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134-553: The province was formed and awarded to Prussia at the Congress of Vienna in 1815, in the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars . It combined some territories that had previously belonged to Prussia with a range of other territories that had previously been independent principalities. The population included a large population of Catholics, a significant development for Prussia, which had hitherto been almost entirely Protestant. The politics of

268-484: A copyright law and freedom of the press. With them came a host of courtiers, secretaries, civil servants and ladies to enjoy the magnificent social life of the Austrian court. The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke of an attendee, it danced a lot but did not move forward. On the other hand, the possibilities for informal gatherings created by this "side program" may have helped ensure

402-475: A three-union strike  [ de ] , although the Christian Miners' Union refused to lend its support. As a result, strike participation reached only about 60%. The strike was prosecuted with great bitterness and violent riots led the police and military to intervene in the end. The strike eventually broke up without success. Alongside the miners, Westphalian workers in other areas also participated in

536-572: A cumbersome process that required much in the way of time and transportation. The format set at the Congress of Vienna would serve as inspiration for the 1856 peace conference brokered by France (the Congress of Paris ) that settled the Crimean War . The Congress of Vienna settlement gave birth to the Concert of Europe , an international political doctrine that emphasized the maintaining of political boundaries,

670-623: A large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls. Four great powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition , a covenant of nations allied in the war against France. On the verge of Napoleon's defeat they had outlined their common position in the Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814), and negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) with the Bourbons during their restoration : These parties had not been part of

804-399: A long civic heritage to look back on, places like Gelsenkirchen and Recklinghausen grew from small villages to major centres in a matter of decades. Other settlements that became major industrial cities included Witten , Hamm , Iserlohn , Lüdenscheid , and Hagen (now on the edge of the mining area), as well as Bielefeld . A characteristic of the rapidly growing industrial cities was

938-702: A model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945. Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace. Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all

1072-509: A profitable economic sector everywhere. In many places, yields at the beginning of the nineteenth century were insufficient to support the growing population. The number of poor and landless peasants grew. Many of them sought opportunities to work outside their home regions. Travelling merchants like the Kiepenkerl and the Sauerland peddlers  [ de ] became a symbol of the region. In

1206-694: A relatively small part of the region of Westphalia. After the reconquest of the region by the Sixth Coalition in 1813, it was put under the administration of the General government between the Weser and the Rhine  [ de ] . It was not until the Congress of Vienna in 1815 that the Province of Westphalia came into being. Although Prussia had long owned territory in Westphalia, King Frederick William III made no secret of

1340-602: A result, some of the pre-industrial areas in Westphalia became marginal and were only able to succeed by concentrating on particular products (e.g. lead production in Hüsten  [ de ] ). Even more new pit mines and mining companies were established in the Ruhr region in the following years, such as the Schalker Verein  [ de ] . Moreover, older factories grew into massive enterprises with several thousand employees. By

1474-444: A room for only a couple of hours a day) were common. Corporations sought to plug this gap to some extent with company housing or workers' settlements. The ulterior motive for this was the creation of a workforce that was loyal to the corporation and would not engage with the labour movement . The population growth led to the development of a number of towns and villages into large cities. While some cities, like Dortmund and Bochum, had

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1608-569: A significant role in European wars for several hundred years: the Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently. During the wars, Portugal had lost its town of Olivenza to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivenza decreed in Article CV of the General Treaty of

1742-654: A sustainable manner. Only a few places, like Schmallenberg with its concentration on sock production  [ de ] , saw new industrial developments. The expansion of mining in the region  [ de ] also slowed. As the nineteenth century progressed, the coal mining industry in the Ruhr grew ever stronger. In the 1850s, Hermannshütte, Rothe Erde, Aplerbecker Hütte  [ de ] , Hörder Bergwerks- und Hütten-Verein  [ de ] , and Henrichshütte  [ de ] in Hattingen were established. As

1876-570: A treaty on 3 January 1815 , among only the three of them, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition. When the Tsar heard of the treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw as a "Kingdom of Poland" – called Congress Poland , with

2010-624: A willingness to make concessions, the strike gradually petered out. The strike in the Westphalian and Rheinish coal mining areas provided a model for miners in Sauerland, the Aachen coalfields  [ de ] , and even in Silesia in the same year. Moreover, the strike had clearly shown that organisation was necessary to advocate for workers' interests. On 18 August 1889, what which would later be known as

2144-417: Is going to Vienna." Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 afrancesados – Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to Joseph Bonaparte , nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain. The most complex topic at

2278-516: The Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (civil law code) on 1 January 1900. The establishment of the province provoked different reactions in the region. In areas that had already been under Prussian control, like Minden-Ravensberg and the County of Mark , the return to their old connection with Prussia was celebrated. In Siegerland , acceptance of Prussian rule was eased by the fact that Protestantism

2412-652: The Westphälisches Dampfboot , "The people of Europe, freed from the oppressive nightmare, have almost caught their breath." The journal Hermann , published in Hamm supported the introduction of a new calendar era , on the model of the French revolutionary calendar . The left also looked to France for their political programme and called for "Wealth, Education, and Freedom for all." There were also countervailing opinions, like that of Bielfeld superintendent and later member of

2546-611: The Battle of Waterloo ). Its provisions included: Representatives of Austria, France, Portugal , Prussia, Russia, Sweden-Norway , and Britain signed the Final Act. Spain did not sign, but ratified the outcome in 1817. Subsequently, Ferdinand IV , the Bourbon King of Sicily, regained control of the Kingdom of Naples after Joachim Murat , the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in

2680-560: The Chaumont agreement , but had joined the Treaty of Paris (1814) : Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress. In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding

2814-687: The Duchy of Parma ). The Papal States were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of Genoa . In Southern Italy, Napoleon's brother-in-law, Joachim Murat , was originally allowed to retain his Kingdom of Naples , but his support of Napoleon in the Hundred Days led to the restoration of the Bourbon Ferdinand IV to

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2948-531: The French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars through negotiation. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries, but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace, being at the same time shepherds for the smaller powers. More generally, conservative leaders like Metternich also sought to restrain or eliminate republican , liberal , and revolutionary movements which, from their point of view, had upended

3082-431: The Hundred Days and started the 1815 Neapolitan War by attacking Austria. The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795 and 1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris , were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw ) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and

3216-410: The Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress's agreement was signed nine days before Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo on 18 June 1815. Some historians have criticised the outcomes of the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of national, democratic, and liberal movements, and it has been seen as a reactionary settlement for the benefit of traditional monarchs. Others have praised

3350-542: The Miller Arnold case , imprisoning judges who had disobeyed his orders. As a figure keen to maintain his prestige as an Enlightened Absolutist , codification of the laws was a desirable response to his un-Enlightened break of the 'rule of law'. The interpretations of the code's usage are contradictory; some interpret the laws as well known for being simple to read and interpret, without much abstract, being rather an every-day regulating laws, but others point out that while

3484-714: The Prussian National Assembly , Clamor Huchzermeyer  [ de ] , who spoke of a "disgraceful event", in which the "simple Philistine " expected "that a constitution would sweep all misery and inequality from the world." He feared instead the "collapse of all order" and general "disorder." After news reached Westphalia of the February Revolution in Paris and the March Revolution in various parts of Germany, including Berlin and Vienna , rural uprisings broke out in parts of Westphalia, especially in

3618-579: The Sauerland , the Wittgenstein  [ de ] , and Paderborn . Some of the buildings of the stewards of Schloss Bruchhausen  [ de ] in Olsberg were attacked and the documents inside were burnt, as people sung songs of freedom. Manors were attacked elsewhere, also, for example in Dülmen . This rural revolt was quickly defeated by the military. In the areas of Westphalia where industrialisation

3752-585: The Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition , and the Treaty of Kiel that covered issues raised regarding Scandinavia . The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress" should be held in Vienna and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war". The opening was scheduled for July 1814. The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however,

3886-628: The Weser . The Bergisch-Markisch Railway Company 's Elberfeld–Dortmund railway followed in 1849 and the Royal Westphalian Railway Company was established in the same year. Regions like Sauerland, which were only connected to the railway network in the 1860s or 1870s, remained economically marginal even in this age of economic growth. Some parts of these regions experienced a marked process of deindustrialisation . Instead, in many places, forestry took over, from that point on practiced in

4020-407: The constitutional order of the European ancien régime . At the negotiation table, the position of France was weak in relation to that of Britain , Prussia , Austria , and Russia , partly due to the military strategy of its leader, Napoleon Bonaparte , over the previous two decades, and his recent defeat. In the settlement the parties did reach, France had to give up all recent conquests, while

4154-478: The eastern provinces of Prussia and beyond. The large number of Polish-speaking workers established their own societies, labour unions and pastoral care organisations, which operated in their own language. A particular population profile developed in the mining districts, which differed from the rest of Westphalia in some respects, such as dialect ( Ruhrdeutsch ). In 1871, the province of Westphalia had 1.78 million inhabitants, around 14% more than in 1858. By 1882,

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4288-498: The "Alte Verband" ("Old Union") was established in Dotmund- Dorstfeld . The Christian Miners' Union was founded in 1894 and a Polish Union in 1902. The Hirsch-Dunckersche Gewerkvereine  [ de ] began attempts at organisation in the 1880s, but remained insignificant. With respect to unionisation, the miners also provided a model for other groups of workers. In 1905, another strike  [ de ] broke out in

4422-516: The 20th century, however, historians and politicians looking backward came to praise the Congress as well, because they saw it did prevent another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914) and a significant step in the transition to a new international order in which peace was largely maintained through diplomatic dialogue. Among these is Henry Kissinger , who in 1954 wrote his doctoral dissertation , A World Restored , on it and Paul Schroeder. Historian and jurist Mark Jarrett argues that

4556-696: The Bochum region, which grew into a general strike of all mining unions. In total, around 78% of miners in the region participated in the strike. Although it eventually had to break up, it had indirect success, since the Prussian government met many of the workers' demands through revisions to the General Mining Act. In 1912, the Alte Verband, Polish Union and the Hirsch-Dunckersche Union joined together in

4690-700: The Concert of Europe was built on came about through closed-doors dealing among the five Great Powers – Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia and France. The first four of the five dominant peacemakers held sway simply because they brought to the table "negotiating power" that came of hard-won victory in the Napoleonic Wars; France enjoyed her advantageous position largely through the brilliant diplomatic maneuvering by senior statesman Talleyrand . Lesser powers, like Spain, Sweden, and Portugal, were given few opportunities to advocate their interests and only occasionally partook in

4824-534: The Congress for protecting Europe from large and widespread wars for almost a century. The name "Congress of Vienna" was not meant to suggest a formal plenary session , but rather the creation of a diplomatic organizational framework bringing together stakeholders of all flocks to enable the expression of opinions, interests and sentiments and facilitate discussion of general issues among them. The Congress format had been developed by Austrian Foreign Minister Klemens von Metternich , assisted by Friedrich von Gentz , and

4958-520: The Congress was the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would like to become king of Poland. Austria analysed, this could make Russia too powerful, a view which was supported by Britain. The result was a deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations signed

5092-466: The Congress's success. Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand

5226-521: The Final Act, which stated that "The Powers, recognizing the justice of the claims of ... Portugal and the Brazils, upon the town of Olivenza, and the other territories ceded to Spain by the Treaty of Badajoz of 1801 ". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted

5360-536: The Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years. Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent some 30 years later . Some authors have suggested that the Congress of Vienna may provide a model for settling multiple interlocking conflicts in Eastern Europe that arose after

5494-642: The German Kingdoms of Hanover (which gained East Frisia from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and Bavaria (which gained the Rhenish Palatinate and territories in Franconia ). The Duchy of Lauenburg was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania . Switzerland was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played

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5628-595: The Hollandgänger. Within Westphalia, the low cost of labour enabled the expansion of pre-industrial manufacturing, which made products for export. In the "Northwest German linen belt," which stretched from western Münsterland, through Tecklenburg , Osnabrück , and Minden-Ravensberg, to modern Lower Saxony , household production developed into proto-industrial levels. Especially in Minden-Ravensberg, pre-industrial linen production played an important role. The fabric

5762-638: The Ionian Islands . The Congress of Vienna has been criticized by 19th century and more recent historians and politicians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling reaction on the Continent. It was an integral part in what became known as the Conservative Order , in which democracy and civil rights associated with the American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized. In

5896-533: The Landtag as a forum for the expression of their views (the lower classes had no voting rights). The Baron vom Stein as first Landmarschall  [ de ] (presiding officer of the Landtag) did not restrict discussion to purely local matters, and under the surface the constitutional question played an important role in discussions in the Landtag in 1826 and in the next Landtag in 1828. This became even clearer during

6030-684: The Landtag consisted of the representatives of the districts and cities, elected by means of the Prussian three-class franchise . The Landtag elected a head of government for the province, known as the Landeshauptman or "Headman of the State" (Landesdirektor before 1889). Especially following the Kulturkampf , the Centre Party ( Zentrum ), based on the traditional patterns from the early nineteenth century and

6164-402: The Landtag of 1830/31, when Franz Anton Bracht  [ de ] and even the noble Baron of Fürstenberg openly called for the establishment of a constitution for Prussia. The question of what such a constitution should look like was fiercely debated. Most nobles, including Fürstenberg, sought a restoration of the old order, while the bourgeoisie pursued early liberal ideas. In this, Bracht

6298-960: The Prussian National Assembly and of the Prussian People" in Münster in 1848. After the Prussian National Assembly was dissolved on 5 December 1848, democratic candidates like Johann Matthias Gierse  [ de ] managed to win election to the lower chamber of the Landtag of Prussia . The end of the revolution in Westphalia came with the comprehensive defeat of the Iserlohn Uprising  [ de ] in June 1849. A few Westphalian revolutionaries, like Temme and Waldeck, were later subject to political prosecutions. By summer 1849, Westphalian democrats had already begun departing for America . At

6432-414: The Prussian administration focussed on the alignment of political institutions and administration, but legally they were distinct. In most parts of Westphalia, the General State Laws for the Prussian States (PrALR) were the fundamental basis of the law. In the Duchy of Westphalia and the two Sayn-Wittgensteiner principalities, however, the old regional legal traditions were retained until the introduction of

6566-433: The Prussian government was the prime motor of change. In the longer term, the combination of such different territories into a single province had consequences for identity and self-perception. Throughout the 19th century, there always remained a consciousness of the old territories' pasts, but alongside this a Westphalian self-perception also developed (fostered by the Prussian government). This often came into competition with

6700-433: The Revolution of 1848, largely monopolised politics in the Catholic parts of the province. The party was focussed on religious confession and was supported regardless of social class by Catholic workers, farmers, bourgeoisie, and nobility. Westphalia was the party's heartland. The party grew out of a meeting of politicians in Soest in the 1860s, to discuss the foundation of a Catholic political party. The 1870 Soest Programme

6834-437: The Ruhr region near Essen . In Westphalia, the first shaft mine was Zeche Vereinigte Präsident  [ de ] in Bochum , opened in 1841. In 1818, Friedrich Harkort and Heinrich Kamp  [ de ] established Mechanische Werkstätten Harkort & Co.  [ de ] , a mechanised ironworks, in Wetter and in 1826 in the same place they established the first puddling furnace in Westphalia. Later,

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6968-442: The Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivenza and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and, to the present day, this issue remains unresolved. The United Kingdom received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of Ceylon and the Cape Colony as well as Malta and Heligoland . Under the Treaty of Paris (1814) Article VIII France ceded to Britain

7102-420: The acceptance of Prussia was the policy of reform which aimed at the establishment of a "civic order". This involved the creation of a predictable system of administration and justice, rights of self-administration for communities, the emancipation of the Jews , and the liberation of the economy from guilds . The educated bourgeois class (the Bildungsbürgertum ), both Protestant and Catholic, recognised that

7236-425: The balance of powers, and respecting spheres of influence and which guided foreign policy among the nations of Europe until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. To reach amiable consensus among the many different nations holding great interest in the settlement proceedings, informal, face-to-face deliberative sessions were held where opinions and proposed solutions could be inventoried. The policy work on which

7370-509: The basic ideas of the Prussian reformers. It provided for the election of district councils which were basically drawn from the circle of the landed nobility and gave the people of the districts only a right to present their views for consideration; the appointment was reserved for the king. Equally untimely was the revised civic ordinance ( Städteordnung ) of 1831, which heavily restricted the voting right for town councils and provided for organs of self-government which were really just offices of

7504-444: The beginning of the 19th century, Westphalia was already a very economically and socially diverse region. Agriculture was dominant and in many places it was still practiced in very traditional and ineffective ways. In most areas, small and medium farms were most common. Only in the Münsterland and Paderborn regions were larger establishments widespread. These areas, as well as the Soest Börde , were especially suitable for agriculture. On

7638-420: The beginning of the counter-revolution notably increased political excitement. In many parts of Westphalia, the power of the democrats increased, while the discontent of the people with hesitant liberals like Johan Sommer was palpable. In the face of the threat to the revolution's accomplishments, the democrats and constitutional rebels resolved to cooperate, culminating in the "Congress for the matter and rights of

7772-455: The break-up of the Soviet Union. 48°12′31″N 16°21′50″E  /  48.2085°N 16.3638°E  / 48.2085; 16.3638 General State Laws for the Prussian States The General State Laws for the Prussian States ( German : Allgemeines Landrecht für die Preußischen Staaten , ALR ) were an important code of Prussia , promulgated in 1792 and codified by Carl Gottlieb Svarez and Ernst Ferdinand Klein , under

7906-407: The central government. A notable exception was the conservative attitude of rural people in the pietistic Lutheran milieu of Minden-Ravensberg. The vast majority of politically active bourgeoisie joined constitutional or democratic clubs. The liberals founded an umbrella organisation of constitutional societies in the provinces of Rhineland and Westphalia at a congress in Dortmund in July 1848. In

8040-438: The central government. The municipality ordinance ( Landgemeindeordnung ) was similar. During the Vormärz , the period leading up to the German revolutions of 1848–1849 , the importance of the constitutional question in Westphalia was not matched by interest in German unification , which was very low. The mayor of Rhede in Münsterland wrote in 1833, "The Hambach Festival and Burschenschaft colours have no meaning to

8174-671: The code was written in German, it used an incredibly casuistic and imprecise language, making it hard to properly understand and use in practice. After the second partition of Poland , it was promulgated on the annexed territories as subsidiary law, intended to accelerate the process of their integration with Prussia . The Landrecht was a typical example of a law of the transition period between feudalism and capitalism , where old institutions of feudal law (ordinations, separate property, class divisions, nobility privileges , subjection of peasants) existed alongside modern ones (definition of property). The Landrecht stopped functioning after

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8308-401: The continued prevalence of tuberculosis , work-related illnesses like silicosis , and the general strain on the environment from mining and industry. The new industrial cities only acquired cultural infrastructure, like museums and theatres later on. These were concentrated in the old cities, which had a civic tradition, and did not appear in the newly formed industrial centres until well into

8442-498: The countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression" as divided into seven parts: Lombardy–Venetia , Modena , Naples–Sicily , Parma , Piedmont–Sardinia , Tuscany , and the Papal States under the control of different powers. Poland remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created Kingdom of Poland , remaining under Russian control. The arrangements made by

8576-410: The debate included Adam Storck  [ de ] and Friedrich von Hövel  [ de ] . This optimistic attitude shifted with the beginning of the Restoration Period, when the absence of a national constitution and the censorship of the press became clear. Dietrich Wilhelm Landfermann  [ de ] , who was later a member of the Reichstag , wrote as a schoolboy in 1820, that it

8710-520: The developing German national consciousness. Bourgeois Westphalians like Johann Friedrich Joseph Sommer  [ de ] and Benedikt Waldeck were particularly hopeful for the promulgation of a constitution. In newspapers like the Rheinisch-Westfälischen Anzeiger and Hermann  [ de ] , the desire for a constitution was clearly articulated from the beginning. Draft constitutions were issued by Sommer and Arnold Mallinckrodt  [ de ] of Dortmund . Other participants in

8844-430: The diaries of the master of affairs Von Gentz that diplomatic tactics possibly included bribing. He notes that at the Congress he received £22,000 through Talleyrand from Louis XVIII , while Castlereagh gave him £600, accompanied by " les plus folles promesses " ("the wildest promises"); his diary is full of such entries. The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (nine days before

8978-441: The diplomatic congress format marked "the true beginning of our modern era". To his analyses the Congress organisation was deliberate conflict management and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready," Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution." Historian Paul Schroeder argues that

9112-417: The disappointment about the failure of the promised reforms to materialise, the arrest of Archbishop of Cologne Clemens August Droste zu Vischering in 1837, during the " Cologne troubles  [ de ] " led to a greater politicisation of Westphalian Catholicism. The liberal Catholic journalist, Johann Friedrich Joseph Sommer wrote "contemporary events, like those of the last ten years, have stirred up

9246-414: The district of Arnsberg alone, there were twenty-eight such societies by October. In the other two districts, the number of societies was clearly lower and in Münster the local association was split by internal conflicts. The democratic societies only managed to reach an agreement at a congress in September 1848. In Münster, the local democratic association had at least 350 members. The labour movement , in

9380-429: The docile Westphalian and have contributed no little degree to bring a kind of religious somnolence to an end." At the same time, Sommer saw the mass unrest in connection with the riots as a precursor of the revolutions of 1848. The "state must give way, for the first time, power quakes before the popular mood." In the 1830s and 1840s, the discussion circles of liberals, democrats, and even some socialists consolidated (e.g.

9514-429: The downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte . Participants were representatives of all European powers (other than the Ottoman Empire ) and other stakeholders. The Congress was chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich , and was held in Vienna from September 1814 to June 1815. The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from

9648-460: The drafting of laws, and had only advisory functions on important matters. The representatives were not allowed to discuss administrative matters and their minutes were subject to censorship. The first Provinziallandtag of the Province of Westphalia  [ de ] met in the Münster City Hall in 1826. The high voter turnout shows that, despite all the restrictions, the bourgeoisie saw

9782-428: The establishment of a sense of common purpose like that of the miners. The political culture of Westphalia, reflected above all in the long-term shifts in electoral results, was closely linked to the religious and social structure of the province, but also to the political debates of the first half of the nineteenth century. In particular, religion played a central role in Westphalia. As in the rest of Germany this led to

9916-836: The expansion of higher education in the 1960s. The rapid expansion of mining and industry in the Ruhr region in the context of the Industrial Revolution led to a drastic transformation of the province's society and economy and massive population growth. With the introduction of the General Mining Act in 1865, the privileges of the "Bergknappen" ("ordinary miners") came to an end, and thereafter miners did not differ from other workers in their employment rights. Initially, they reacted to falling wages, extended hours and other issues as normal, with – generally unsuccessful – petitions to government administration. Increasingly, they began to adopt

10050-465: The fact that he would have preferred to annex the entirety of the Kingdom of Saxony . The province was formed from several territories: In 1816, the district of Essen was transferred to the Rhine Province . The new province had an area of 20,215 km (7,805 sq mi). The establishment of Westphalia and the neighbouring Rhine Province marked a decisive economic and demographic shift to

10184-551: The following months, the political excitement declined markedly. In Catholic areas, the election of Archduke John of Austria as regent ( Reichsverweser ) of the new German Empire by the Frankfurt Parliament was met with great enthusiasm and patriotic celebrations were held in Winterberg and Münster, for example. However, the reaction to this election showed that the difference between Catholics and Protestants in Westphalia

10318-708: The form of the Allgemeine Deutsche Arbeiterverbrüderung  [ de ] ( General German Workers' Brotherhood ) had very little representation in Westphalia, compared with the Rhineland. There was a strong labour association in Hamm, which played a leading role in the democratic camp and maintained contacts with the Arbeiterverbrüderung at the same time. In total, the number of democratic and republican associations remained substantially lower than

10452-429: The formation of Catholic and social democratic milieus, which heavily shaped the lives of their members "from the cradle to the grave." This tendency was less marked among the liberals and conservatives . On 1 August 1886, the districts and cities of Westphalia formed a Provinzialverband  [ de ] ("provincial union"), a body whose members henceforth met as the Westphalian provincial Landtag. Henceforth,

10586-624: The former Dutch Seven Provinces together with formerly Austrian territory, and was meant to serve as a buffer between the German Confederation and France. The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814 , which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Remarkably, negotiations continued unaffected despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's return from exile and resumption of power in France during

10720-564: The forms of action used by other groups of workers. The first miners' strike in the Ruhr  [ de ] took place in 1872. It was local, limited, and unsuccessful. In 1889, the pent-up anger of the previous decades was unleashed in a major strike  [ de ] , in which roughly 90% of the 104,000 miners then working in the region participated. The strike began in Bochum on 24 April and Essen on 1 May. They were joined spontaneously by numerous other workers. A central strike committee

10854-446: The general absence of the bourgeoisie. The middle class was notably weak. The cities concentrated at first on the most essential infrastructure, like supply routes, rubbish collection, public transport, schools, etc. Improved hygiene conditions brought the death rate down markedly, especially among children. Epidemics like cholera ceased to play a significant role. On the other hand, the limits of these positive developments are clear from

10988-474: The incorporation of the region into the Prussian state faced a number of problems. Firstly, the administrative unification was opposed by the mediatised houses ( Standesherren ). These nobles, who had ruled small principalities of their own before the Napoleonic Wars, retained special privileges of their own well into the nineteenth century. They maintained a certain amount of control or oversight over schools and churches. The second major problem for unification

11122-412: The industrialised areas of Westphalia, but especially in the Ruhr, the social consequences of industrialisation were substantial. In these areas, the working class became the largest social group by some margin. Immigration meant that the population growth over time was erratic. The supply of housing was insufficient and, in the Ruhr, lodgers and Schlafgänger  [ de ] (people who rented

11256-486: The industrialist Friedrich Harkort , who promoted his views in his famous Arbeiterbriefen (Workers' Letters). In the elections to the Prussian National Assembly and the Frankfurt Parliament , the political leanings of the candidates were not the decisive factor. Rather, their reputation among the people played a central role in their nomination. In Sauerland, therefore, the conservative Joseph von Radowitz ,

11390-560: The islands of " Tobago and Saint Lucia , and of the Isle of France and its dependencies, especially Rodrigues and Les Seychelles ", and under the Treaty between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands (signed in Paris on 5 November 1815), as one of the treaties signed during the Peace of Paris (1815) , Britain obtained a protectorate over the United States of

11524-419: The journal Weserdampfboot  [ de ] ). In addition, the agrarian reforms which were negatively received by many rural groups, led to growing dissatisfaction. To this were added several bad harvests in the 1840s, which caused the price of food to rise notably, particularly in the cities. Traditional manufacturing also faced a stark structural crisis . A consequence of the difficult social situation

11658-511: The king of Denmark-Norway to the king of Sweden . This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the Kingdom of Norway on 17 May 1814 and the subsequent personal Union with Sweden . Austria gained Lombardy–Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the Grand Duchy of Tuscany , the Duchy of Modena , and

11792-455: The labour movement. In the metal industry, these actions were focused on small and medium-sized enterprises and the labour movement was not able to establish a toehold in the larger companies for various reasons. In particular, employers in the iron and steel industry defended their "Lord-of-the-Manor position" by firing workers as necessary. This was enabled by the starkly differentiated internal structure of these companies, which militated against

11926-463: The landed nobility. The uncertainties surrounding land ownership were a cause of rural uprisings at the beginning of the Revolutions of 1848 . In the longer term, the fear that the peasants would be expelled from their land by great estates was not fulfilled. Instead, the two western provinces of Prussia remained the areas with the lowest numbers of large estates. One thing that initially contributed to

12060-481: The late eighteenth century, the coal mining and metalworking industries of the Ruhr in the south of the province expanded rapidly, becoming the centre of the Industrial Revolution in Germany. This resulted in rapid population growth and the establishment of several new cities which formed the basis of the modern Ruhr urban area. It also led to the development of a strong labour movement, which led several large strikes in

12194-607: The late nineteenth and early twentieth century. After World War II , the province was combined with the northern portion of Rhine Province and the Free State of Lippe to form the modern German state of North Rhine-Westphalia . Napoleon Bonaparte founded the Kingdom of Westphalia as a client state of the First French Empire in 1807. Although named for the historical region of Westphalia , it contained mostly Hessian , Angrian and Eastphalian territories and only

12328-414: The later bishop Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler . In the province itself, political clubs and journals of every stripe were established. The spectrum ranged from Catholic and liberal pamphlets to Karl Marx 's radical Neue Rheinische Zeitung . The range of political opinions was as diverse as the media landscape. However, conservative groups generally included only protestant officers and officials of

12462-559: The liberal / ultramontanist Johann Friedrich Sommer, and the democrat Carl Johann Ludwig Dham  [ de ] were all elected. Leading Westphalians in the Prussian National Assembly included the democrats Benedikt Waldeck and Jodocus Temme  [ de ] . In constitutional discussions in Berlin, Waldeck and Sommer played notable roles on the left and right respectively. In Frankfurt, Westphalia's representatives included Georg von Vincke , Gustav Höfken  [ de ] , and

12596-458: The liberal ones. In the Catholic parts of Westphalia, the first organisations of political Catholicism also developed at this time. The Pius Associations were established in many places, but were focused on the association in the provincial capital. In petitions, workers' groups and community representatives called on their delegates to speak on behalf of their demands in the national assemblies. In

12730-579: The meetings held between the great powers. However, because all representatives were gathered in one city it was relatively easy to communicate, to hear and spread news and gossip, and to present points of view for both powerful and less powerful nations. Also of great importance to the parties convened in Vienna were the opportunities presented at wine and dinner functions to establish formal relationships with one another and build-up diplomatic networks. The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by

12864-404: The middle of the nineteenth century at the latest, the Westphalian portion of the Ruhr was clearly the economic centre of the province. The developing industry initially pulled numerous jobseekers mostly from the agriculturally and economically stagnant parts of the province. From around the 1870s, the supply of workers within Westphalia was exhausted and companies increasingly drew workers in from

12998-611: The more important Congress of Vienna. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades. Other partial settlements had already occurred at

13132-499: The northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose German Confederation under the leadership of Austria. Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the Treaty of Kiel , Norway had been ceded by

13266-471: The northern part of the province, the Hollandgänger  [ de ] travelled to work in the Netherlands. Brickmakers  [ de ] from east Westphalia and the neighbouring principality of Lippe also migrated to work. The Tödden trade  [ de ] , in which men would make linen at home in winter and then travel to the Netherlands to sell it the following summer, developed from

13400-416: The old formulae for " balance of power " were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe , which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in Europe. It served as

13534-417: The old village smithies and cottage metalworking enterprises was the establishment of a modern metalworking industry in Westphalia itself, based on coal from the Ruhr. Decisive for the development of the mining in the Ruhr  [ de ] was the invention of longwall mining , which allowed the removal of the ore without stripping off the surface layer. This was employed for the first time in 1837 in

13668-590: The orders of Frederick II . The code had over 17,000 articles, and covered fields of civil law , penal law , family law , public law , administrative law etc. Frederick I of Prussia wanted to create a uniform set of laws, but it was not started until the reign of Frederick II . Frederick's idea was not only to create a unified set of laws, but to make them clear and eliminate possible manipulations by different interpretation. A previous attempt, Project eines Corporis Juris Fridericiani (1749–51), by Samuel von Cocceji , proved unsuccessful. The first version

13802-442: The other hand, agriculture in Minden-Ravensberg and the southern Bergisches Land was fairly unproductive. Even in the pre-industrial period, some agricultural products were exported. Westphalian ham was a known export commodity, for example. Industrialisation encouraged the integration of agricultural activity with the new centres of industrial production. The increased demand led to an expansion of pig farming . Cereals produced in

13936-510: The other three main powers made major territorial gains around the world. Prussia added territory from smaller states: Swedish Pomerania , most of the Kingdom of Saxony , and the western part of the former Duchy of Warsaw . Austria gained much of northern Italy . Russia added the central and eastern parts of the Duchy of Warsaw. All agreed upon ratifying the creation of the new Kingdom of the Netherlands , which had been created just months before from

14070-549: The parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s . Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony, much of which became part of the new Province of Saxony from 1816 (the now-Prussian parts of Lower Lusatia and some other areas instead became part of the Province of Brandenburg , with Prussian Upper Lusatia becoming part of the Province of Silesia by 1825); the remainder of Saxony returned to King Frederick Augustus I as his Kingdom of Saxony . It can be learned from

14204-594: The peace-loving inhabitants of this land." Public feeling in Sauerland and Minden-Ravensberg seemed similar. German nationalism only became a force in Westphalia in the 1840s. In many municipalities, singing clubs were formed, which nurtured national myths. Westphalian participation in the Cologne Cathedral construction festival and the gatherings in support of the Hermannsdenkmal was considerable. A lively mass of associations and clubs developed. In addition to

14338-484: The population had grown more than 20% and the growth from then to 1895 was similarly high. In the ten years between 1895 and 1905, the population grew by more than 30%, surpassing 3.6 million. The highest growth took place in Arnsberg district, the centre of Westphalian industry. Between 1818 and 1905, the population of Münster and Minden districts grew by slightly more than 100%, but that of Arnsberg grew by over 400%. In all

14472-623: The procedure we have adopted and soundly [be]rated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget." The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador. Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain. Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately,

14606-461: The province in the early nineteenth century saw local expectations of Prussian reforms, increased self-government, and a constitution largely stymied. The Revolutions of 1848 led to an effervescence of political activity in the province, but the failure of the revolution was accepted with little resistance. Before the nineteenth century, the region's economy had been largely agricultural and many rural poor travelled abroad to find work. However, from

14740-407: The province were an important raw material for the brewing industry that developed first in the Ruhr and later elsewhere. In Dortmund alone, there were more than eighty individual breweries. The huge market for agricultural goods in the nearby industrial areas meant that in the fertile parts of the province, agriculture was the dominant industry well into the twentieth century and that it remained

14874-515: The throne. A large United Kingdom of the Netherlands was formed for the Prince of Orange , including both the old United Provinces and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands, which gave way to the formation of a democratic state, formally headed by a constitutional monarch . Other, less important, territorial adjustments included significant territorial gains for

15008-457: The tsar as a king ruling it independently of Russia. However, the majority of Greater Poland and Kuyavia , as well as the Chełmno Land , were given to Prussia and mostly included within the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen ( Poznań ), while Kraków became a free city as a shared protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia. Furthermore, the tsar was forbidden from uniting his new realm with

15142-424: The twentieth century. There was little provision for higher education . Although the universities of Münster and Paderborn were established in the 18th century, these were reduced to "rump universities" with only a limited offering of courses at the beginning of Prussian rule. Münster was only promoted to full university status in 1902. The establishment of higher education in the Ruhr area only really began during

15276-462: The west for Prussia. It also marked a significant expansion of the number of Catholics in Prussia, which had hitherto been nearly exclusively Protestant . At the beginning of Prussian rule, the province had around 1.1 million inhabitants, of which 56% were Catholic, 43% Protestant, and 1% Jewish . With the foundation of the province, the new administrative structure created during the Prussian reforms

15410-538: The works were relocated to Dortmund where they developed into Rothe Erde . Further ironworks were established in Hüsten ( Hüstener Gewerkschaft  [ de ] ), Warstein , Lünen ( Westfalia Hütte ), Hörde ( Hermannshütte  [ de ] ), Haspe ( Hasper Hütte  [ de ] ), Bochum ( Bochumer Verein  [ de ] ), and other places. These new coal-powered ironworks were far more productive than their charcoal -based pre-industrial equivalents. A precondition for industrial development

15544-578: Was smelted at places like Wendener Hütte and made into finished products in the western part of the region (e.g. wire drawing in Altena , Iserlohn, and Lüdenscheid , or sewing needles  [ de ] at Iserlohn). These businesses were partially cooperative and organised into a network by Reidemeisters . In the southern part of the Ruhr, coal was exported for neighbouring regions from early times. Zeche Alte Haase  [ de ] in Sprockhövel

15678-641: Was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it, once again abandoning his allies. The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on the protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquess of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on 30 September 1814. Congress Secretary Friedrich von Gentz reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against

15812-554: Was active from the beginning of the 17th century, for example. At the start of the nineteenth century, parts of the province were the first areas to see the Industrial Revolution in Germany and in the High industrial period  [ de ] it was among the economic hubs of the German Empire. The end of Napoleon's Continental System opened the region up to English industrial products. Household-based textile production in particular

15946-535: Was as great as ever. In the old Prussian areas, the duty of establishing unity and freedom was seen as resting above all with Prussia, while in Catholic Westphalia, the establishment of the Frankfurt Parliament was seen as a step towards a united state under Catholic leadership. Thus, the conflict between supporters of the little or greater solutions to the German question intersected with religious affiliation. Only

16080-465: Was beginning to take hold, like the County of Mark, some factories were attacked. In the cities, there was talk of the appointment of a liberal government and the victory of the revolution was celebrated almost everywhere with parades and black-red-gold flags . However, there was also an anti-revolutionary movement, especially in the old Prussian parts of the province. In the County of Mark, this centred around

16214-517: Was bought up and sold on by Verleger (transporters). In southern Westphalia, there was a major iron extraction and processing region in Siegerland , parts of the Duchy of Westphalia, and the Sauerland, which extended over the provincial borders to the Bergisches Land and Altenkirchen . The iron ore extracted in Siegerland  [ de ] and eastern Sauerland  [ de ]

16348-506: Was called the General Code for the Prussian states ( German : Allgemeines Gesetzbuch für die Preußischen Staaten , AGB, 1792). Svarez and Klein, who were under the orders of Frederick the Great , presented a project in 1785, but the general state laws for the Prussian states were finally codified in 1794. Frederick had recently overruled his judiciary who had ruled against the millers Arnold in

16482-658: Was established. The success of textile enterprises was subsequently a basis for the establishment of iron and metalworking industries in the region. However, the new mechanised industry could not employ the available workforce like the old cottage industry. In the linen-producing areas of Westphalia, poverty and overseas emigration from rural areas rose sharply in the 1830s and 1840s. In the ironworking and metalworking areas in southwestern Westphalia, industrial competition from overseas initially had only negative consequences. Some pre-industrial enterprises, like sheet metal production in and around Olpe , disappeared. More devastating for

16616-529: Was formed. The workers sought higher wages, the introduction of an eight-hour day , and various other changes. That the miners' old loyalty to authority had not been forgotten is shown by the fact that the strike committee sent a deputation to Kaiser Wilhelm II . Although he criticised the strike, he agreed to launch an official investigation of the strikes. Since the Dortmund District Association for Mining Interests  [ de ] indicated

16750-472: Was introduced. The administrative incorporation of the province into the Prussian state was chiefly accomplished by the first Oberpräsident , Ludwig von Vincke . The province was divided administratively into three Regierungsbezirke ("government districts"): Arnsberg , Minden , and Münster . The borders of the province were slightly altered in 1851 and during the Weimar Republic. In general,

16884-488: Was not able to compete with this in the long term and eventually disappeared from the market. Conversion to industrial forms of production in and around Bielefeld enabled a transition to the new circumstances. The Ravensberg Spinning Mill  [ de ] , founded in 1854 by Hermann Delius  [ de ] , was the largest flax mill in Europe. In 1862, the "Bielfeld Action Society for Mechanical Weaving" ( Bielefelder Actiengesellschaft für mechanische Weberei )

17018-411: Was not for the "pathetic squabbles of princes" that people had fought in 1813, but so that "justice and law would have to be the foundation of public life as well as citizenship." The establishment of provincial parliaments ( Landtags  [ de ] ) in 1823 had little impact on the criticism, since they lacked central legislative powers. They had no right to raise taxes, were not involved in

17152-449: Was one of the founding documents of the party. Wilhelm Emmanuel von Ketteler and Hermann von Mallinckrodt were among the leading politicians in the establishment of the party who came from the province of Westphalia. Congress of Vienna The Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after

17286-478: Was supported by industrialist Friedrich Harkort and publisher Johann Hermann Hüffer  [ de ] among others. Other members of the "opposition" included the mayor of Hagen , Christian Dahlenkamp  [ de ] and the mayor of Telgte , Anton Böhmer  [ de ] . Even among the landed nobility, there were supporters of liberalism, such as Georg von Vincke . The district ordinance ( Kreisordnung ) of 1827 also clearly diverged from

17420-521: Was the expansion of transport infrastructure. From the end of the 18th century, rural highways ( Chaussee ) began to be constructed, rivers in the lower part of the Ruhr were made navigable for ship traffic, and canals were built. Most of all, railways were the motor of industrial development. In 1847, the Cologne-Minden Railway Company completed a west-east branch line from the Rhine to

17554-402: Was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives and other stakeholders came together in one city at the same time to discuss and formulate the conditions and provisions of treaties. Before the Congress of Vienna the common method of diplomacy involved the exchange of notes sent back and forth among the several capitals and separate talks in different places,

17688-404: Was the high level of emigration . Between 1845 and 1854, around 30,000 people left the province, most heading overseas. Almost half of these people came from the crisis-ridden linen-producing areas in the eastern part of Westphalia. In Westphalia, there were very diverse reactions to the outbreak of revolution in 1848. The democratic left of the "Rhede Circle" celebrated the coming of a new era in

17822-517: Was the main religion. Catholic areas, like the former prince-bishoprics of Münster and Paderborn and the Duchy of Westphalia, were particularly sceptical of the new lords. The Catholic nobility, which had played a leading role in the old prince-bishoprics, were mostly hostile. Twenty years after the province's establishment, Jacob Venedey called the Rhenanians and Westphalians Musspreußen  [ de ] ("have-to-be-Prussians"). In practice,

17956-448: Was the question of the redemption of manorial rights by the peasants within the context of peasant liberation . Although a law was passed in 1820 that allowed for redemption through monetary rents, there were also numerous individual regulations and regional peculiarities. Redemption remained controversial until 1848 and prompted significant conflicts in the provincial Landtags in the period before 1848 , since these bodies were dominated by

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