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111-509: The Caniapiscau Reservoir, formed by two dams and forty-three dikes, is the largest reservoir in surface area of the James Bay Project . As headpond, it feeds the power plants of the La Grande complex in the winter and provides up to 35% of their production. Its total catchment area is about 36,800 square kilometres (14,200 sq mi). The reservoir was named after Lake Caniapiscau that

222-537: A temperate grassland , restricting southern tundra to coastal Antarctica and its islands. The flora and fauna of Antarctica and the Antarctic Islands (south of 60° south latitude) are protected by the Antarctic Treaty . Alpine tundra does not contain trees because the climate and soils at high altitude block tree growth. The cold climate of the alpine tundra is caused by the low air temperatures, and

333-598: A certain expertise in the field but advocated delaying nuclear expansion as late as possible. The Quebec premier received an unexpected backing when the Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR , Alexei Kosygin visited Montreal in October 1971. Kosygin supported Bourassa's project and expressed concerns regarding his country's own nuclear power, explaining his country had to develop

444-707: A depression in the highest part of the Laurentian Plateau of the Canadian Shield, covering 4,318 square kilometres (1,667 sq mi), or about four times the size of the natural lakes prior to impoundment. Since August 1985, the Caniapiscau River was partially diverted to the west into the Laforge River of the La Grande River watershed, flowing west to James Bay . Many new islands were created as

555-592: A further 5,200 MW of generating capacity by the end of 1996. Premier Bourassa estimated that this phase would create 40,000 construction job-years (equivalent to 4,000 jobs lasting 10 years). Three new reservoirs covering an area of 1,600 km were created, including the Laforge-1 Reservoir covering 1,288 km . The generating plants of this second phase of the project produce about 18.9 TWh of power per year, operating at between 60% and 70% of their maximum rated generating capacity. On March 13, 1989,

666-662: A gravel road from James Bay (the Trans-Taiga Road ). At the very end of this road, near the Duplanter spillway, is the former worksite of the Société d'énergie de la Baie-James, named Caniapiscau . There is no permanent human habitation at the reservoir, but it is used by outfitters for seasonal hunting and fishing expeditions and by some Cree for subsistence fishing and trapping. It is isolated from society and there are very few gas stations or other services nearby. The natural lakes of

777-512: A lobby spearheaded by the Canadian government and its nuclear venture, Atomic Energy of Canada Limited , promoted the adoption of nuclear energy in Quebec, as a way to "share the benefits of Canada with our fellow francophone citizens", as Canadian Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson said. The lobby had its supporters within the ranks at Hydro-Québec, and has been vocal when the provincial government made

888-750: A local climate in which at least one month has an average temperature high enough to melt snow (0 °C (32 °F)), but no month with an average temperature in excess of 10 °C (50 °F). The cold limit generally meets the EF climates of permanent ice and snows ; the warm-summer limit generally corresponds with the poleward or altitudinal limit of trees, where they grade into the subarctic climates designated Dfd , Dwd and Dsd (extreme winters as in parts of Siberia ), Dfc typical in Alaska, Canada, mountain areas of Scandinavia , European Russia , and Western Siberia (cold winters with months of freezing). Despite

999-645: A massive solar storm caused a failure of the La Grande complex, plunging most of Quebec into darkness for nine hours. During the construction of the second phase of the James Bay Project, Hydro-Québec proposed an additional project on the Great Whale River (French: Grande rivière de la Baleine ), just to the north of the La Grande River watershed. Opposition among the Cree was even more vocal this time than in

1110-465: A partisan crowd assembled at Quebec's Little Coliseum as part of the Liberal party gathering celebrating the first year of Bourassa's term, on April 30, 1971. According to journalists witnessing the scene, Bourassa's speech concluded on a scene of indescribable enthusiasm. The announcement quickly generated a public debate on the wisdom to engage the province on such a large-scale project. For several years,

1221-476: A result of the lake's impoundment, and in 1997 Quebec's Commission de toponymie published a map naming those islands for significant works of Québécois literature. The names of the islands attracted controversy not only because they predominantly used French-language works, but also because Cree and Inuit First Nations leaders claimed that the sites already had native names prior to becoming islands, which were ignored and overwritten. The Caniapiscau Reservoir

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1332-681: A rival union organizer’s teenager or strangle their dog." Desjardins was called before the Cliche commission several times starting in November 1974, where it was established that he was closely associated with the Montreal Mafia, and engaged in thuggish practices as president of the Conseil des métiers de la construction union. Although the Aboriginal Crees had traditional hunting and trapping areas in

1443-599: A royal commission headed by Judge Robert Cliche , the union official Guy Chevrette and a prominent Montreal labor lawyer Brian Mulroney to examine the question of freedom of expression within Quebec construction unions. The Cliche commission as it became known found widespread corruption within the construction unions as the columnist Peggy Curran wrote that the Cliche commission uncovered "...tales of nepotism, bribery, sabotage, blackmail and intimidation; charges of union organizers with criminal records who gave lessons in how to break legs; thugs-for-hire who would happily beat up

1554-649: A team led by H. M. Finlayson conducted water surveys of the Nottaway , Broadback and Rupert Rivers —collectively known by the abbreviation NBR—on behalf of the Shawinigan Water & Power Company , a large investor-owned utility based in Shawinigan , Quebec. Among options studied by Shawinigan's engineers was the possible diversion of these rivers to the Saint-Maurice River watershed in order to increase output at

1665-453: A third in snow. Highest monthly rainfall is registered in the summer and snow depths vary from 50 to 100 cm (20-40 in) in the winter. Precipitations are significantly lower than the annual average of 1,050 mm (41 in) recorded in Montreal. The area lies in the zone of discontinuous permafrost , whose depth is significantly reduced by the deep snow cover. The natural seismicity of

1776-512: A total of 8.5 TWh of electricity at the new and existing power stations. Former Grand Chief of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee) Matthew Mukash (elected in late 2005 and served until 2009) opposed the Rupert River diversion and favoured the construction of wind turbines. The hydro-electric stations in the La Grande watershed are: Although there was no environmental impact assessment legislation before

1887-467: Is a possibility that the damming project has contributed to northern Quebec's Cree having the highest measured methyl-mercury concentration of all Canadian First Nations. Because of the simultaneous mercury contamination in James Bay from other activities in the area, including paper milling, the direct effect of the project on mercury levels has been difficult to ascertain. From 1981 to 1982, a few years after

1998-479: Is a risk of wildfire, such as the 1,039 km (401 sq mi) of tundra which burned in 2007 on the north slope of the Brooks Range in Alaska. Such events may both result from and contribute to global warming. Carbon emissions from permafrost thaw contribute to the same warming which facilitates the thaw, making it a positive climate change feedback . The warming also intensifies Arctic water cycle , and

2109-409: Is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. There are three regions and associated types of tundra: Arctic tundra, alpine tundra , and Antarctic tundra. Tundra vegetation is composed of dwarf shrubs , sedges , grasses , mosses , and lichens . Scattered trees grow in some tundra regions. The ecotone (or ecological boundary region) between

2220-449: Is characterized by plants that grow close to the ground, including perennial grasses , sedges , forbs , cushion plants , mosses , and lichens . The flora is adapted to the harsh conditions of the alpine environment, which include low temperatures, dryness, ultraviolet radiation, and a short growing season. Tundra climates ordinarily fit the Köppen climate classification ET , signifying

2331-653: Is further exacerbated by humans consuming this built up store of mercury. The James Bay Mercury Agreement, signed in 1986 between the Grand Council of the Crees (of Québec), the Cree Regional Authority , the Cree Bands, the Government of Québec , Hydro-Québec and the Société d’énergie de la Baie James ( James Bay Energy ), aims "to restore and strengthen Cree fisheries [...] but [...] also adequately take into account

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2442-771: Is home to several peoples who are mostly nomadic reindeer herders, such as the Nganasan and Nenets in the permafrost area (and the Sami in Sápmi ). Arctic tundra contains areas of stark landscape and is frozen for much of the year. The soil there is frozen from 25 to 90 cm (10 to 35 in) down, making it impossible for trees to grow there. Instead, bare and sometimes rocky land can only support certain kinds of Arctic vegetation , low-growing plants such as moss, heath ( Ericaceae varieties such as crowberry and black bearberry ), and lichen . There are two main seasons, winter and summer, in

2553-414: Is in the zone of discontinuous permafrost . The area surrounding the reservoir is vegetated entirely with taiga , or boreal forest, characterized by widely spaced Black Spruce with a thick underlayer of yellow-grey lichen and interspersed with muskeg and bogs. In the more moist areas, some closed coniferous forest stands may appear. On the more exposed land, a forest-tundra transition zone occurs where

2664-630: Is light, evaporation is also relatively minimal. During the summer, the permafrost thaws just enough to let plants grow and reproduce, but because the ground below this is frozen, the water cannot sink any lower, so the water forms the lakes and marshes found during the summer months. There is a natural pattern of accumulation of fuel and wildfire which varies depending on the nature of vegetation and terrain. Research in Alaska has shown fire-event return intervals (FRIs) that typically vary from 150 to 200 years, with dryer lowland areas burning more frequently than wetter highland areas. The biodiversity of tundra

2775-694: Is low: 1,700 species of vascular plants and only 48 species of land mammals can be found, although millions of birds migrate there each year for the marshes. There are also a few fish species. There are few species with large populations. Notable plants in the Arctic tundra include blueberry ( Vaccinium uliginosum ), crowberry ( Empetrum nigrum ), reindeer lichen ( Cladonia rangiferina ), lingonberry ( Vaccinium vitis-idaea ), and Labrador tea ( Rhododendron groenlandicum ). Notable animals include reindeer (caribou), musk ox , Arctic hare , Arctic fox , snowy owl , ptarmigan , northern red-backed voles , lemmings ,

2886-419: Is most affected by the hydroelectric project from January to April because rivers have their lowest runoff rates in the winter months when freezing occurs. Additionally, runoff rates in the damming system can be altered to meet power needs, which are highest in the winter and lowest in the summer, thereby more completely reversing the natural water flow cycle. As evidenced by the 500% increase in its winter runoff,

2997-870: Is part of the Canadian Shield and is largely made up of Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks . Relief has been eroded by successive glaciations in the Pleistocene era, as recently as 6,000 years ago, leaving depositions of loose materials: moraines , clay , silt and sand and reshaped the hydrography of the territory. The region's climate is subarctic . Winters are long and last, on average, from October 22 to May 4. Summers are short and mild, with temperatures averaging 13.6 °C (56.5 °F) in July, while dropping to −22.9 °C (−9.2 °F) in January. Annual precipitation averages 765 mm (30.1 in),

3108-404: Is similar to polar climate . Alpine tundra is generally better drained than arctic soils. Alpine tundra transitions to subalpine forests below the tree line; stunted forests occurring at the forest-tundra ecotone (the treeline ) are known as Krummholz . Alpine tundra can be affected by woody plant encroachment . Alpine tundra occurs in mountains worldwide. The flora of the alpine tundra

3219-569: The Kerguelen Islands . Most of Antarctica is too cold and dry to support vegetation, and most of the continent is covered by ice fields or cold deserts. However, some portions of the continent, particularly the Antarctic Peninsula , have areas of rocky soil that support plant life. The flora presently consists of around 300–400 species of lichens, 100 mosses, 25 liverworts , and around 700 terrestrial and aquatic algae species, which live on

3330-649: The Rupert River , to the south of the Eastmain River. The project entails the diversion of about 50% of the total water flow of the Rupert River (and 70% of the flow at the diversion point) towards the Eastmain Reservoir and into the La Grande Complex, and the construction of two additional generating stations: Eastmain-1A and Sarcelle, with a combined capacity of 888 MW. The Rupert diversion would generate

3441-607: The State of New York withdrew from a multibillion-dollar power purchasing agreement due to public outcry and a decrease in energy requirements. In 1994, the Government of Quebec and Hydro-Québec suspended the project indefinitely. In 2002, the Quebec government and the Grand Council of the Crees signed a landmark agreement, " La Paix des Braves " (literally "The Peace of the Braves"), ensuring

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3552-468: The mosquito , and even polar bears near the ocean. Tundra is largely devoid of poikilotherms such as frogs or lizards. Due to the harsh climate of Arctic tundra, regions of this kind have seen little human activity, even though they are sometimes rich in natural resources such as petroleum , natural gas , and uranium . In recent times this has begun to change in Alaska , Russia, and some other parts of

3663-507: The taiga to perform surveys and geological studies to identify potential sites for hydropower development. Faced with budget concerns, Hydro-Québec did cut back exploration budgets between 1968 and 1970, but the company maintained planning and analysis work, since early data showed a large potential for development. On December 16, 1969, Liberal Backbencher Member of the National Assembly Robert Bourassa met with

3774-647: The 1990s, forceful opposition by the Crees and their environmental allies caused the cancellation of the Great Whale Project , a proposed 3,000 MW complex north of La Grande River. In February 2002, the Bernard Landry government and the Grand Council of the Crees signed the Peace of the Braves ( French : Paix des Braves ) and the Boumhounan Agreement , establishing a new relationship between Quebec and

3885-681: The 5,000 Crees and 4,000 Inuit of Northern Quebec over land rights, lifestyle and environmental issues. A ruling against the Quebec government in 1973 forced the Robert Bourassa government to negotiate a far-reaching agreement, the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement , involving the Cree, the Inuit, the Quebec and Canadian governments, Hydro-Québec, the SEBJ, and later the Naskapi First Nations . In

3996-441: The 700 kilometres (430 mi) James Bay Road to the La Grande River was begun in 1971 and completed by October 1974 at a cost of about $ 400 million. In 1973 and 1974, a temporary winter ice road was used to bring in the heavy equipment required for the construction of the roadbed and some 13 major bridges spanning the many rivers of the region. Construction had boomed in Montreal for Expo 67 , leading to an inflated workforce. In

4107-578: The Cree villages mostly involves young adults and older Cree with few professional qualifications. Such activities are furthermore sustained by an income replacement program financed by the government of Quebec that offers the equivalent of a modest annual salary for hunters and their families who live in the bush for at least several weeks of the year. 53°46′38″N 77°27′53″W  /  53.777123°N 77.464600°W  / 53.777123; -77.464600 Tundra In physical geography , tundra ( / ˈ t ʌ n d r ə , ˈ t ʊ n -/ )

4218-454: The Crees and agreeing on environmental rules for the construction of three new power stations built between 2003 and 2011 — the Eastmain-1, Eastmain-1-A and Sarcelle generating stations — and the diversion of the Rupert River . The James Bay region, also known as Jamésie , is a 350,000 km (135,136 sq mi) territory, bordered by the 49th and 55th parallels, James Bay on

4329-466: The Crown corporation devoted only minimal resources to the vast potential of northern rivers. In 1965, Hydro-Québec survey program included exploration of the territory and hydrographic surveys of areas between the 52nd and 55th parallel. In 1967, the company stepped up the work on the La Grande and Eastmain rivers . Dozens, then hundreds of people were sent by helicopter and seaplanes in inaccessible areas of

4440-469: The James Bay Project's initial construction phase in the 1970s, a major environmental research program was conducted before Phase I began. The environmental impacts of the James Bay Project largely stem from the creation of a complex chain reservoir through the integration of all the watersheds of the eastern shores of the Hudson Bay, from the southern tip of James Bay to Ungava Bay in the north. This has had

4551-580: The James Bay area. Additionally, diverting rivers towards the James Bay could cause changes in the geographical pattern of river water discharge into the sea.[36] Caribou populations, which have been expanding since the 1950s, have adopted migration routes throughout much of the Quebec-Labrador Peninsula and have thus been increasingly abundant in the James Bay area, the valley of the Caniapiscau, and around George River (Quebec) .[37] Variations in

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4662-521: The James Bay project. In March 1974, when one sub-contractor refused to fire two workers belonging to the rival CSN union, the FTQ workers destroyed the LG-2 site, causing $ 35 million in damage. On 21 March 1974, the workers on the LG-2 site rioted and used their bulldozers to destroy the site that they were working on while other workers set buildings afire. In response to the riot at the LG-2 site, Bourassa created

4773-557: The Kaniapiskau Post in 1870. In 1976, Société d'énergie de la Baie James , a subsidiary of Hydro-Québec , began construction on the Caniapiscau Reservoir, designed to feed the hydro-electric generating stations of the James Bay Project . Filling the reservoir began on October 25, 1981, and over the next three years it flooded numerous lakes such as Lakes Caniapiscau, Delorme, Brisay, Tournon, and Vermouille. It now fills

4884-551: The La Grande River is the pillar of the James Bay project's hydroelectric capacity, with the runoff increasing from an average yearly amount of 1,700 m /s to 3,400 m /s, and from 500 m /s to 5,000 m /s in the winter. This immense harnessing of the area's energy at La Grande was made possible by reducing the Eastmain River's water flow at its mouth by 90% and by reducing that of the Caniaspiscau River's by 45%, and then by diverting these rivers into La Grande. Not only does this alter

4995-426: The La Grande River. The power plants of the first phase of the James Bay Project produce about 65 TWh of power each year, operating at about 60% of their maximum rated generating capacity. During this first phase of construction, over 155,000,000 cubic metres (203,000,000 cu yd) of fill, 138,000 tons of steel, 550,000 tons of cement, and nearly 70,000 tons of explosives were used. Concurrent employment by

5106-504: The area is low. An earthquake of magnitude 5 on the Richter magnitude scale occurred in 1941, its epicenter located approximately 150 km from the La Grande-3 generating station. However, episodes of induced seismicity occurred during the initial fill of reservoirs . In 1983, a magnitude 4 tremor was recorded 50 km (31 mi) upstream of LG-3's main dam. Between 1950 and 1959,

5217-404: The area's Cree is attributed to the processes of bioaccumulation and biomagnification . Biaccumulation is the initial consequence of mercury pollution, as the toxin is first incorporated into the given ecosystem's producers. In the James Bay area ecosystem, mercury being released from the decaying flooded trees would be incorporated in trace amounts in zooplankton . Benthic organisms ( benthos ),

5328-583: The areas of exposed rock and soil around the shore of the continent. Antarctica's two flowering plant species, the Antarctic hair grass ( Deschampsia antarctica ) and Antarctic pearlwort ( Colobanthus quitensis ), are found on the northern and western parts of the Antarctic Peninsula. In contrast with the Arctic tundra, the Antarctic tundra lacks a large mammal fauna, mostly due to its physical isolation from

5439-561: The atmosphere, creating a feedback cycle that changes climate. The term is a Russian word adapted from the Sámi languages . Arctic tundra occurs in the far Northern Hemisphere , north of the taiga belt. The word "tundra" usually refers only to the areas where the subsoil is permafrost , or permanently frozen soil. (It may also refer to the treeless plain in general so that northern Sápmi would be included.) Permafrost tundra includes vast areas of northern Russia and Canada. The polar tundra

5550-483: The climate system activated around 2 °C (3.6 °F) of global warming suggested that at this threshold, permafrost thaw would add a further 0.09 °C (0.16 °F) to global temperatures by 2100, with a range of 0.04–0.16 °C (0.07–0.29 °F) Antarctic tundra occurs on Antarctica and on several Antarctic and subantarctic islands, including South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands and

5661-482: The coastlines of both the James and Hudson Bays during their spring and fall migrations.[38] The James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement provided considerable financial and administrative resources for the Cree and Inuit communities to deal with the environmental and social consequences of the project and provide for future economic development, such as the creation of the local airline Air Creebec . The James Bay Project also

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5772-614: The company's 8 power stations. With the nationalization of privately owned utilities in 1963 , Hydro-Québec inherited the preliminary studies conducted by Finlayson and his team on the hydroelectric potential of James Bay rivers. However, other projects, such as the Manicouagan-Outardes project on the North Shore and the possibility of building a large power station at Churchill Falls in Labrador proved easier and less expensive and

5883-529: The completion of the last phase of the original James Bay Project: construction of the Eastmain-1 generating station, with a capacity of 480 MW, and the Eastmain Reservoir with a surface area of about 600 km (230 sq mi). A subsequent agreement in April 2004 put an end to all litigation between the two parties and opened the way to a joint environmental assessment of the projected diversion of

5994-563: The consequence of diverting the flow of water from four major rivers into a large body of water, ultimately changing the dynamics of the land, an environmental political phenomenon labelled by some critics as a "first build, then paint green" policy. Two of these main diverted rivers are the Caniapiscau River and the Eastmain River into which the James Bay Project submerged about 11,000 km of boreal forest ( taiga ). Consequently,

6105-428: The construction site. Poverty and social problems remained prevalent in the isolated Cree and Inuit villages of Northern Quebec, even in areas where there were no hydroelectric or mining activities. By the 1980s, the natural ebb and flow of the La Grande, Eastmain and Caniapiscau rivers had been severely modified, notably delaying the formation of a solid ice cover near the Cree village of Chisasibi , and about 4% of

6216-613: The damming. The project, as described at the time, would involve the construction of four generating stations on the La Grande River and the diversion of the Eastmain and Caniapiscau rivers into the La Grande watershed. Responsibility for the project would be overseen by the Société d'énergie de la Baie-James , a newly created mixed corporation (public/private) controlled by Hydro-Québec, headed by Robert A. Boyd . As environmental assessments were not then required under Quebec law, construction of

6327-640: The decision to invest in the Churchill Falls venture with Brinco . Several Parti Québécois spokesmen, including energy critic Guy Joron and economic adviser Jacques Parizeau voiced their opposition to the Bourassa scheme. In an interview with Montreal 's Le Devoir , the former economist and public servant who later became premier of Quebec commented: "We don't have to dam every single river just because they're French Canadian and Catholic." However, Bourassa himself and Hydro-Québec senior management — including President Roland Giroux and commissioners Yvon DeGuise and Robert Boyd  — were firmly behind

6438-454: The development of its natural resources". Moreover, Bourassa argued his 1969 estimates showed demand for electricity would outstrip supply by 11,000 MW by 1983, concurring with forecasts made at the time by Hydro-Quebec. Six months after his election, Bourassa began working on the details of the scheme with his adviser, financier Paul Desrochers. The two men met secretly with Roland Giroux and Robert A. Boyd for an update in September 1970 and

6549-416: The early 1970s. In 1990, Grand Chief Matthew Coon Come organized a canoe trip from Hudson Bay to the Hudson River , in Albany, New York , and this very effective public relations stunt brought international pressure to bear on the government of Quebec. The Cree had experienced considerable culture shock with the introduction of permanent transportation routes to the south and very few Cree were employed on

6660-456: The first phase of the project covered about 14 years. By 1986, the largest power stations and reservoirs on the La Grande River were mostly completed, including the Robert-Bourassa (originally named La Grande-2), La Grande-3 and La Grande-4 generating stations, with an installed capacity of 10,800 MW, and five reservoirs covering an area of 11,300 km . The Eastmain and Caniapiscau river diversions each added about 800 m /s of water to

6771-433: The flooded vegetation's stored mercury (Hg) was released into the aquatic ecosystem, and due to the diversion of the water flow to contained reservoirs, the sudden abundance of mercury in the James Bay area in 1979 was unable to be dispersed and diluted as would have been the case in natural waters. Because the James Bay Cree ( East Cree ) live a mostly traditional lifestyle including a diet rich in fish and sea mammals, there

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6882-413: The flooding of La Grande River , mercury levels in lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) increased up to fourfold their pre-flooding levels, while those in northern pike (Esox lucius) rose up to sevenfold during the same period. In natural lakes, these concentrations are five to six times less than in the James Bay area. This rapid spike of mercury levels in two of the fish species used extensively by

6993-463: The following years, the decreased demand for labor meant that times were tough for the construction industry in Montreal. As Bourassa had promised in the 1970 election that his government would create 100,000 jobs in the construction industry, there was much violent competition between various construction unions to have their workers engaged in the James Bay Project. Canadian historian Desmond Morton noted that there were 540 different incidents between

7104-445: The grounds that if the British North American Act was going to be changed, then the federal government should cede more powers to the provinces. The willingness of the Trudeau government to intervene on the side of the Cree and Inuit against the Quebec government was at least in part caused by the feud between Bourassa and Trudeau. In a speech championing the Cree, Chrétien said Bourassa "could go to hell", charging that he did not have

7215-420: The health risks associated with human exposure to mercury." The establishment of reservoirs containing large amounts of standing water has the ability to produce local climate changes. Alteration of annual precipitation patterns, increased abundance of low stratus clouds and fog , and warmer autumns and cooler springs, leading to a delay in the beginning and end of the growing season, have all been observed in

7326-421: The hydroelectric project until after construction of the access road had begun. The federal Indian affairs minister Jean Chrétien intervened on the side of the Cree and the Inuit, hiring lawyers to argue their case in the courts. Both Bourassa and the Prime Minister, Pierre Trudeau were Liberals and federalists, but relations between the two were very strained at best as the French-Canadian nationalist Bourassa

7437-488: The increased amounts of warmer rain are another factor which increases permafrost thaw depths. The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report estimates that carbon dioxide and methane released from permafrost could amount to the equivalent of 14–175 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide per 1 °C (1.8 °F) of warming. For comparison, by 2019, annual anthropogenic emission of carbon dioxide alone stood around 40 billion tonnes. A 2018 perspectives article discussing tipping points in

7548-417: The interior and encouraged commercial and social exchanges between the Cree villages and with southern Quebec. A separate road ( Route du Nord ) also links the James Bay Road to Chibougamau , via the Cree village of Nemaska . The building of these newer roads was largely the work of Cree construction companies. The James Bay Road also opened the region to further mineral exploration and clear-cut logging in

7659-432: The large hydroelectric development to be built in northern Quebec. At the time Giroux, a financier, argued that large international investors "are still wary about nuclear energy. If we bring them a good hydroelectric project, and James Bay is a good one, they'll soon show where their preferences lie". As an engineer, Boyd expressed concerns at this early date about the uncertainty of nuclear energy. He recommended maintaining

7770-408: The lost wetland habitats in these zones of periodic fluctuations are destroyed. Other changes in the delicate balance of the James Bay ecosystem can be illustrated through the animal migration patterns, salmon spawning, and destruction of wildlife habitats. The significant loss of wetlands and the blocking of passageways to those wetlands that remain has inhibited salmon spawning and migration in

7881-461: The lower Caniapiscau during the period of caribou migrations, giving hunters greater access to caribou than ever before. About 30,000 caribou are killed each year by Inuit , Cree and American and European hunters. Seasonal reversal in the flow of rivers can potentially rob the rich nutrients that thrive in various mudflats and coastal marshes , affecting millions of migratory birds such as waterfowl, Canada geese , and various inland birds that use

7992-538: The matter to the Supreme Court. In later years, the Cree and Inuit were given a settlement of $ 150 million, negotiated by Cree chief Billy Diamond. In November 1975, the governments of Canada and Quebec signed the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement with the Cree of the James Bay region and the Inuit of northern Quebec, affirming exclusive hunting and fishing rights to about 170,000 km of territory and about $ 250 million in financial compensation in return for

8103-594: The nearby Cree village of Chisasibi . During the main construction period of the late 1970s, Radisson housed a population several times greater than the Cree population of Chisasibi, although it currently has a population of about 500. Nevertheless, the Cree communities have themselves continued the push to build additional roads from the James Bay Road westward to the Cree coastal villages of Wemindji , Eastmain and Waskaganish . These roads, opened between 1995 and 2001, have further facilitated access to hunting areas of

8214-562: The next month he travelled to New York City in the midst of the October Crisis to negotiate financing for the project, estimated at the time to cost between $ 5 billion and $ 6 billion. Bourassa introduced his plan to the provincial cabinet in March 1971 and recommended hiring the US engineering firm Bechtel to oversee the construction. Liberal strategists then chose to make the announcement before

8325-561: The north, the region began to drain northward into the Caniapiscau River, a tributary of the Koksoak River , and ultimately into Ungava Bay . Prior to impoundment, Lake Caniapiscau covered about 470 square kilometres (180 sq mi) and was frequented by hunters and fur traders in the 19th century. In 1834, the Hudson's Bay Company opened an outpost there to link its facilities in the James Bay region with those of Ungava Bay , but closed

8436-510: The north. The northerly rivers were selected in May 1972, various studies conducted by engineering firms having concluded the La Grande option would be more cost effective, while having a lesser impact on forestry and would require less flooding, thus minimizing impacts on First Nations fishing and hunting. Another area of concern was the silty nature of the terrain in the NBR area, which would have complicated

8547-478: The only subantarctic orchids; the royal penguin ; and the Antipodean albatross . There is some ambiguity on whether Magellanic moorland , on the west coast of Patagonia , should be considered tundra or not. Phytogeographer Edmundo Pisano called it tundra ( Spanish : tundra Magallánica ) since he considered the low temperatures key to restrict plant growth. More recent approaches have since recognized it as

8658-607: The other continents. Sea mammals and sea birds, including seals and penguins, inhabit areas near the shore, and some small mammals, like rabbits and cats, have been introduced by humans to some of the subantarctic islands. The Antipodes Subantarctic Islands tundra ecoregion includes the Bounty Islands , Auckland Islands , Antipodes Islands , the Campbell Island group , and Macquarie Island . Species endemic to this ecoregion include Corybas dienemus and Corybas sulcatus ,

8769-519: The party leader in January, Bourassa went on to win the general election on April 29, 1970 , and his tenure as Premier of Quebec became closely linked to hydroelectric development in general and with the James Bay project in particular. For Bourassa the development of James Bay project addressed two of his priorities. In Energy in the North , an essay published in 1985, Bourassa, an economist by profession, argued that "Quebec's economic development relies on

8880-413: The polar tundra areas. During the winter it is very cold, dark, and windy with the average temperature around −28 °C (−18 °F), sometimes dipping as low as −50 °C (−58 °F). However, extreme cold temperatures on the tundra do not drop as low as those experienced in taiga areas further south (for example, Russia's, Canada's, and Alaska's lowest temperatures were recorded in locations south of

8991-522: The potential diversity of climates in the ET category involving precipitation, extreme temperatures, and relative wet and dry seasons, this category is rarely subdivided, although, for example, Wainwright, Alaska can be classified ETw and Provideniya, Russia ETs , with most of the rest of the tundra fitting into the ETf subcategory. Rainfall and snowfall are generally slight due to the low vapor pressure of water in

9102-488: The president of Hydro-Québec, Roland Giroux over lunch at the parliamentary dining room in Quebec City . After the meeting Bourassa, who was about to launch a leadership bid for the position left vacant by the resignation of former Premier Jean Lesage , became convinced of the probability and suitability of the project and made the development of James Bay hydroelectricity a major plank of its leadership campaign. Elected as

9213-431: The project reached 18,000. Of the 215 dikes and dams, many surpassed the height of skyscrapers, with one reaching 56 stories. The terraced diversion channel at Robert-Bourassa generating station was carved 30 m (one hundred feet) deep into the side of a mountain. Water tumbles from the reservoir to the river below at a height greater than that of Niagara Falls. A 4,800 km (3,000 mi) network of transmission lines

9324-454: The project's first phase in ≈ 1971 amounted to $ 13.7 billion (1987 Canadian dollars ). The eight power stations of the La Grande Complex generate an average of 9.5 GW, enough to meet the total demand of a small industrialized economy such as Belgium . The James Bay power stations represent almost half of Hydro-Québec's total output and capacity. The development of the James Bay Project was controversial. It led to an acrimonious conflict with

9435-466: The region were formed about nine thousand years ago as glaciers left Quebec after having scoured the Canadian Shield for ninety thousand years. The prototype of these lakes was an ice dam lake that drained southwards into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence at a time when areas further north ( Nunavik ) were still glaciated. As post-glacial rebound elevated the southern part of the Canadian Shield more rapidly than

9546-440: The region, no seasonal or permanent roads existed at the time. Opposition to the project, however, was strong among the 5,000 Crees of James Bay, the 3,500 Inuit to the north and several environmental groups. They believed the government of Quebec was acting in violation of treaties and committing unlawful expropriation and destruction of traditional hunting and trapping lands. Furthermore, the Cree and Inuit had not been informed of

9657-455: The right to build on or flood the land claimed by the Cree. In 1973, the federal government's lawyers won a court injunction ordering the James Bay project stopped until a treaty could be signed with the Cree and Inuit, but an appeals court overturned the ruling days later. However, Bourassa agreed to negotiate with the First Nations as the federal government announced it was willing to take

9768-543: The right to develop the hydroelectric resources of Northern Quebec. The planned La Grande-1 power station would be built about 50 km further away from the Cree village of Chisasibi than originally planned. The Agreement also provided for an extensive environmental follow-up of all aspects of the hydroelectric development on the La Grande and Eastmain rivers and the establishment of a joint environmental assessment process for any future hydroelectric project involving other rivers of Northern Quebec. The period of construction of

9879-467: The river. The result has been considerable decay ( decomposition ) of dead trees along the shoreline, consequently releasing stored mercury into the area's terrestrial ecosystem through bioaccumulation in decomposers and detritovores and eventual biomagnification up the food web . This has left the area's Cree susceptible to mercury poisoning from both land and sea. Any shoreline plants that could potentially provide vegetation growth to replace any of

9990-500: The runoff amount of the Eastmain and the Caniaspiscau Rivers, but also their drainage location, since prior to having been directly merged with La Grande, these rivers’ drainage locations were separate from the La Grande River. The summer runoff rate of La Grande increased by 40%, making the average annual runoff rate 91% greater than its natural rate. Because of the change in the runoff rates of James Bay, massively increasing in

10101-546: The social consequences of the hydroelectric project itself pale in comparison to the social impact of the Cree coming into direct contact with the society and economic forces of francophone Quebec. The greatest impact stems from the construction in the early 1970s of the James Bay Road ( Route de la Baie James ) from Matagami to the new town of Radisson , near the Robert-Bourassa generating station (La Grande-2), and on to

10212-434: The southern James Bay area and substantially reduced the cost of transport. These activities have put further strains on the traditional hunting and trapping activities of the Cree in the southern James Bay region, notably the villages of Waskaganish and Nemaska. Such activities, however, only accounted for about half the economic activity of the Cree communities in 1970 and less than 20% by the late 1990s. Hunting and fishing in

10323-421: The southern edge of the development has shifted noticeably southward since the project's construction. Following construction of the project, the area's water flow was substantially modified. In the James Bay area in general, the average monthly surface runoff rate in the winter increased by 52%, doubling the total freshwater input, while that of the summer months decreased by 6%. The James Bay area's water flow

10434-444: The subject of habitat conservation programs. In Canada and Russia, many of these areas are protected through a national Biodiversity Action Plan . Tundra tends to be windy, with winds often blowing upwards of 50–100 km/h (30–60 mph). However, it is desert-like, with only about 150–250 mm (6–10 in) of precipitation falling per year (the summer is typically the season of maximum precipitation). Although precipitation

10545-481: The technology because the USSR lacked suitable rivers to expand its own hydroelectric network of dams and power stations. Two options were considered when Bourassa unveiled his plan for the construction of several large hydroelectric power stations on the rivers flowing into James Bay, either on the Nottaway , Broadback , Rupert and Harricana Rivers in the south (NBR Project), or on the La Grande and Eastmain Rivers to

10656-499: The traditional hunting and trapping territories of the Cree had been lost to the rising waters of the reservoirs, including about 10% of the territories of the Cree village of Chisasibi. At the same time, new roads, snowmobiles and bush airlines facilitated access to distant hunting territories of the interior. While highly motivated, the Cree's opposition to the Great Whale River Project was mainly ineffective until 1992 when

10767-412: The tree line). During the summer, temperatures rise somewhat, and the top layer of seasonally-frozen soil melts, leaving the ground very soggy. The tundra is covered in marshes, lakes, bogs, and streams during the warm months. Generally daytime temperatures during the summer rise to about 12 °C (54 °F) but can often drop to 3 °C (37 °F) or even below freezing. Arctic tundras are sometimes

10878-481: The tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timberline. The tundra soil is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus . The soil also contains large amounts of biomass and decomposed biomass that has been stored as methane and carbon dioxide in the permafrost , making the tundra soil a carbon sink . As global warming heats the ecosystem and causes soil thawing, the permafrost carbon cycle accelerates and releases much of these soil-contained greenhouse gases into

10989-635: The two main construction unions in Quebec on sites associated with the James Bay Project between 1970 and 1974, many of them "very bloody". In the 1973 election, after the Fédération des travailleurs et travailleuses du Québec (FTQ) union had donated generously to the Parti libéral du Québec , Bourassa announced that only companies employing workers from the FTQ-affiliated Conseil des métiers de la construction headed by André "Dédé" Desjardins would work on

11100-473: The vicinity of the project's major reservoirs. The doubling of the freshwater input into James Bay during the winter decreases the salinity of the seawater , thereby increasing the freezing point of the bay. The resultant increased ice content at the northern section of the project in the winter has cooled warm air currents more than usual, bringing harsher Arctic weather, including strong winds and less precipitation, to south-central Quebec. The tree line at

11211-470: The water flow of the Caniapiscau River from 1981 to 1984, during the period when the Caniapiscau Reservoir was being filled, may have contributed to the death by drowning of 10,000 migratory woodland caribou in September 1984, representing about 1.5% of the herd at that time. On the other hand, the reduced flow of the Caniapiscau River and the Koksoak River has permanently reduced the risk of natural floods on

11322-448: The west and Labrador to the east, and its waters flow from the Laurentian Plateau of the Canadian Shield . The project is one of the largest hydroelectric systems in the world. It has cost upwards of US$ 20 billion to build and has an installed generating capacity of 15.244 GW , at the cost of 7,000 square miles of Cree hunting lands. It has been built since 1974 by James Bay Energy ( SDBJ ) for Hydro-Québec. Construction costs of

11433-560: The western side and by the drainage divide with the Saint Lawrence River basin on the eastern side. The topography of the area consist of generally low relief areas and includes three parts: a 150 km (93 mi) coastal plain , a rolling plateau with a maximum elevation of 400 m (1,300 ft) and the Otish Mountains to the east of the territory, with peaks reaching 900 to 1,100 m (3,000 to 3,600 ft) . The area

11544-420: The whitefish's primary prey, consume a great deal of zooplankton, causing the mercury concentration in a single organism to magnify due to accumulation of mercury and its inability to be excreted. In turn, whitefish, due to their greater size, consume large numbers of benthic invertebrates , thus incorporating the individual mercury accumulations of each organism and creating their own store of mercury. The effect

11655-416: The winter months, and increasing considerably in the summer as well, there has been more extreme fluctuation in the water levels. This has killed many trees along the shoreline, which are not equipped with deep enough root systems and tolerance of prolonged exposure to seawater to withstand these fluctuations. As well, the increased riverbank erosion downstream of the dams has washed the flora ’s habitat down

11766-432: The woodland is replaced by lichen dominated tundra . James Bay Project The James Bay Project ( French : projet de la Baie-James ) refers to the construction of a series of hydroelectric power stations on the La Grande River in northwestern Quebec , Canada by state-owned utility Hydro-Québec , and the diversion of neighbouring rivers into the La Grande watershed . It is located between James Bay to

11877-588: The world: for example, the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug produces 90% of Russia's natural gas. A severe threat to tundra is global warming , which causes permafrost to thaw. The thawing of the permafrost in a given area on human time scales (decades or centuries) could radically change which species can survive there. It also represents a significant risk to infrastructure built on top of permafrost, such as roads and pipelines. In locations where dead vegetation and peat have accumulated, there

11988-619: Was a "soft federalist" who favored devolving the powers of the federal government down to the provinces while the Canadian nationalist Trudeau was a "hard federalist" who favored concentrating power in the hands of the federal government. Relations between Quebec City and Ottawa were brought to the breaking point in 1971 when Bourassa vetoed the Victoria charter for patriating the British North America Act to give Canada its own constitution on

12099-535: Was an impetus for the forging of a collective identity among the Cree of Quebec and for the establishment of the Grand Council of the Crees (Eeyou Istchee) . The Agreement notably provided for major institutional structures for local government, economic development, schools and health services, mostly under the control of the Grand Council of the Crees and the Kativik Regional Government , in Nunavik . Yet,

12210-488: Was flooded during the formation of the reservoir. The name is an adaptation of the Cree or Innu toponym kâ-neyâpiskâw , which means "rocky point". Albert Peter Low had noted in 1895 that "a high rocky headland jutts into the lake." He probably referred to the northwest facing peninsula that gives the reservoir the shape of an arc as we currently know it. The Caniapiscau Reservoir is accessible by bush plane and, since 1981, by

12321-458: Was necessary to bring generated power to consumers in southern Quebec. The network contains several 735-kilovolt lines and one 450-kilovolt DC line directly linked to the U.S. power grid. During the late 1980s and early 1990s, construction of the second phase of the James Bay project centred on the construction of five secondary power plants on the La Grande River and its tributaries (La Grande-1, La Grande-2A, Laforge-1, Laforge-2 and Brisay), adding

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