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140-594: The Russian Revival style comprises a number of different movements within Russian architecture that arose in the second quarter of the 19th century and was an eclectic melding of Byzantine elements ( Neo-Byzantine architecture in the Russian Empire ) and pre-Petrine ( Old Russian ) architecture. Russian Revival architecture arose within a framework of renewed interest in national architectures which occurred in Europe during

280-572: A Republic at the end of World War I . After the Nazis seized power in 1933 , there was a ceremonial handshake between President Paul von Hindenburg and the new Chancellor Adolf Hitler on 21 March 1933 in Potsdam's Garrison Church in what became known as the " Day of Potsdam ". This symbolised a coalition of the military ( Reichswehr ) and Nazism . Potsdam was severely damaged by Allied bombing raids during World War II . The Cecilienhof Palace

420-515: A brickworks which created stronger bricks than those previously used in Moscow. Fioravanti also introduced the Italian Renaissance rationalism in the structural harmony of the plan according to geometric rules, resulting in the abandonment of the cross-inscribed church which had been the base plan of Moscovite and Rus churches for centuries. This new structural harmony is present in the new plan for

560-575: A cluster of workshops and trading rows. The Kremlin currently stands in place of these original fortifications, and a department store in the location of these original buildings. Following this construction, there are few references to Moscow. In 1176 there is a chronicle that notes that the town was burned during a raid by a neighboring principality, and in January 1238 it was overrun by the Mongol armies of Batu on their way to Vladimir . The Mongol's looting of

700-421: A departure from the styles of ornamentation. The style is marked by pointed forms (as opposed to zakomary and rounded arches) and a tendency to ornamentalism. The Zvenigorod cathedrals would serve as the prototypes for many of the churches that followed in the fifteenth century. Muscovite masonry continued to develop in the fifteenth and early sixteenth century, with the production of brick being more apparent in

840-413: A height of 350 metres (1,150 ft)) weighs 7,300 tonnes (7,300,000 kg). Residents of apartment buildings were sealed, they were hooked by new tenants. The so-called kommunalka became the most common type of accommodation for the residents of large cities. In each communal apartment one room belonged to one family, while bathroom, toilet and kitchen were shared. Such a scheme was widespread until

980-667: A ladder-like composition, with a bell tower rising above the church itself (the Intercession Church at Fili, 1695). The decoration characteristic in this style would also tend to be extreme in quantity (e.g., the Trinity Church at Lykovo, 1696). One of the most impressive of the Naryshkin Baroque structures was the multi-domed Assumption Church on the Pokrovka Street in Moscow (built 1696–99, demolished 1929). Its architect

1120-492: A large role in the architectural life of 1920s Russia. One of these was the Association of New Architects ( ASNOVA ), formed in 1923, which promoted the idea of synthesising architecture and other creative arts to give buildings an almost sculptural feeling. These buildings were to serve as visual points for the orientation of a human in space. Members of ASNOVA also designed Moscow's first skyscrapers, none of which were realised at

1260-420: A more stable supply of both materials and labour for construction in the city. Forty thousand peasants would be conscripted for the construction of the city, as well as Swedish prisoners of war . One of the main architects during the early development of the city was Domenico Trezzini , an Italian-swiss architect that worked closely with Peter to design the new city. Trezzini initially started by supervising

1400-668: A new Muscovite tendency towards bold architectural ornament is featured in the Church of the Holy Spirit (1476) which has a frieze created by glazed ceramic tiles, deriving from the ornamental stripes of Novgorod, Pskov, and Suzdalia. Other churches built by the Pskov builders during this period show more influence from Pskov's style, such as ornamental brickwork in the façade of the Church of the Deposition of

1540-453: A result, "ropetovschina", as Ropet's foes branded his style, concentrated on hoarding together vivid but not matching pieces of vernacular architecture, notably high-pitched roofs, barrel roofs and wood tracery. Wood was the preferred material, since many fantasies could not be physically built in masonry . This was good and bad for "dopetovschina". Bad, because wooden structures, especially those unconventionally shaped, were not scalable and had

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1680-694: A series of simple, expressive granite monoliths and became the focal point for further development in Soviet sculptural and memorial architecture. The most famous construction of this time, however, was Lenin's Mausoleum by Alexey Shchusev. Originally it was a temporary wooden structure, topped by a pyramid, with two wings (for entry and exit). In 1930 it was replaced with the present building, built of stone. The combination of dark red and black labradorite enhanced its slender, precise construction. The rapid development of technological processes and materials also influenced constructivist elements in structure design. During

1820-404: A similar planning and educational setup, headed by experienced revivalist Ivan Fomin (1872–1936). Other cities followed suit and the results of the work carried out there were to make dramatic changes in traditional Russian city layout. The first large-scale development templates ( generalny plan ) were drawn there. The city was planned as a series of new wide avenues, massive public structures and

1960-431: A small town to being a larger capital city with more resources to dedicate towards architectural projects. Few examples of early Muscovite stone churches remain in Moscow, and early examples are found more in the surrounding towns. One such place is the small village of Kamenskoe, whose small limestone church is dated to the latter half of the fourteenth century. It is of a simpler style than other churches commissioned in

2100-442: A very short life span. Very few survive to date. Good, because speed of construction and unorthodox looks were a perfect match for exhibition pavilions, coronation stands and similar short-term projects. The trend continued into 20th century ( Fyodor Schechtel ) and 1920s ( Ilya Golosov ). For a short time in the 1880s, a less radical version of Pseudo-Russian style, based on copying 17th century brick architecture, almost succeeded as

2240-556: Is a mix of eastern Roman and Pagan architecture. Some characteristics taken from the Slavic pagan temples are the exterior galleries and the plurality of towers. Under the reign of Vladimir the Great in 988 AD, the Kievan Rus' converted to Orthodox Christianity from their previous pagan religions, and the monumental architecture that followed was mainly ecclesiastical in type. According to legend,

2380-610: Is believed that this Russian derivation is a continuation of the manner of wood construction being taken in masonry form, and is a form that completely deviates from the accepted Orthodox forms. The first tent-like brick church is the Ascension church in Kolomenskoe (1531), designed to commemorate the birth of Ivan the Terrible. Its design gives rise to speculation; it is likely that this style (never found in other Orthodox countries) symbolized

2520-509: Is most apparent in Saint Petersburg , which was founded by Peter the Great in 1703 as the new capital. The three radiating streets of the urban plan were based on Versailles , and the city was also crossed by tree-bordered canals inspired by those in Amsterdam . To make way for this new Petrine Baroque capital, Peter forbade masonry construction in other parts of the country in 1714 to ensure

2660-529: Is over 1,000 years old, is widely known for its palaces, its lakes, and its overall historical and cultural significance. Landmarks include the parks and palaces of Sanssouci , Germany's largest World Heritage Site, as well as other palaces such as the Orangery Palace , the New Palace , Cecilienhof Palace , and Charlottenhof Palace . Potsdam was also the location of the significant Potsdam Conference in 1945,

2800-527: Is served by several motorways : the A 10 , a beltway better known as Berliner Ring , the A 115 (using part of the AVUS ) and is closely linked to the A 2 and A 9 . The B 1 and B 2 federal roads cross the city. Potsdam features a network of urban and suburban buses. Potsdam is connected to national and international air traffic via Berlin Brandenburg Airport (BER), which is around 40 kilometers to

2940-515: Is that it derives from an old West Slavonic term meaning "beneath the oaks", i.e., the corrupted pod dubmi/dubimi ( pod "beneath", dub "oak"). However, some question this explanation. The area around Potsdam shows signs of occupancy since the Bronze Age and was part of Magna Germania as described by Tacitus . After the great migrations of the Germanic peoples, Slavs moved in and Potsdam

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3080-660: Is the wooden Pogodinsky Cottage  [ ru ] in Devichye Pole , Moscow, by Nikolai Nikitin (1856). The Emancipation reform of 1861 and subsequent reforms of Alexander II pushed the liberal elite into exploring the roots of national culture. The first result of these studies in architecture was a birth of "folk" or Pseudo-Russian style, exemplified by 1870s works of Ivan Ropet (Terem in Abramtsevo , 1873) and Viktor Hartmann ( Mamontov printing house, 1872). These artists, in alliance with Narodnik movement, idealized

3220-672: Is unclear which Rastrelli it was) and were commissioned to design two wooden palaces (neither remain). They were the Winter Annenhof and the Summer Annenhof. Both served as precursors to his later work in St Petersburg once the capital was moved back. He would then go on to work on the Winter Palace in St Petersburg, becoming the most imposing residence in the city once it was finished in 1735. It would host two twin facades, one facing

3360-819: The Fachhochschule Potsdam was founded as the second college. It had 3,518 students as of 2017. Konrad Wolf Film University of Babelsberg (HFF), founded in 1954 in Babelsberg , is the foremost centre of the German film industry since its birth, with over 600 students. There are also several research foundations, including Fraunhofer Institutes for Applied Polymer Research and Biomedical Engineering, Max Planck Institute for Gravitational Physics ( Albert Einstein Institute ), Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces, and Max Planck Institute for Molecular Plant Physiology,

3500-506: The Church of the Tithe , the foundations of the original plan of the church shows evidence of a Byzantine " inscribed cross " plan. This inscribed cross typology borrowed from Byzantine architecture served as the main prototype for the pan of these Kievan masonry churches. As the Byzantine prototype was adapted, it began to take its own style. Differing from the Byzantine churches they were based on,

3640-632: The Moscow Archaeological Society  [ fr ; ru ; uk ] undertook research on the subject, formalising it as a field of study. A series of triennial conferences was instituted from 1869 to 1915, and its reports included studies of the architecture of the Kievian Rus ' and early Moscow periods. Perhaps the Society's most significant achievement was the publication of the Proceedings of

3780-630: The Neoclassical style prevalent in France and England, but also drew from as much as it rejected the Baroque that had become prevalent in Russia over the 17th and early 18th century. The Russian neoclassical style drew its inspiration from the works of Palladio , Vignola , Vitruvius , and other writers on the classical orders, something that had started during the early 18th century, but had not been as apparent over

3920-640: The Netherlands and Bohemia . The edict accelerated population growth and economic recovery. Later, the city became a full residence of the Prussian royal family. The buildings of the royal residences were built mainly during the reign of Frederick the Great . One of these is the Sanssouci Palace (French: "without cares" or "no concern", by Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff , 1744), famed for its formal gardens and Rococo interiors. Other royal residences include

4060-501: The Neva River and another facing the square , imposing and whose symmetry would only be broken twice by projecting bays. In plan the palace would be an elongated rectangle, enclosing a central court. After Empress Anna 's death in 1740 and Empress Elizabeth's ascension, there would be a brief lull in new commissions for Rastrelli, but as he remained the only architect capable of large-scale royal commissions his rank as Chief Architect

4200-590: The New Michael Palace (1819-1825, designed by Karl Ivanovich Rossi, today the Russian Museum ), and St Isaac's Cathedral (1817-1857, designed by Auguste Ricard de Montferrand ). In the 1830s Nicholas I eased regulation in architecture, opening the trade to several incarnations of early eclecticism . Konstantin Ton 's pseudo-Russian designs became the preferred choice in church construction ( Cathedral of Christ

4340-532: The New Palace and the Orangery . In 1815, at the formation of the Province of Brandenburg , Potsdam became the provincial capital until 1918, except for a period between 1827 and 1843 when Berlin was the provincial capital (as it became once again after 1918). The province comprised two governorates named after their capitals Potsdam and Frankfurt (Oder) . Between 1815 and 1945, the city of Potsdam served as capital of

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4480-576: The Regierungsbezirk of Potsdam  [ de ] ( German : Regierungsbezirk Potsdam ). The Regierungsbezirk encompassed the former districts of Uckermark , the Mark of Priegnitz, and the greater part of the Middle March . It was situated between Mecklenburg and the Province of Pomerania on the north, and the Province of Saxony on the south and west (Berlin, with a small surrounding district,

4620-643: The Rostov Kremlin on the Nero Lake, which featured five tall churches, many towers, palaces, and chambers). Nikon designed his new residence at the New Jerusalem Monastery , which was dominated by a rotunda-like cathedral, the first of its type in Russia. Since the tents were banned, the Muscovite architects had to replace them with successive rows of corbel arches ( kokoshniks ), and this decorative element

4760-559: The Russian Revolution . The first extant example of Byzantine Revival in Russian architecture and the first example ever built stands in Potsdam , Germany , the five-domed Alexander Nevsky Memorial Church by Vasily Stasov (builder of neoclassical Trinity Cathedral, St. Petersburg , father of critic Vladimir Stasov ). The following year, Stasov completed the larger five-domed Church of

4900-483: The Russian Revolution of 1905 : Russian architecture The architecture of Russia refers to the architecture of modern Russia as well as the architecture of both the original Kievan Rus' , the Russian principalities , and Imperial Russia . Due to the geographical size of modern and Imperial Russia, it typically refers to architecture built in European Russia, as well as European influenced architecture in

5040-534: The S7 S-Bahn line. The stations served are Griebnitzsee , Babelsberg and the Central Station ( Hauptbahnhof ), the main and long-distance station of the city. Other DB stations in Potsdam are Charlottenhof , Park Sanssouci (including the monumental Kaiserbahnhof ), Medienstadt Babelsberg , Rehbrücke , Pirschheide and Marquardt . The city also possesses a 27 km-long tramway network . Potsdam

5180-646: The Sforza family in Milan. In Moscow, he oversaw the dismantling of the remaining walls of the Dormition Cathedral , and the rebuilding of them. The foundations of these new walls were the deepest in Moscow constructed until then, and rather than using a rubble infill, and the walls were constructed of a solid bond masonry, resulting in walls thinner than what was typical in Muscovite masonry construction. In addition to introducing new construction techniques, he also founded

5320-651: The Thirty Years' War (1618–1648). A continuous Hohenzollern possession since 1415, Potsdam became prominent, when it was chosen in 1660 as the hunting residence of Frederick William I , Elector of Brandenburg , the core of the powerful state that later became the Kingdom of Prussia . It also housed Prussian barracks . After the Edict of Potsdam in 1685, Potsdam became a centre of European immigration. Its religious freedom attracted people from France ( Huguenots ), Russia ,

5460-542: The Tsardom of Russia . Much of the early standing architectural tradition in Russia stems from foreign influences and styles. Among the characteristic styles present in Russian architecture are the Byzantine revival style of the Kievan Rus’ and succeeding principalities’ churches, the Muscovite style, baroque , neoclassical , eclecticism , art nouveau , as well as the signature styles of the Soviet period. Russian architecture

5600-604: The fall of the Berlin Wall . The Filmstudio Babelsberg , founded in 1912, is the oldest large-scale film studio in the world. Potsdam developed into a centre of science in Germany in the 19th century. Today, there are three public colleges, the University of Potsdam , and more than 30 research institutes in the city. The area was formed from a series of large moraines left after the last glacial period . Today, only one quarter of

5740-477: The inscribed cross typology that had been in use, he designed a basilical structure with a tower, rather than the modest dome, as the main focal point. Instead of the small windows, large windows amply illuminated the interior of the cathedral, another departure from the typical Russian church prototype. Trezzini would also design the architecture of the Alexander Nevskii Monastery , in a style that

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5880-490: The 19th century, and it is an interpretation and stylization of the Russian architectural heritage. Sometimes, Russian Revival architecture is often erroneously called Russian or Old-Russian architecture, but the majority of Revival architects did not directly reproduce the old architectural tradition. Being instead a skilful stylization, the Russian Revival style was consecutively combined with other international styles, from

6020-544: The 20th century only the Golden Gates of Vladimir , despite much 18th-century restoration, could be regarded as an authentic monument of the pre-Mongol period. During the 1940s, archaeologist Nikolai Voronin discovered the well-preserved remains of Andrei Bogolyubsky 's palace in Bogolyubovo (dating from 1158 to 1165). Pskov , while being less prosperous than Novgorod, also hosted a revival of masonry church construction in

6160-694: The Academy of Mines (1806-1811) which has a decastyle portico of Paestum Doric columns . Another architect, the frenchman Thomas de Thomom would design the Grand Bolshoi theatre (1802-1805, destroyed 1813) and modeled it after the Theatre-Francais in Paris . More buildings included the New Admiralty Building (1806-1823, designed by the Russian born, French trained architect Adrian Dmitrievich Zakharov ),

6300-699: The Archangel Michael (1505) was one of the final churches commissioned by Ivan III. It was designed by the architect Aleviz Novyi . It is possible he is also the architect “Alvise Lamberti da Montagnana” who was noted as a student of the Venetian architect Mauro Codussi. The Cathedral of the Archangel Michael is more Venetian in style, as opposed to the Lombard style of Fioravanti. Naryshkin Baroque , also known as Muscovite Baroque or Moscow Baroque, emerged in Moscow towards

6440-405: The Brandenburg and Berlin region. Potsdam was historically a centre of European immigration. Its religious tolerance attracted people from France, Russia, the Netherlands and Bohemia. This is still visible in the culture and architecture of the city. The most popular attraction in Potsdam is Sanssouci Park , 2 km (1 mi) west of the city centre. In 1744 King Frederick the Great ordered

6580-421: The Cathedral of St Sophia. After the Mongols invaded, Novgorod suffered less than its counterpart Kiev. Construction of masonry churches, however, stalled for several years. After relations with the new Mongol overlords stabilized in the mid to late fourteenth century, there was a revival in architectural style and innovation in Novgorod and a resurgence in masonry church construction. The first of these churches

6720-427: The Cathedral of the Dormition. The design of the cathedral was overseen by the Russian clergy to intervene if it was deemed too “latinate” for the orthodox taste. The walls of the Kremlin are also a derivation of a then-outdated style of Italian fortification engineering. The walls were redone between 1485 and 1516 using brick, replacing the original limestone walls that had fallen into disrepair. Several additions to

6860-401: The Commission on conservation of the old monuments («Труды Комиссии по сохранению древних памятников») in 6 volumes between 1907 and 1915. Also, the St. Petersburg Academy of fine Arts commissioned research from V.V. Suslov in the form of his two multi-volume works The monuments of the old Russian architecture («Памятники древнего русского зодчества») (1895–1901, 7 vol.) and The monuments of

7000-485: The GFZ – German Research Centre for Geosciences , the Potsdam Astrophysical Institute, the Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies, The Leibniz Institute for Agricultural Engineering and Bioeconomy and the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, which employs 340 people in researching climate change . As well as universities, Potsdam is home to reputable secondary schools . Montessori Gesamtschule Potsdam , in western Potsdam, attracts 400 students from

7140-483: The Kievan Rus style of ecclesiastical architecture which drew from influences from Bulgaria, Georgia, and Armenia for these modifications to the Byzantine prototype. Many of these churches suffered severe neglect following Mongol invasion, and thus were largely modified in the centuries following. Following the conversion of the Kievan Rus to christianity under Vladimir's reign, Bishop Joachim of Kherson commissioned Novgorod's first masonry Church (not extant) as well as

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7280-431: The Kremlin were constructed by Pietro Antonio Solari, another Italian, such as the four entrance towers, the Arsenal tower, and the Kremlin wall facing the Red Square . Another Italian architect, Aleviso Novi , built the cathedral of St Michael in the Kremlin (1505–09). He incorporated several Italianate details in the facade and decoration of the cathedral, but maintained the traditional plan prototype. The Cathedral of

7420-415: The Muscovite domain in the fourteenth century, and by the end of it Iurii endowed it with a monastery to be under the direction of the monk Savva. It is the Savvino-Storozhevskii Monastery, and the town center was developed alongside its construction. The cathedrals built in this monastery show a depart from the pre-Mongolian stone churches built by Vladimir. It is of a simpler design, with repeating motifs and

7560-418: The Novgorodian St Sophia only has five main domes rather than 13 like in Kiev (representing Christ and the twelve apostles). During the twelfth century, the central dome was redone externally to be converted into an onion dome. These onion domes are a distinct feature of Russian architecture. Most likely adopted for its aesthetic qualities, the unique shape of the domes also provide the advantage of preventing

7700-409: The Robe (1484-5). Apart from churches, many other structures date from Ivan III's reign. These include fortifications ( Kitai-gorod , the Kremlin (its current towers were built later), Ivangorod), towers ( Ivan the Great Bell Tower ) and palaces (the Palace of Facets and the Uglich Palace). In the 16th century, the key development was the introduction of the tented roof in brick architecture. It

7840-517: The Saviour , 1832–1883), while his public buildings followed Renaissance tradition, exemplified in the Great Kremlin Palace (1838–49) and the Kremlin Armoury (1844–1851). The subsequent reigns of Alexander II and Alexander III promoted a Russian Byzantine Revival in church architecture, while civil construction followed the same variety of eclecticism common in all European countries; this featured ever-growing national revival trends , vernacular and imaginary. Between 1895 and 1905 architecture

7980-410: The Saviour , the Grand Kremlin Palace and the Armoury in Moscow , also cathedrals in Sveaborg , Yelets , Tomsk , Rostov-on-Don and Krasnoyarsk . Official enforcement of Byzantine architecture was, in fact, very limited: it applied only to new church construction and, to a lesser extent, to royal palaces. Private and public construction proceeded independently. Thon's own public buildings, like

8120-402: The Tatlin Tower inspired a generation of Constructivist architects in Russia and abroad. The Shukhov Tower , rising 160 metres (520 ft) above Moscow, was completed in 1922. According to the initial plans, the hyperboloid tower by Vladimir Shukhov with a height of 350 metres (1,150 ft) had an estimated mass of 2,200 tonnes (2,200,000 kg), while the Eiffel Tower in Paris (with

8260-684: The Tithes in Kiev . The Russo-Byzantine idea was carried forward by Konstantin Thon with the firm approval by Nicholas I . Thon's style embodied the idea of continuity between Byzantium and Russia, perfectly matching the ideology of Nicholas I . Russian-Byzantine architecture is characterised by mixing the composition methods and vaulted arches of Byzantine architecture with ancient Russian exterior ornaments, and were vividly realised in Thon's 'model projects'. In 1838, Nicholas I "pointed out" Thon's book of model designs to all architects; more enforcement followed in 1841 and 1844. Buildings designed by Thon or based on Thon's designs were Cathedral of Christ

8400-431: The accumulation of snow. While the churches constructed in the twelfth century didn't rival the Cathedral of St Sophia in scale or complexity, the princes continued their show of power in their architectural projects. The Cathedral of St George of Yuriev Monastery was commissioned in 1119 by Prince Vsevolod of Pskov and is another example of one of these princely churches. The architect was known as Master Peter, one of

8540-552: The ambition of the nascent Russian state and the liberation of Russian art from Byzantine canons after the Fall of Constantinople to the Turks. The style of church was also known as “Tower Churches”. After the Time of Troubles the church and state were bankrupt, unable to finance any construction works; an initiative was taken by rich merchants in Yaroslavl , on the Volga . During the 17th century, they built many large cathedral-type churches with five onion-like domes, surrounding them with tents of bell towers and aisles . At first

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8680-492: The architectural romanticism of first half of the 19th century to the style moderne . Like the Romantic revivals of Western Europe , the Russian Revival was informed by a scholarly interest in the historic monuments of the nation. The historicism resonated with the popular nationalism and pan-Slavism of the period. The first illustrated account of Russian architecture was the project of Anatoly Nikolaievich Demidov, 1st Prince of San Donato and French draughtsman André Durand,

8820-405: The base inscribed cross typology, as well as created a greater emphasis on verticality. Due to the scale of the churches being constructed, interior mosaics and frescos continued being made by imported Byzantine and Greek masters rather than local craftsmen, and thus continued using the Byzantine style. Local contribution to construction, however, meant that modifications were still made, resulting in

8960-548: The building and sported a pink colour, later covered up with white stucco. It is, however, the only structure from this period that mostly maintains its original interior, and thus can be used as an example for the interiors of these early Kievan churches. Meanwhile, in other urban centers across the medieval Rus, masonry church construction also started to appear. As monastery's and urban center's wealth increased, wooden churches started to be replaced by masonry ones. As more churches were constructed, slight modifications were made to

9100-439: The cement ground and limestone whitewash used in the wall covering contained impurities that would result in the typical light yellow and pink tones of the church exteriors. Few of the churches built in this period still exist, but several developments are present in the ones that remain. One of these include the use of wood planks as the preferred roofing material, which contributed to a typically planar roof structure as opposed to

9240-528: The chronology and development of Russia's building begins in earnest with Ivan Snegirev and A.A. Martynov's The old Russia in its ecclesiastical and civil architectural monuments («Русская старина в памятниках церковного и гражданского зодчества») (Moscow, 1851). The state took an interest in the endeavour by sponsoring a series of folios published as The antiquities of the realm of Russia («Древности российского государства») (Moscow 1849–1853, 6 vol.) depicting antiquities and decorative works of art. By this time

9380-401: The church, several of the medieval Kievan mosaics created by Greek masters survive and show a provincial Byzantine style. The construction of the church itself is a form of stone and brick masonry called opus mixtum, which means alternating rows of stone and flat brick, or plinthos, meaning crushed brick in lime mortar. The exterior was not as ornate as the interior, relying instead on the mass of

9520-423: The churches' composition was sharply asymmetrical, with different parts balancing each other on the "scale-beam" principle (e.g., the Church of Elijah the Prophet, 1647–50). Subsequently, the Yaroslavl churches were strictly symmetrical, with domes taller than the building itself, and amply decorated with polychrome tiles (e.g., the Church of John the Chrysostom on the Volga, 1649–54). A zenith of Volga architecture

9660-642: The city for Peter which would then be engulfed into the larger Winter Palace constructed later. Many of these original Petrine palaces built in St Petersburg would either be demolished or incorporated into larger structures in the decades that followed. More examples of these palaces are found in the countryside around St Petersburg, and include the Summer Palace (1711–1714, designed by Trezzini), Menshikov Palace (1710-1720s, designed by Giovanni Mario Fontana and Gottfried Johann Shädel ). These country palaces also serve as more untouched examples of this early Petrine palace architecture. Another significant architect

9800-444: The city has a humid continental climate ( Dfb ), which also shows a slight influence of the continent different from the climates predominantly influenced by the Atlantic Ocean . Low averages below freezing for almost all winter causing snows that are frequent and winters are cold, but not as stringent as inland locations or with greater influence from the same. Summer is also relatively warm with temperatures between 23 and 24 °C,

9940-436: The city in 2003. The appearance of the city boroughs is quite different. Those in the north and in the centre consist mainly of historical buildings, the south of the city is dominated by larger areas of newer buildings. The city of Potsdam is divided into 32 Stadtteile (boroughs, both quarters and suburbs/wards together), which are divided further into 84 statistical Bezirke (districts). Today, one distinguishes between

10080-583: The city is built up, the rest remaining as green space. There are about 20 lakes and rivers in and around Potsdam, such as the Havel , the Griebnitzsee , Templiner See , Tiefer See , Jungfernsee , Teltowkanal, Heiliger See , and Sacrower See . The highest point is the 114-metre (374 ft) high Kleiner Ravensberg . Potsdam is divided into seven historic city Stadtteile (quarters) and nine new Ortsteile (suburbs/wards, former separate villages), which joined

10220-558: The conference where the three heads of government of the USSR, the US, and the UK decided on the division of Germany following its surrender, a conference which defined Germany's history for the following 45 years. Babelsberg , in the south-eastern part of Potsdam, was already by the 1930s the home of a major film production studio and it has enjoyed success as an important center of European film production since

10360-512: The conquered territories of the Empire. The vernacular architecture stems from wooden construction traditions, and monumental masonry construction started to appear during the Kievan Rus’ era in what is now modern Ukraine . After the Mongol invasion of Rus , the Russian architectural trajectory continued in the principalities of Novgorod , Vladimir-Suzdal , Pskov , Muscovy , and the succeeding states of

10500-575: The construction of a residence here, where he could live sans souci ("without worries", in the French spoken at the court). The park hosts a botanical garden ( Botanical Garden, Potsdam ) and many buildings: Three gates from the original city wall remain today. The oldest is the Hunters' Gate ( Jägertor ), built in 1733. The Nauener Tor was built in 1755 and close to the historic Dutch Quarter. The ornate Brandenburg Gate (built in 1770, not to be confused with

10640-574: The construction of the Berlin Wall . The walling off of West Berlin not only isolated Potsdam from West Berlin, but also doubled commuting times to East Berlin . The Glienicke Bridge across the Havel connected the city to West Berlin and was the scene of some Cold War exchanges of spies . After German reunification , Potsdam became the capital of the newly re-established state of Brandenburg . Since then there have been many ideas and efforts to reconstruct

10780-635: The construction of the Kronshlot bastion, where he demonstrated his skill as an engineer, and was then commissioned to rebuild the fortifications in Narva, and the design of the Peter-Paul fortress would remain one of his main duties. Trezzini would then go on to design the Cathedral of Saints Peter and Paul , which showed a complete departure to the Russian ecclesiastical architecture of the six centuries prior. Instead of

10920-568: The conversion to Orthodox Christianity rather than to another religion was due to the beauty of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople. The architecture style that dominated in this time blended Slavic and Byzantine styles, with predominant churches built in brick and stone with Byzantine art forms, initially built by imported Greek and Byzantine masters but adopted by local craftsmen and slightly modified. Findings from twentieth-century excavations on

11060-607: The dynamic contrast of simple shapes, planes, complete walls and glazed surfaces. Potsdam Potsdam was a residence of the Prussian kings and the German Emperor until 1918. Its planning embodied ideas of the Age of Enlightenment : through a careful balance of architecture and landscape, Potsdam was intended as "a picturesque, pastoral dream" which would remind its residents of their relationship with nature and reason. The city, which

11200-544: The east. Potsdam is a university town . The University of Potsdam was founded in 1991 as a university of the State of Brandenburg. Its predecessor was the Akademie für Staats- und Rechtswissenschaften der DDR " Walter Ulbricht " , a college of education founded in 1948 which was one of the GDR's most important colleges. There are about 20,000 students enrolled at the university. In 1991

11340-604: The elevation to rank of urban Bezirk or affiliation with Potsdam governorate, respectively): Berlin was the capital of Prussia and later of the German Empire , but the court remained in Potsdam, where many government officials settled. In 1914, Emperor Wilhelm II signed the Declaration of War in the Neues Palais (New Palace). The city lost its status as a "second capital" in 1918, when Wilhelm II abdicated and Germany became

11480-549: The end of the 17th century. The first of these structures were built on the Boyarin Naryshkin estate, hence the name Naryshkin Baroque. A characteristic of the Naryshkin Baroque is the combination of influences from western Europe with traditional Russian forms, and is mainly present in ecclesiastical architecture with a few secular examples. Naryshkin Baroque shows an evolution from previous, seemingly "Baroque" examples, which might seem Baroque in decoration, but still maintained

11620-508: The erection of the Volkhov Hydroelectric Station (1918–26, architects O.Munts and V.Pokrovsky), the traditional outline on the window arches is still used (despite concrete being used in construction). The Dnieper Hydroelectric Station (1927–32), built by a collective of architects headed by Viktor Vesnin (1882–1950), has an innovative design featuring a curved dam with a rhythmic pattern of foundations. Creative unions played

11760-654: The external and in the internal decoration of these structures. A typical example is the Historical Museum (1875–1881, architect Vladimir Sherwood ) which completed the ensemble of Red Square . At the turn of the centuries, the Russian Orthodox Church experienced a new trend; construction of unusually large cathedrals in working-class suburbs of big cities. Some, like Dorogomilovo Ascension Cathedral (1898–1910), rated for 10,000 worshippers, were launched in quiet country outskirts that increased in population by

11900-684: The favoured churches was Assumption Church in Uglich (1627): it had three graceful tents in a row, reminiscent of three burning candles. This composition was employed in the Hodegetria Church of Vyazma (1638) and the Nativity Church at Putinki , Moscow (1652). Assuming that such constructions ran counter to the traditional Byzantine type, the Patriarch Nikon declared them un-canonical. He encouraged building elaborate ecclesiastical residences (such as

12040-411: The few architects who have been recorded at this time in Russia. The exterior is characterized by narrow windows and double-recessed niches, which proceed in a rhythm across the façade; the interior walls reach a height of 20 metres (66 ft). Its pillars are closely spaced, emphasizing the height of the vaulted ceilings. The interior was covered in frescoes from the prince's workshops, including some of

12180-453: The fifteenth century. Part of this can be attributed to its location in the north, which was not invaded by the Mongols. Pskov also adopted a secular masonry style, although resources were mainly allocated towards ecclesiastical construction. Basic material for construction of these churches was local flagstone, with plinthos brick, and a thin layer of stucco to protect the layers underneath. Both

12320-504: The first example of “proper” entablature in Russian architecture. Vallin de la Mothe would go on to design the Small Hermitage (1764-1775) to house Catherine the Great's art collection, furthering the use of simplicity in neoclassicism with detached, austere columns and a muting of the vivid colours of the rest of St Petersburg's colours. After Catherine, the imperial building tradition would continue under Alexander I , who favoured

12460-513: The first to be demolished in the Soviet era. Another direction taken by the Russian Revival style was a reaction against official Thon art, influenced by Romanticism, Slavophilism and detailed studies of vernacular architecture . The forerunner of this trend in church design was Alexey Gornostaev (in his later years, 1848–1862), notable for reinventing Northern Russian tented roof motif augmented with Romanesque and Renaissance vault structure. An early extant example in civil architecture

12600-449: The following 200 years. Excavations have found that the original plan of the church also prescribed to the inscribed-cross typology (the church has been extensively modified since its construction due to it falling into ruin during Mongol rule). A multitude of domes is also present in the church, although it is not clear its stylistic origins (while wooden churches have complex roof designs, a clear derivation has not been established). Inside

12740-533: The heat waves being influenced by the UHI of Potsdam. The average winter high temperature is 4.0 °C (39.2 °F), with a low of −1.3 °C (29.7 °F). Snow is common in the winter. Spring and autumn are short. Summers are mild, with a high of 24.3 °C (75.7 °F) and a low of 13.5 °C (56.3 °F). The Potsdam weather station has recorded the following extreme values: The name "Potsdam" originally seems to have been Poztupimi . A common theory

12880-502: The improvement of workers' housing with heat and plumbing. The first apartment building of this period was completed in 1923, followed by a surge of public-housing construction in 1925–1929. In Petrograd from 1917 to 1919 the first example of the new style was built on the Field of Mars – a monument, "Strugglers of the Revolution", designed by Lev Rudnev (1886–1956). This complex consisted of

13020-473: The masonry churches in the Kievan Rus had more pronounced silhouettes, were bulkier, and had smaller windows, providing a more mysterious interior. Large-scale architectural work paused after the death of Vladimir, but resumed c.  1030 under Iaroslav . Under his reign, the cathedral dedicated to St. Sophia , also known as the cathedral of Hagia Sofia, in which the Metropolitan was to be seated for

13160-579: The mayor was selected by the NSDAP and the city council was dissolved; it was reconstituted in token form after 1945, but free elections did not take place until after reunification . Today, the city council is the city's central administrative authority. Local elections took place on 26 October 2003 and again in 2008. Between 1990 and 1999, the Chairman of the City Council was known as the "Town President" but today

13300-465: The mid-1950s, and in some cities there are more communal apartments. At the same time with the 1930s for senior people began to build houses with separate bedroom apartments, where one family was given the whole apartment. An example of such a house called House on the Embankment ( Dom na naberezhnoi ) in Moscow, built in 1927–1931, respectively. An important priority during the post-revolutionary period

13440-510: The mid-fifteenth century. In 1474 Ivan III imported builders from Pskov to Moscow (Pskov had been saved from ruin by the Mongol horde, and thus had more advanced construction knowledge than Moscow), and they adapted the stone-slab method of construction from Pskov to the brick masonry of the churches that followed as well as incorporating several features characteristic of churches in Pskov, such as corbel arches, church porches, exterior galleries, and bell towers. The brick construction as well as

13580-454: The model established by Le Vau , Perrault, and Le Brun on the Louvre , while using modest pilasters to define the middle sections. The exterior also lacks the bichromatic scheme of the earlier styles present in St Petersburg, instead using colours that mimicked simple a simple stone facade. The rest of the facade also lacks in decoration, instead being a showcase of neoclassical rationalism and uses

13720-477: The neoclassical Empire style of architecture , as was popular during the period, and continued the French influence in the architecture of the time. The architect Andrei Nikiforovich Voronikhin was a pupil of Wailly in Paris and would design the Virgin of Kazan cathedral in St Petersburg (1801-1811) and boasted a domed center flanked by quadrant colonnade. The Greek revival style is also apparent in his design for

13860-561: The new generation) denounced any classical heritage in their work and began to propagate formalism , the most influential of all Revivalist themes. Great plans were drawn for large, technically advanced cities. The most ambitious of all was the Monument to the Third International , planned in 1919 by Vladimir Tatlin (1885–1953), а 400- meter spiral, wound around a tilted central axis with rotating glass chambers. Impossible in real life,

14000-482: The new official art. These buildings were built, as a rule, from the brick or whitestone, with the application of modern construction technology they began to be abundantly decorated in the traditions of Russian popular architecture. The characteristic architectural elements of this time, such as "pot-bellied" columns, low arched ceilings, narrow window-loop holes, tented roofs , frescoes with floral designs, use of multicolored tiles and massive forging, are manifest both in

14140-412: The north of the city. For the history of all incorporations, see the relevant section on incorporation and spin-offs. Structure with statistical numbering: At the end of 2019, a change was made to the administrative structure: Officially the climate is oceanic - more degraded by being far from the coast and to the east ( Köppen : Cfb ), but using the 1961–1990 normal and the 0 °C isotherm

14280-439: The old Russian art («Памятники древнерусского искусства») (1908–1912, 4 vol.). With the application of positivist historical principals the chronology of Russian architecture was firmly established by the time of the publication of that definitive 6-volume survey of Russian art The Russian art history («История русского искусства») (1909–1917), edited by Igor Grabar ; the appearance of the final volume was, however, interrupted by

14420-495: The older parts of the city (areas of the historic city and places suburbanized at the latest in 1939) – these are the city center, the western and northern suburbs, Bornim, Bornstedt, Nedlitz, Potsdam South, Babelsberg, Drewitz, Stern and Kirchsteigfeld – and those communities incorporated after 1990 which have since 2003 become Ortsteile – these are Eiche, Fahrland, Golm, Groß Glienicke, Grube, Marquardt, Neu Fahrland, Satzkorn and Uetz-Paaren. The new Ortsteile are located mainly in

14560-533: The original appearance of the city, including the Potsdam City Palace and the Garrison Church . Since 2000 Potsdam has been one of the fastest-growing cities in Germany. Largest groups of foreign residents: Potsdam has had a mayor ( Bürgermeister ) and city council since the 15th century. From 1809 the city council was elected, with a mayor ( Oberbürgermeister ) at its head. During Nazi Germany ,

14700-405: The original wooden church of St. Sophia. The Byzantine style of churches, which was imported from Kiev, was adapted to a distinctive Novgorodian style through the ecclesiastical constructions commissioned by the princes in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. Novgorod's medieval architecture owes its distinctive style to the adaptation of Byzantine and Kievan styles to its local conditions. As there

14840-408: The peasant life and created their own vision of "vernacular" architecture. Another factor was the rejection of western eclecticism that dominated civil construction of the 1850s–1860s, a reaction against "decadent West", pioneered by influential critic Vladimir Stasov . Ivan Zabelin , a theorist of the movement, declared that "Russian Khoromy , grown naturally from peasants' log cabins , retained

14980-494: The period of time where the baroque style was most prevalent. While a departure from the baroque into the neoclassical style was already in place before Catherine the Great's reign, it flourished under her rule. She had a great passion for architecture, evident in her letters to her advisor on cultural matters, and remarked on her dislike of the baroque extravaganza of Elizabeth's preferred style, thinking it as disorderly and lacking in rationality. The neoclassical under Catherine

15120-415: The polychromatism of his designs (which hosted more colour than his European counterparts) with the polychromatism present in much of the Russian architectural tradition that had preceded the importation of the baroque style. Several of Rastrelli's projects were re-designed under Catherine the Great, but many rooms still retain the original designs. The Neoclassical in Russia not only draws influence from

15260-475: The post is the "Chairman of the City Council". The mayor is elected directly by the population. The current mayor is Mike Schubert of the Social Democratic Party (SPD) since 2018. The most recent mayoral election was held on 23 September 2018, with a runoff held on 14 October, and the results were as follows: The city council governs the city alongside the mayor. The most recent city council election

15400-522: The pseudo- Renaissance Nikolaevsky Terminal , lack any Byzantine features. A closer look at churches constructed in Nicholas' reign reveals many first-rate neoclassical buildings, like the Elokhovo Cathedral in Moscow (1837–1845) by Yevgraph Tyurin . Official Byzantine art was not absolute in Nicholas reign; it is scarce in our days, as the Byzantine churches, declared 'worthless' by Bolsheviks , were

15540-585: The rank of urban districts. The principal towns were Brandenburg upon Havel , Köpenick , Potsdam, Prenzlau , Spandau and Ruppin . Until 1875 Berlin also was a town within the governorate. After its disentanglement a number of its suburbs outside Berlin's municipal borders grew to towns, many forming urban Bezirke within the governorate of Potsdam such as Charlottenburg , Lichtenberg , Rixdorf (after 1912 Neukölln), and Schöneberg (all of which, as well as Köpenick and Spandau, incorporated into Greater Berlin in 1920). The urban Bezirke were (years indicating

15680-746: The rarest Russian paintings of the time. Three more churches show the style of the princely churches created during this time: the Cathedral of St Nicholas in Iaroslav Court (1113), the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin at Antoniev Monastery (1117-1119), and the Church of John the Baptist in Petriatin Courty (1127–30). Several characteristics are present in the churches, and they draw a more simplistic form of that of

15820-471: The record of their 1839 tour of Russia was published in Paris in the 1840s as Voyage Pittoresque et Archéologique en Russie . Durand's lithographs betray a foreigner's sensitivity to the seeming otherness of Russian architecture, displaying some curiously distorted features, and while they are, on the whole, fairly accurate representations, the folios that he produced belong to the genre of travel literature rather than historical inquiry. The attempt to discern

15960-576: The same period, and has only been partially restored since its construction. The cornice is presumed to have originally culminated in decorative point zakomary . The interior shows features of Balkan architecture, showing a Serbian influence prevalent in Muscovite and Rus architecture of this period, such as piers attached to interior corners (rather than being free-standing). Larger examples of these early Muscovite churches appear in Zvenigorod , about 60 km west of Moscow. Records place Zvenigorod under

16100-439: The spirit of beautiful disorder... Beauty of a building is not in its proportions, but on the contrary, in the difference and independence of its parts" ("русские хоромы, выросшие органически из крестьянских клетей, естественно, сохраняли в своем составе облик красивого беспорядка... По понятиям древности первая красота здания заключалась не в соответствии частей, а напротив в их своеобразии, их разновидности и самостоятельности"). As

16240-578: The style was the Church of St Nicholas (the "Grand Cross") in the Kitai-gorod, which was demolished under Stalinist rule. The first Italian architects arrived in Moscow in 1475. A Russian envoy to Italy during Ivan III's reign, Semion Tolbuzin, managed to recruit the Bolognese architect Aristotele Fioravanti (1420–85), as well as his son and an assistant. Fioravanti had previous work in northern Italy, as well as working alongside Antonio Averlino Filarete for

16380-408: The territory was so thorough, however, that capitals did not have the resources to construct stone churches for decades. During Mongol rule, Moscow slowly grew. The population increased due to refugee immigration from surrounded, more exposed territories, and collaboration between the Muscovite princes and the Mongol horde meant it was safer than many surrounding capitals. Thus, Moscow grew from being

16520-603: The throne, baroque construction in Saint Petersburg continued, this time under the employ of the Italian architect Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli . He had moved to St Petersburg in his youth with his father, the sculptor Carlo Rastrelli, in 1715, but their career stalled under a rivalry between Carlo Rastrelli and the architect Le Blonde. In 1730 they moved to Moscow, where the capital had been temporarily relocated, and either Francesco or his father were appointed court architect (it

16660-563: The time (1923–1926). Another innovation from post-revolutionary Russia was a new type of public building: the Workers' Club and the Palace of Culture . These became a new focus for architects, who used the visual expression of large elements combined with industrial motifs. The most famous of these was the Zuev Workers' Club (1927–29) in Moscow by Ilya Golosov (1883–1945), whose composition relied on

16800-552: The time of completion. Christian theorists explain the choice of such remote locations with the desire to extend the reach of Church to working class, and only working class, in the time when wealthier classes stepped away from it. Byzantine architecture was a natural choice for these projects. It was a clear statement of national roots, against the modern European heresies. It was also much cheaper than grand Neoclassical cathedrals, both in initial costs and subsequent maintenance. The largest examples of this type were all completed after

16940-492: The traditional structural form. There are several components characteristic to these newer structures, such as a focus on a balance of symmetry, carved limestone cornices, attached columns, and a more classical style. Some of these churches are tower-like, showing a return to the Russian preference for a vertical silhouette, with cubic and octagonal floors placed atop each other (the Saviour Church at Ubory, 1697); others have

17080-498: The trefoil type which became commonplace in Novgorod. After its surrender to Moscow, Pskov fared far better than Novgorod, declaring acceptance of Muscovite rule in 1510. Pre-Mongolian Moscow is sparse in the historical record, with the first mention of it being in a letter from Iurii Dolgorukii to his ally Prince Sviatoslav of Chernigov in 1147. In 1156 Iurii Dolgorukii built a wooden fortification on an earthen rampart protecting

17220-566: The war, were demolished. When in 1946 the remainder of the Province of Brandenburg west of the Oder-Neiße line was constituted as the state of Brandenburg , Potsdam became its capital. In 1952 the GDR disestablished its states and replaced them by smaller new East German administrative districts known as Bezirke . Potsdam became the capital of the new Bezirk Potsdam until 1990. Potsdam, south-west of Berlin, lay just outside West Berlin after

17360-521: Was also responsible for the "red and white" reconstruction of several Moscow monastic structures, notably the Novodevichy Convent and the Donskoy Monastery . Petrine Baroque is called thus due to Peter the Great's preference of this style. The style of Petrine Baroque reflects the preference for the more modest styles of Scandinavian and Dutch Baroque By Peter. Construction in this style

17500-467: Was an urban governorate and enclave within the governorate of Potsdam between 1815 and 1822, then it merged as urban district into the governorate only to be disentangled again from Potsdam governorate in 1875, becoming a distinct province-like entity on 1 April 1881). Towards the north west the governorate was bounded by the rivers Elbe and the Havel, and on the north east by the Oder . The south eastern boundary

17640-435: Was briefly dominated by Russian Art Nouveau , most active in Moscow ( Lev Kekushev , Fyodor Schechtel and William Walcot ). While it remained a popular choice until the outbreak of World War I , in 1905–1914 it gave way to the Russian neoclassical revival – merging the Empire style and Palladian tradition with contemporary construction technology. In the first year of Soviet rule all architects refusing to emigrate (and

17780-483: Was distinctly secular and more closely resembled the administrative buildings and Palaces such as the Twelve Colleges on Vasilevskii Island (also designed by Trezzini). Among his other contributions were the design of model houses to be built throughout the city, and combined the plans of the city with the architectural views that would result. Trezzini would also design the original, more modest, Winter Palace in

17920-574: Was especially French in style, partly because of the two main architects in the time, Vallin de la Mothe (French and trained in France and Italy) and Alexander Kokorinov (studied with Korobov and Ukhtomskii in Moscow) who had francophile sympathies. In comparison to the extravagance of the Winter Palace , de la Mothe and Kokorinov's design for the Academy of Arts was an example of classical simplicity. The building's facade and its five part division drew from

18060-404: Was held on 9 June 2024, and the results were as follows: The Landtag Brandenburg , the parliament of the state of Brandenburg is in Potsdam. It has been housed in the Potsdam City Palace since 2014. Potsdam is twinned with: Potsdam, included in the fare zone "C" ( Tarifbereich C ) of Berlin 's public transport area and fare zones A and B of its own public transport area, is served by

18200-459: Was not a nearby source of surface stone and its brickmaking capabilities was limited in the area, construction of Novgorodian masonry churches were made using a method of masonry using rough-hewn local stone such as limestone with a crushed brick and lime cement, resulting in a pink surface similar to that used in contemporary Kievan churches but with a coarser surface texture. Unlike the cathedral in Kiev,

18340-575: Was probably founded after the 7th century as a settlement of the Hevelli tribe centred on a castle. It was first mentioned in a document in 993 as Poztupimi , when Emperor Otto III gifted the territory to the Quedlinburg Abbey , then led by his aunt Matilda . By 1317, it was mentioned as a small town. It gained its town charter in 1345. In 1573, it was still a small market town of 2,000 inhabitants. Potsdam lost nearly half of its population due to

18480-548: Was reached in the Church of St John the Baptist (built 1671–87) – the largest in Yaroslavl, with 15 domes and more than 500 frescoes. The brick exterior of the church, from the cupolas down to the tall porches, was elaborately carved and decorated with tiles. The 17th-century Moscow churches are also profusely decorated, but are much smaller in size. Earlier in the century, the Muscovites still favoured tent-like constructions. One of

18620-576: Was reinstated a few years later. He would continue to transition in style from a late Baroque to a Rococo style, apparent in his design of the Summer Palace in the Summer Garden, and signaled a further break from the more modest Petrine baroque . Rococo decorative elements would be present in his future designs such as in Peterhof and Tsarskoe Selo, and some historians have argued the connection between

18760-426: Was that there was also large scale secular development, not just ecclesiastical construction. This reflected Peter the Great's ideals, and the development of his new capital city. Large projects for the military, civil administration, and palace architecture was undertook, and the same imported architects were central figures in their construction. After Peter the Great 's death and the ascension of Empress Anna to

18900-594: Was the mass reconstruction of cities . In 1918 Alexey Shchusev (1873–1949) and Ivan Zholtovsky founded the Mossovet Architectural Workshop, where the complex planning of Moscow's reconstruction as a new Soviet capital took place. The workshop employed young architects who later emerged as avant-garde leaders. At the same time architectural education, concentrated in the Vkhutemas , was divided between revivalists and modernists. In 1919, Petrograd saw

19040-575: Was the Church of St Nicholas at Lipno (1292), located in the southeast of Novgorod. While small in size (10mx10m) it had several features which were novel and used in the masonry churches constructed after. The church was badly damaged during World War II. The following churches of Novgorod (such as the Church of the Transfiguration on Ilyina Street, built in 1374), are steep-roofed and roughly carved; and several contain medieval frescoes. The secular architecture of Kievan Rus' has rarely survived. Until

19180-580: Was the French architect Jean-Baptiste Alexandre Le Blond , who had been a student of the landscape architect André Le Nôtre (landscape architect of the Palace gardens of Versailles) and in June 1716 Peter hired him as "General-architect" of Saint Petersburg. He would design the original main palace, Peterhof , which would then be expanded by later architects and rulers. One main difference with Petrine Baroque that departed from previous Russian architectural construction

19320-812: Was the scene of the Potsdam Conference from 17 July to 2 August 1945, at which the victorious Allied leaders Harry S. Truman , Winston Churchill and Joseph Stalin met to decide the future of Germany and postwar Europe in general. The conference ended with the Potsdam Agreement and the Potsdam Declaration . The government of East Germany (formally known as the German Democratic Republic (German: Deutsche Demokratische Republik , DDR)) tried to remove symbols of "Prussian militarism ". Many historic buildings, some of them badly damaged in

19460-527: Was to become a hallmark of the 17th-century Moscow style. An early example of this style is the Kazan Cathedral on Red Square (1633–36). By the end of the century, more than 100 churches in the style were erected in Moscow. More examples are the Muscovite churches of the Holy Trinity at Nikitniki (1653), St Nicholas at Khamovniki (1682), and Holy Trinity at Ostankino (1692). One of the most representatives of

19600-403: Was to the neighbouring governorate of Frankfurt (Oder). About 500,000 inhabitants lived in the Potsdam governorate, which covered an area of about 20,700 square kilometres (7,992 sq mi), divided into thirteen rural districts , partially named after their capitals: The traditional towns in the governorate were small, however, in the course of the industrial labour migration some reached

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