonetic Alphabet

1512-494: The system pertaining to the Russian language was adopted by BGN in 1944 and by PCGN in 1947. In Soviet international passports , transliteration was based on French rules but without diacritics and so all names were transliterated in a French-style system . In 1997, with the introduction of new Russian passports , a diacritic-free English-oriented system was established by the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs , but

1554-447: The system was also abandoned in 2010. In 2006, GOST R 52535.1-2006 was adopted, which defines technical requirements and standards for Russian international passports and introduces its own system of transliteration. In 2010, the Federal Migration Service of Russia approved Order No. 26, stating that all personal names in the passports issued after 2010 must be transliterated using GOST R 52535.1-2006. Because of some differences between

1596-657: The use of diacritics) that faithfully represents the original and allows for reverse transliteration for Cyrillic text in any contemporary language. The UNGEGN , a Working Group of the United Nations , in 1987 recommended a romanization system for geographical names, which was based on the 1983 version of GOST 16876-71 . It may be found in some international cartographic products. American Library Association and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) romanization tables for Slavic alphabets are used in North American libraries and in

1638-509: The vocal interpretation of a script may vary by a great degree among languages. In modern times the chain of transcription is usually spoken foreign language, written foreign language, written native language, spoken (read) native language. Reducing the number of those processes, i.e. removing one or both steps of writing, usually leads to more accurate oral articulations. In general, outside a limited audience of scholars, romanizations tend to lean more towards transcription. As an example, consider

1680-458: Was substituted in 2013 by GOST R ISO/ IEC 7501-1-2013, which does not contain romanization, but directly refers to the ICAO romanization ( see below ). Names on street and road signs in the Soviet Union were romanized according to GOST 10807-78 (tables 17, 18), which was amended by newer Russian GOST R 52290-2004 (tables Г.4, Г.5), the romanizations in both the standards are practically identical. ISO/R 9, established in 1954 and updated in 1968,

1722-559: Was the adoption of the scientific transliteration by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It covers Russian and seven other Slavic languages. ISO 9:1995 is the current transliteration standard from ISO. It is based on its predecessor ISO/R 9:1968, which it deprecates; for Russian, the two are the same except in the treatment of five modern letters. ISO 9:1995 is the first language-independent, univocal system of one character for one character equivalents (by

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1764-660: Was the first Soviet standard on romanization of Russian, introduced on 16 October 1935. Developed by the National Administration for Geodesy and Cartography at the USSR Council of Ministers , GOST 16876-71 has been in service since 1973. Replaced by GOST 7.79-2000. This standard is an equivalent of GOST 16876-71 and was adopted as an official standard of the COMECON . GOST 7.79-2000 System of Standards on Information, Librarianship, and Publishing–Rules for Transliteration of

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