Misplaced Pages

#759240

103-573: After the establishment of the Bolshevik Far Eastern Republic on April 6, 1920, Far Eastern areas with a significant ethnic Ukrainian minority population discussed the possibility of establishing an entity called Green Ukraine. This movement quickly proved abortive. Geographically, Green Ukraine borders the present-day North Korea , in the special city of Rason and the Chinese provinces of Heilongjiang and Jilin . The Zeleny Klyn

206-910: A far-left faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the Second Party Congress in 1903. The Bolshevik party, formally established in 1912, seized power in Russia in the October Revolution of 1917, and was later renamed the Russian Communist Party, All-Union Communist Party, and Communist Party of the Soviet Union . The party's ideology, based on Leninist and later Marxist–Leninist principles,

309-585: A Chinese team visiting the lower Amur (known to them under its Manchu name, Sahaliyan Ula, "the Black River"), in 1709, and learned of the existence of the nearby offshore island from the Nanai natives of the lower Amur. The Jesuits did not have a chance to visit the island, and the geographical information provided by the Nanai people and Manchus who had been to the island was insufficient to allow them to identify it as

412-621: A ceasefire. The Soviets completed the conquest of Karafuto on August 25, 1945, by occupying the capital of Toyohara . Of the approximately 400,000 people – mostly Japanese and Korean – who lived on South Sakhalin in 1944, about 100,000 were evacuated to Japan during the last days of the war. The remaining 300,000 stayed behind, some for several more years. While the vast majority of Sakhalin Japanese and Koreans were gradually repatriated between 1946 and 1950, tens of thousands of Sakhalin Koreans (and

515-460: A core group of professional revolutionaries who would devote their full time and energy towards developing the party into an organization capable of leading a successful proletarian revolution against the Tsarist autocracy . The base of active and experienced members would be the recruiting ground for this professional core. Sympathizers would be left outside and the party would be organised based on

618-557: A higher budget. One of the common methods the Bolsheviks used was committing bank robberies, one of which, in 1907, resulted in the party getting over 250,000 roubles, which is the equivalent of about $ 125,000. Bolsheviks were in constant need of money because Lenin practised his beliefs, expressed in his writings, that revolutions must be led by individuals who devote their entire lives to the cause. As compensation, he rewarded them with salaries for their sacrifice and dedication. This measure

721-597: A memoir of his journey. Japanese forces invaded and occupied Sakhalin in the closing stages of the Russo-Japanese War . In accordance with the Treaty of Portsmouth of 1905, the southern part of the island below the 50th parallel north reverted to Japan, while Russia retained the northern three-fifths. In 1920, during the Siberian Intervention , Japan again occupied the northern part of the island, returning it to

824-456: A more organized revolutionary work. After the proposed revolution had successfully overthrown the Russian autocracy, this strong leadership would relinquish power and allow a Socialist party to fully develop within the principles of democratic centralism . Lenin said that if professional revolutionaries did not maintain influence over the fight of the workers, then that fight would steer away from

927-564: A number of their Japanese spouses) remained in the Soviet Union. No final peace treaty has been signed and the status of four neighboring islands remains disputed . Japan renounced its claims of sovereignty over southern Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands in the Treaty of San Francisco (1951), but maintains that the four offshore islands of Hokkaido currently administered by Russia were not subject to this renunciation. Japan granted mutual exchange visas for Japanese and Ainu families divided by

1030-577: A rigid political structure was needed to effectively initiate a formal revolution. This idea was met with opposition from once close allies, including Martov, Plekhanov , Vera Zasulich , Leon Trotsky , and Pavel Axelrod . Plekhanov and Lenin's major dispute arose addressing the topic of nationalizing land or leaving it for private use. Lenin wanted to nationalize to aid in collectivization , whereas Plekhanov thought worker motivation would remain higher if individuals were able to maintain their own property. Those who opposed Lenin and wanted to continue on

1133-656: A separate Union of Socialists-Revolutionaries Maximalists ) and then again after 1917. The Bolsheviks ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union . The Bolsheviks, or Reds , came to power in Russia during the October Revolution phase of the 1917 Russian Revolution , and founded the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). With the Reds defeating the Whites and others during

SECTION 10

#1732859611760

1236-583: A separate party, convincing pro-Bolshevik workers within Russia to follow suit proved difficult. When the first meeting of the Fourth Duma was convened in late 1912, only one out of six Bolshevik deputies, Matvei Muranov (another one, Roman Malinovsky , was later exposed as an Okhrana agent), voted on 15 December 1912 to break from the Menshevik faction within the Duma. The Bolshevik leadership eventually prevailed, and

1339-506: A tentative agreement, and one of its provisions was to make Trotsky's Vienna-based Pravda , a party-financed central organ. Kamenev, Trotsky's brother-in-law who was with the Bolsheviks, was added to the editorial board; but the unification attempts failed in August 1910 when Kamenev resigned from the board amid mutual recriminations . The factions permanently broke relations in January 1912 after

1442-458: A viewpoint that Bogdanov had been exploring and developing as Empiriomonism . Having worked as co-editor with Plekhanov, on Zarya , Lenin had come to agree with the Valentinov's rejection of Bogdanov's Empiriomonism. With the defeat of the revolution in mid-1907 and the adoption of a new, highly restrictive election law, the Bolsheviks began debating whether to boycott the new parliament known as

1545-431: Is about 24 nautical miles (44 km) west from the nearest coast of Sakhalin and 41 nmi (76 km) from the port city of Nevelsk. Ush Island is an island off of the northern coast of Sakhalin. According to the 1897 census, Sakhalin had a population of 28,113, of which 56.2% were Russians, 8.4% Ukrainians , 7.0% Nivkh , 5.8% Poles , 5.4% Tatars , 5.1% Ainu , 2.82% Oroks , 0.95% Germans , 0.81% Japanese , with

1648-721: Is an island in Northeast Asia . Its north coast lies 6.5 km (4.0 mi) off the southeastern coast of Khabarovsk Krai in Russia , while its southern tip lies 40 kilometres (25 mi) north of the Japanese island of Hokkaido . An island of the West Pacific , Sakhalin divides the Sea of Okhotsk to its east from the Sea of Japan to its southwest. It is administered as part of Sakhalin Oblast and

1751-528: Is known as Bolshevism . The origin of the split was Lenin's support for a smaller party of professional revolutionaries, as opposed to the Menshevik desire for a broad party membership. The influence of the factions fluctuated in the years up to 1912, when the RSDLP formally split into two parties. The Bolsheviks' political philosophy was based on the Leninist principles of vanguardism and democratic centralism . After

1854-578: Is separated from the mainland by the narrow and shallow Strait of Tartary , which often freezes in winter in its narrower part, and from Hokkaido , Japan, by the Soya Strait or La Pérouse Strait . Sakhalin is the largest island in Russia, being 948 km (589 mi) long, and 25 to 170 km (16 to 106 mi) wide, with an area of 72,492 km (27,989 sq mi). It lies at similar latitudes to England, Wales and Ireland. Its orography and geological structure are imperfectly known. One theory

1957-641: Is that Sakhalin arose from the Sakhalin Island Arc . Nearly two-thirds of Sakhalin is mountainous. Two parallel ranges of mountains traverse it from north to south, reaching 600–1,500 m (2,000–4,900 ft). The Western Sakhalin Mountains peak in Mount Ichara, 1,481 m (4,859 ft), while the Eastern Sakhalin Mountains's highest peak, Mount Lopatin 1,609 m (5,279 ft), is also

2060-529: Is the largest island of Russia , with an area of 72,492 square kilometres (27,989 sq mi). The island has a population of roughly 500,000, the majority of whom are Russians . The indigenous peoples of the island are the Ainu , Oroks , and Nivkhs , who are now present in very small numbers. The island's name is derived from the Manchu word Sahaliyan ( ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ ). The Ainu people of Sakhalin paid tribute to

2163-732: The Ainu in the southern half, the Oroks in the central region, and the Nivkhs in the north. After the Mongols conquered the Jin dynasty (1234) , they suffered raids by the Nivkh and Udege peoples . In response, the Mongols established an administration post at Nurgan (present-day Tyr, Russia ) at the junction of the Amur and Amgun rivers in 1263, and forced the submission of

SECTION 20

#1732859611760

2266-701: The Allied powers in order to resolve her internal conflict. Unfortunately for the Bolsheviks, Lenin's assumptions were incorrect. Despite his and the party's attempts to push for a civil war through involvement in two conferences in 1915 and 1916 in Switzerland, the Bolsheviks were in the minority in calling for a ceasefire by the Imperial Russian Army in World War I. Although the Bolshevik leadership had decided to form

2369-679: The February Revolution of 1917, Lenin returned to Russia and issued his April Theses , which called for "no support for the Provisional Government " and "all power to the soviets ". In the summer of 1917, especially after the July Days and Kornilov affair , large numbers of radicalized workers joined the Bolsheviks, which planned the October Revolution which overthrew the government. The party initially governed in coalition with

2472-616: The Jewish Autonomous Oblast region was established with its capital at Birobidzhan . This term was also used for Yellow Ukraine , Pink Ukraine and Grey Ukraine . Head of the Krai Secretariat: The Green Ukraine was located in the Outer Manchuria , extending across Amur River , Zeya , Svobodny , Blagoveshchensk , Ussuriland , to the north, Nikolayevsk-on-Amur , Khabarovsk , Vladivostok . to

2575-488: The Kuril Islands chain) in 1845, in the face of competing claims from Russia. In 1849, however, the Russian navigator Gennady Nevelskoy recorded the existence and navigability of the strait later given his name, and Russian settlers began establishing coal mines, administration facilities, schools, and churches on the island. In 1853–54, Nikolay Rudanovsky surveyed and mapped the island. In 1855, Russia and Japan signed

2678-741: The Left Socialist-Revolutionaries , but increasingly centralized power and suppressed opposition during the Russian Civil War , and after 1921 became the sole legal party in Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union . Under Joseph Stalin 's leadership, the party became linked to his policies of " socialism in one country ", rapid industrialization, collectivized agriculture, and centralized state control. Lenin's political pamphlet What Is to Be Done? , written in 1901, helped to precipitate

2781-580: The Matsumae clan drew a map of the island and called it "Kita-Ezo" (Northern Ezo, Ezo being the old Japanese name for the islands north of Honshu ). In the 1780s, the influence of the Japanese Tokugawa Shogunate on the Ainu of southern Sakhalin increased significantly. By the beginning of the 19th century, the Japanese economic zone extended midway up the east coast, to Taraika. With the exception of

2884-610: The Neolithic Stone Age. Flint implements such as those found in Siberia have been found at Dui and Kusunai in great numbers, as well as polished stone hatchets similar to European examples, primitive pottery with decorations like those of the Olonets , and stone weights used with fishing nets. A later population familiar with bronze left traces in earthen walls and kitchen- middens on Aniva Bay . Indigenous people of Sakhalin include

2987-526: The Russian Civil War of 1917–1922, the RSFSR became the chief constituent of the Soviet Union (USSR) in December 1922. The average party member was very young: in 1907, 22% of Bolsheviks were under 20 years of age; 37% were 20–24 years of age; and 16% were 25–29 years of age. By 1905, 62% of the members were industrial workers (3% of the population in 1897). Twenty-two percent of Bolsheviks were gentry (1.7% of

3090-577: The Russian Empire much later than Siberia and other parts of the Far East. The first attempts at colonizing the area date back to the mid-17th century when Yerofey Khabarov founded the fort of Albazin on the Amur River . From that time, constant skirmishes took place with the Manchu people of China . In 1689 China and Russia signed the Treaty of Nerchinsk , which granted Russia limited territory. In

3193-504: The Strait of Tartary , and islanders he encountered near today's Nevelskoy Strait told him that the island was called "Tchoka" (or at least that is how he recorded the name in French), and "Tchoka" appears on some maps thereafter. On the basis of its belief that it was an extension of Hokkaido, both geographically and culturally, Japan again proclaimed sovereignty over the whole island (as well as

Green Ukraine - Misplaced Pages Continue

3296-738: The Third Duma . Lenin, Grigory Zinoviev , Lev Kamenev , and others argued for participating in the Duma while Bogdanov, Anatoly Lunacharsky , Mikhail Pokrovsky , and others argued that the social democratic faction in the Duma should be recalled. The latter became known as " recallists " ( Russian : otzovists ). A smaller group within the Bolshevik faction demanded that the RSDLP Central Committee should give its sometimes unruly Duma faction an ultimatum, demanding complete subordination to all party decisions. This group became known as " ultimatists " and

3399-620: The Treaty of Shimoda , which declared that nationals of both countries could inhabit the island: Russians in the north, and Japanese in the south, without a clearly defined boundary between. Russia also agreed to dismantle its military base at Ootomari. Following the Second Opium War , Russia forced China to sign the Treaty of Aigun (1858) and the Convention of Peking (1860), under which China lost to Russia all claims to territories north of Heilongjiang ( Amur ) and east of Ussuri . In 1857,

3502-580: The Yalta Conference . The Soviet attack started on August 11, 1945, a few days before the surrender of Japan. The Soviet 56th Rifle Corps, part of the 16th Army , consisting of the 79th Rifle Division , the 2nd Rifle Brigade, the 5th Rifle Brigade and the 214 Armored Brigade, attacked the Japanese 88th Infantry Division . Although the Soviet Red Army outnumbered the Japanese by three to one, they advanced only slowly due to strong Japanese resistance. It

3605-549: The Yuan , Ming , and Qing dynasties and accepted official appointments from them. Sometimes the relationship was forced but control from dynasties in China was loose for the most part. Sakhalin was later claimed by both Russia and Japan over the course of the 19th and 20th centuries. These disputes sometimes involved military conflicts and divisions of the island between the two powers. In 1875, Japan ceded its claims to Russia in exchange for

3708-456: The socialist mode of production path towards complete socialism and disagreed with his strict party membership guidelines became known as "softs" while Lenin supporters became known as "hards". Some of the factionalism could be attributed to Lenin's steadfast belief in his own opinion and what was described by Plekhanov as Lenin's inability to "bear opinions which were contrary to his own" and loyalty to his own self-envisioned utopia . Lenin

3811-693: The 1689 Treaty of Nerchinsk , which defined the Stanovoy Mountains as the border between the Qing and the Russian Empires . In the following year the Qing sent forces to the Amur estuary and demanded that the residents, including the Sakhalin Ainu, pay tribute. This was followed by several further visits to the island as part of the Qing effort to map the area. To enforce its influence, the Qing sent soldiers and mandarins across Sakhalin, reaching most parts of

3914-460: The 1730s, the Qing had appointed senior figures among the indigenous communities as "clan chief" ( hala-i-da ) or "village chief" ( gasan-da or mokun-da ). In 1732, 6 hala , 18 gasban , and 148 households were registered as tribute bearers in Sakhalin. Manchu officials gave tribute missions rice, salt, other necessities, and gifts during the duration of their mission. Tribute missions occurred during

4017-414: The 2nd Congress vote, Lenin's faction won votes on the majority of important issues, and soon came to be known as Bolsheviks , from the Russian bolshinstvo , 'majority'. Likewise, Martov's group came to be known as Mensheviks , from menshinstvo , 'minority'. However, Martov's supporters won the vote concerning the question of party membership, and neither Lenin nor Martov had a firm majority throughout

4120-674: The Ainu migrated onto the mainland, the Chinese described a "strong Kui (or Kuwei, Kuwu, Kuye, Kugi, i.e. Ainu) presence in the area otherwise dominated by the Gilemi or Jilimi (Nivkh and other Amur peoples)." Related names were in widespread use in the region, for example the Kuril Ainu called themselves koushi . The origins of the traditional Japanese name, Karafuto ( Japanese : 樺太 ), are unclear and multiple competing explanations have been proposed. These include: The Japanese form 樺太 equates to Korean : 화태 Hwangt'ae , an earlier name for

4223-689: The Ainu. The Ainu resisted the Mongol invasions but by 1308 had been subdued. They paid tribute to the Mongol Yuan dynasty at posts in Wuliehe, Nanghar, and Boluohe. The Chinese Ming dynasty (1368–1644) placed Sakhalin under its "system for subjugated peoples" ( ximin tizhi ). From 1409 to 1411 the Ming established an outpost called the Nurgan Regional Military Commission near the ruins of Tyr on

Green Ukraine - Misplaced Pages Continue

4326-482: The Bolsheviks formed their own Duma faction in September 1913. One final difference between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks was how ferocious and tenacious the Bolshevik party was in order to achieve its goals, although Lenin was open minded to retreating from political ideals if he saw the guarantee of long-term gains benefiting the party. This practice was seen in the party's trying to recruit peasants and uneducated workers by promising them how glorious life would be after

4429-414: The Bolsheviks organised a Bolsheviks-only Prague Party Conference and formally expelled Mensheviks and recallists from the party. As a result, they ceased to be a faction in the RSDLP and instead declared themselves an independent party, called Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (Bolsheviks) – or RSDLP(b). Unofficially, the party has been referred to as the Bolshevik Party. Throughout the 20th century,

4532-464: The Bolsheviks' split from the Mensheviks . In Germany , the book was published in 1902, but in Russia , strict censorship outlawed its publication and distribution. One of the main points of Lenin's writing was that a revolution can only be achieved by a strong, professional leadership with deep dedication to Marxist theoretical principles and an organization that spanned through the whole of Russia, abandoning what Lenin called "artisanal work" towards

4635-405: The Bolsheviks. He remained a self-described "non-factional social democrat " until August 1917, when he joined Lenin and the Bolsheviks, as their positions resembled his and he came to believe that Lenin was correct on the issue of the party. All but one member of the RSDLP Central Committee were arrested in Moscow in early 1905. The remaining member, with the power of appointing a new committee,

4738-411: The Congress as delegates left or switched sides. In the end, the Congress was evenly split between the two factions. From 1907 onward, English-language articles sometimes used the term Maximalist for "Bolshevik" and Minimalist for "Menshevik", which proved to be confusing as there was also a "Maximalist" faction within the Russian Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1904–1906 (which, after 1906, formed

4841-775: The Japanese portion in the final days of World War II in 1945, as well as all of the Kurils. Japan no longer claims any of Sakhalin, although it does still claim the southern Kuril Islands . Most Ainu on Sakhalin moved to Hokkaido, 43 kilometres (27 mi) to the south across the La Pérouse Strait , when Japanese civilians were displaced from the island in 1949. Sakhalin has several names including Karafuto ( Japanese : 樺太 ), Kuye ( simplified Chinese : 库页岛 ; traditional Chinese : 庫頁島 ; pinyin : Kùyèdǎo ), Sahaliyan ( Manchu : ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ ), Bugata nā ( Orok : Бугата на̄ ), Yh-mif ( Nivkh : Ых-миф ). The Manchus called it Sahaliyan ula angga hada ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ ᠠᠩᡤᠠ ᡥᠠᡩᠠ ' Island at

4944-499: The Matsumae, took control of Sakhalin in 1807. Mogami's interest in the Sakhalin trade intensified when he learned that Yaenkoroaino, the above-mentioned elder from Nayoro, possessed a memorandum written in Manchurian, which stated that the Ainu elder was an official of the Qing state. Later surveys on Sakhalin by shogunal officials such as Takahashi Jidayú and Nakamura Koichiró only confirmed earlier observations: Sakhalin and Sóya Ainu traded foreign goods at trading posts, and because of

5047-669: The Mensheviks made an alliance with the Jewish Bund , the Bolsheviks found themselves in a minority. However, all factions retained their respective factional structure and the Bolsheviks formed the Bolshevik Centre , the de facto governing body of the Bolshevik faction within the RSDLP. At the 5th Congress held in London in May 1907, the Bolsheviks were in the majority, but the two factions continued functioning mostly independently of each other. Tensions had existed between Lenin and Alexander Bogdanov from as early as 1904. Lenin had fallen out with Nikolai Valentinov after Valentinov had introduced him to Ernst Mach 's Empiriocriticism ,

5150-442: The Ming took tribute from Sakhalin and the Amur river region. The Manchu Qing dynasty , which came to power in China in 1644, called Sakhalin "Kuyedao" ( Chinese : 库页岛 ; pinyin : Kùyè dǎo ; lit. 'island of the Ainu') or "Kuye Fiyaka" ( ᡴᡠᠶᡝ ᡶᡳᠶᠠᡴᠠ ). The Manchus called it "Sagaliyan ula angga hada" (Island at the Mouth of the Black River). The Qing first asserted influence over Sakhalin after

5253-413: The Mouth of the Black River ' . Sahaliyan , the word that has been borrowed in the form of "Sakhalin", means "black" in Manchu, ula means "river" and sahaliyan ula ᠰᠠᡥᠠᠯᡳᠶᠠᠨ ᡠᠯᠠ ' Black River ' is the proper Manchu name of the Amur River . The Qing dynasty called Sakhalin ‘Kuyedao’ (‘the island of Ainu’) and the indigenous people paid tribute to the Chinese empire. However, there

SECTION 50

#1732859611760

5356-412: The Nayoro Ainu located on the west coast in close proximity to China, most Ainu stopped paying tribute to the Qing dynasty. The Matsumae clan was nominally in charge of Sakhalin, but they neither protected nor governed the Ainu there. Instead they extorted the Ainu for Chinese silk, which they sold in Honshu as Matsumae's special product. To obtain Chinese silk, the Ainu fell into debt, owing much fur to

5459-412: The Russians established a penal colony, or katorga , on Sakhalin. The island remained under shared sovereignty until the signing of the 1875 Treaty of Saint Petersburg , in which Japan surrendered its claims in Sakhalin to Russia. In 1890 the author Anton Chekhov visited the penal colony on Sakhalin. He spent three months there interviewing thousands of convicts and settlers for a census and published

5562-461: The Santan ( Ulch people ), who lived near the Qing office. The Ainu also sold the silk uniforms ( mangpao , bufu , and chaofu ) given to them by the Qing, which made up the majority of what the Japanese knew as nishiki and jittoku . As dynastic uniforms, the silk was of considerably higher quality than that traded at Nagasaki , and enhanced Matsumae prestige as exotic items. Eventually the Tokugawa government, realizing that they could not depend on

5665-559: The Siberian mainland, which continued operating until the mid-1430s. There is some evidence that the Ming eunuch Admiral Yishiha reached Sakhalin in 1413 during one of his expeditions to the lower Amur, and granted Ming titles to a local chieftain. The Ming recruited headmen from Sakhalin for administrative posts such as commander ( 指揮使 ; zhǐhuīshǐ ), assistant commander ( 指揮僉事 ; zhǐhuī qiānshì ), and "official charged with subjugation" ( 衛鎮撫 ; wèizhènfǔ ). In 1431, one such assistant commander, Alige, brought marten pelts as tribute to

5768-485: The Soviet Union in 1925. South Sakhalin was administered by Japan as Karafuto Prefecture (Karafuto-chō ( 樺太庁 ) ), with the capital at Toyohara (today's Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk ). A large number of migrants were brought in from Korea. The northern, Russian, half of the island formed Sakhalin Oblast , with the capital at Aleksandrovsk-Sakhalinsky . Between 1848 and 1902, American whaleships hunted whales off Sakhalin. They cruised for bowhead and gray whales to

5871-505: The Wuliehe post. In 1437, four other assistant commanders (Zhaluha, Sanchiha, Tuolingha, and Alingge) also presented tribute. According to the Ming Veritable Records , these posts, like the position of headman, were hereditary and passed down the patrilineal line. During these tributary missions, the headmen would bring their sons, who later inherited their titles. In return for tribute, the Ming awarded them with silk uniforms. Nivkh women in Sakhalin married Han Chinese Ming officials when

5974-458: The beginning of World War I loomed near. Joseph Stalin was especially eager for the start of the war, hoping that it would turn into a war between classes or essentially a Russian Civil War . This desire for war was fuelled by Lenin's vision that the workers and peasants would resist joining the war effort and therefore be more compelled to join the socialist movement. Through the increase in support, Russia would then be forced to withdraw from

6077-410: The change in status. Recently, economic and political cooperation has gradually improved between the two nations despite disagreements. On 1 September 1983, Korean Air Flight 007 , a South Korean civilian airliner, flew over Sakhalin and was shot down by the Soviet Union, just west of Sakhalin Island, near the smaller Moneron Island . The Soviet Union claimed it was a spy plane; however, commanders on

6180-446: The concept of democratic centralism . Martov, until then a close friend of Lenin, agreed with him that the core of the party should consist of professional revolutionaries, but he argued that party membership should be open to sympathizers, revolutionary workers, and other fellow travellers. The two had disagreed on the issue as early as March–May 1903, but it was not until the Congress that their differences became irreconcilable and split

6283-496: The formation of Party Schools as Proletarian Universities at a Bolshevik mini-conference in Paris organised by the editorial board of the Bolshevik magazine Proletary . However, this proposal was not adopted and Lenin tried to expel Bogdanov from the Bolshevik faction. Bogdanov was then involved with setting up Vpered , which ran the Capri Party School from August to December 1909. With both Bolsheviks and Mensheviks weakened by splits within their ranks and by Tsarist repression,

SECTION 60

#1732859611760

6386-419: The ground realized it was a commercial aircraft. All 269 passengers and crew died, including a U.S. Congressman, Larry McDonald . On 27 May 1995, the 7.0 M w   Neftegorsk earthquake shook the former Russian settlement of Neftegorsk with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX ( Violent ). Total damage was $ 64.1–300 million, with 1,989 deaths and 750 injured. The settlement was not rebuilt. Sakhalin

6489-492: The idea of a completely classless society . This pamphlet also showed that Lenin opposed another group of reformers, known as " Economists ", who were for economic reform while leaving the government relatively unchanged and who, in Lenin's view, failed to recognize the importance of uniting the working population behind the party's cause. At the 2nd Congress of the RSDLP , which was held in Brussels and then London during August 1903, Lenin and Julius Martov disagreed over

6592-428: The island except the southern tip. The Qing imposed a fur-tribute system on the region's inhabitants. The Qing dynasty ruled these regions by imposing upon them a fur tribute system, just as had the Yuan and Ming dynasties. Residents who were required to pay tributes had to register according to their hala ( ᡥᠠᠯᠠ , the clan of the father's side) and gashan ( ᡤᠠᡧᠠᠨ , village), and a designated chief of each unit

6695-419: The island now superseded by the transcription 사할린 Sahallin . The island was also historically referred to as "Tschoka" by European travelers in the late 18th century, such as Lapérouse and Langsdorff . This name is believed to derive from an obsolete endonym used by Sakhalin Ainu , possibly based on the word cookay ( /t͡ɕoː.kay/ , "we") in Sakhalin Ainu language . Humans lived on Sakhalin in

6798-522: The island's highest mountain. Tym-Poronaiskaya Valley separates the two ranges. Susuanaisky and Tonino-Anivsky ranges traverse the island in the south, while the swampy Northern-Sakhalin plain occupies most of its north. Crystalline rocks crop out at several capes; Cretaceous limestones , containing an abundant and specific fauna of gigantic ammonites , occur at Dui on the west coast; and Tertiary conglomerates , sandstones , marls , and clays , folded by subsequent upheavals, are found in many parts of

6901-428: The island. The clays, which contain layers of good coal and abundant fossilized vegetation, show that during the Miocene period, Sakhalin formed part of a continent which comprised north Asia, Alaska, and Japan, and enjoyed a comparatively warm climate. The Pliocene deposits contain a mollusc fauna more Arctic than that which exists at the present time, indicating that the connection between the Pacific and Arctic Oceans

7004-564: The land visited by de Vries in 1643. As a result, many 17th-century maps showed a rather strangely shaped Sakhalin, which included only the northern half of the island (with Cape Patience), while Cape Aniva, discovered by de Vries, and the "Black Cape" (Cape Crillon) were thought to form part of the mainland. Only with the 1787 expedition of Jean-François de La Pérouse did the island began to resemble something of its true shape on European maps. Though unable to pass through its northern "bottleneck" due to contrary winds, La Perouse charted most of

7107-421: The less significant Moscow Soviet was dominated by the Bolsheviks. These Soviets became the model for those formed in 1917. As the Russian Revolution of 1905 progressed, Bolsheviks, Mensheviks, and smaller non-Russian social democratic parties operating within the Russian Empire attempted to reunify at the 4th Congress of the RSDLP held in April 1906 at Folkets hus , Norra Bantorget , in Stockholm . When

7210-436: The mandarin. Those who offered especially large fur tributes were granted the right to create a familial relationship with officials of the Manchu Eight Banners (at the time equivalent to Chinese aristocrats) by marrying an official's adopted daughter. Further, the tribute payers were allowed to engage in trade with officials and merchants at the tribute location. By these policies, the Qing dynasty brought political stability to

7313-427: The mid 19th century, the second Russian expansion took place after Russia lost the Crimean War (1853–1856). A number of Cossack settlements were established on the Amur river. China had become far weaker than Russia at the time and ceded territory to Russia in the Treaty of Aigun of 1858 and by the Convention of Peking of 1860 (see Amur Annexation ). During this period, only a small number of settlers settled in

7416-495: The north and right whales to the east and south. On June 7, 1855, the ship Jefferson (396 tons), of New London , was wrecked on Cape Levenshtern , on the northeastern side of the island, during a fog. All hands were saved as well as 300 barrels of whale oil . In August 1945, after repudiating the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact , the Soviet Union invaded southern Sakhalin, an action planned secretly at

7519-463: The northern Kuril Islands . In 1897 more than half of the population were Russians and other European and Asian minorities. In 1905, following the Russo-Japanese War , the island was divided, with Southern Sakhalin going to Japan. After the Siberian intervention , Japan invaded the northern parts of Sakhalin, and ruled the entire island from 1918 to 1925. Russia has held all of the island since seizing

7622-637: The party adopted a number of different names. In 1918, RSDLP(b) became All-Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and remained so until 1925. From 1925 to 1952, the name was All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks) and from 1952 to 1991, the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. As the party split became permanent, further divisions became evident. One of the most notable differences was how each faction decided to fund its revolution. The Mensheviks decided to fund their revolution through membership dues while Lenin often resorted to more drastic measures since he required

7725-516: The party membership rules. Lenin, who was supported by Georgy Plekhanov , wanted to limit membership to those who supported the party full-time and worked in complete obedience to the elected party leadership. Martov wanted to extend membership to anyone "who recognises the Party Programme and supports it by material means and by regular personal assistance under the direction of one of the party's organisations." Lenin believed his plan would develop

7828-419: The party was the Russian police. The police were able to infiltrate both parties' inner circles by sending in spies who then reported on the opposing party's intentions and hostilities. This allowed the tensions to remain high between the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks and helped prevent their uniting. Lenin was firmly opposed to any reunification but was outvoted within the Bolshevik leadership. The meeting reached

7931-497: The party's objective and carry on under the influence of opposing beliefs or even away from revolution entirely. The pamphlet also showed that Lenin's view of a socialist intelligentsia was in line with Marxist theory . For example, Lenin agreed with the Marxist ideal of social classes ceasing to be and for the eventual " withering away of the state ". Most party members considered unequal treatment of workers immoral and were loyal to

8034-671: The party. At first, the disagreement appeared to be minor and inspired by personal conflicts. For example, Lenin's insistence on dropping less active editorial board members from Iskra or Martov's support for the Organizing Committee of the Congress which Lenin opposed. The differences grew and the split became irreparable. Internal unrest also arose over the political structure that was best suited for Soviet power . As discussed in What Is To Be Done? , Lenin firmly believed that

8137-457: The pressure to meet quotas, they fell into debt. These goods, the officials confirmed, originated at Qing posts, where continental traders acquired them during tributary ceremonies. The information contained in these types of reports turned out to be a serious blow to the future of Matsumae's trade monopoly in Ezo. Japan proclaimed sovereignty over Sakhalin in 1807; in 1809, Mamiya Rinzō claimed that it

8240-466: The railroad in 1901, over 14,000 settlers were moving to the area per year, with a maximum of 78,000 settlers moving there in 1907. After 1917, the area came under the jurisdiction of Admiral Alexander Kolchak . In 1920, the Far East Republic was established as a buffer republic between Russia and Japan . In 1922, the republic joined with the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic . In 1934,

8343-548: The region and established the basis for commerce and economic development. The Qing dynasty established an office in Ningguta , situated midway along the Mudan River , to handle fur from the lower Amur and Sakhalin. Tribute was supposed to be brought to regional offices, but the lower Amur and Sakhalin were considered too remote, so the Qing sent officials directly to these regions every year to collect tribute and to present awards. By

8446-450: The region consisting of some 14,000 Cossacks and 2,500 Russian soldiers. In 1861, two oblasts were established, the Primorsky and Amur . Khabarovsk was founded in 1858, Vladivostok in 1860. In 1882, free transportation was announced for settlers to the area from Ukraine and free land was offered to settlers. By 1897, the population had increased to 310,000. With the establishment of

8549-472: The revolution and granting them temporary concessions. Bolshevik figures such as Anatoly Lunacharsky , Moisei Uritsky and Dmitry Manuilsky considered that Lenin's influence on the Bolshevik party was decisive but the October insurrection was carried out according to Trotsky's, not to Lenin's plan. In 1918, the party renamed itself the Russian Communist Party (Bolsheviks) at Lenin's suggestion. In 1925, this

8652-538: The second daimyō of Matsumae Domain in Hokkaidō, sent Satō Kamoemon and Kakizaki Kuroudo on an expedition to Sakhalin. One of the Matsumae explorers, Kodō Shōzaemon, stayed in the island in the winter of 1636 and sailed along the east coast to Taraika (now Poronaysk ) in the spring of 1637. In an early colonization attempt, a Japanese settlement was established at Ōtomari on Sakhalin's southern end in 1679. Cartographers of

8755-856: The south. The Green Ukraine had a roughly 2,500 km coastline along the Pacific Ocean that extended from the Sea of Japan , to the Sea of Okhotsk . Green Ukraine was nearby the Sakhalin island and the Japanese archipelago . Most of the Slavic population were Christians . The local Tungusic peoples followed local religions; some Ashkenazi Jews in areas around the present-day Jewish Autonomous Oblast practiced Judaism . 51°18′N 133°24′E  /  51.3°N 133.4°E  / 51.3; 133.4 Bolshevik The Bolsheviks ( Russian : большевики , bolsheviki ; from большинство, bolshinstvo , 'majority'), led by Vladimir Lenin , were

8858-528: The southern extremity of the island. The northernmost point of Sakhalin is Cape of Elisabeth on the Schmidt Peninsula , while Cape Crillon is the southernmost point of the island. See also: Cape Khalpili Sakhalin has two smaller islands associated with it, Moneron Island and Ush Island . Moneron, the only land mass in the Tatar strait, 7.2 km (4.5 mi) long and 5.6 km (3.5 mi) wide,

8961-523: The summer months. During the reign of the Qianlong Emperor (r. 1735–95), a trade post existed at Delen, upstream of Kiji (Kizi) Lake, according to Rinzo Mamiya . There were 500–600 people at the market during Mamiya's stay there. Local native Sakhalin chiefs had their daughters taken as wives by Manchu officials as sanctioned by the Qing dynasty when the Qing exercised jurisdiction in Sakhalin and took tribute from them. In 1635, Matsumae Kinhiro ,

9064-496: The total population) and 38% were uprooted peasants ; compared with 19% and 26% for the Mensheviks. In 1907, 78% of the Bolsheviks were Russian and 10% were Jewish ; compared to 34% and 20% for the Mensheviks. Total Bolshevik membership was 8,400 in 1905, 13,000 in 1906, and 46,100 by 1907; compared to 8,400, 18,000 and 38,200 for the Mensheviks. By 1910, both factions together had fewer than 100,000 members. Between 1903 and 1904,

9167-454: The two factions were in a state of flux, with many members changing sides. Plekhanov, the founder of Russian Marxism, who at first allied himself with Lenin and the Bolsheviks, had parted ways with them by 1904. Trotsky at first supported the Mensheviks, but left them in September 1904 over their insistence on an alliance with Russian liberals and their opposition to a reconciliation with Lenin and

9270-458: The two factions were tempted to try to reunite the party. In January 1910, Leninists, recallists, and various Menshevik factions held a meeting of the party's Central Committee in Paris. Kamenev and Zinoviev were dubious about the idea; but under pressure from conciliatory Bolsheviks like Victor Nogin , they were willing to give it a try. One of the underlying reasons that prevented any reunification of

9373-599: The two peoples. From the Nivkh perspective, their surrender to the Mongols essentially established a military alliance against the Ainu who had invaded their lands. According to the History of Yuan , a group of people known as the Guwei ( 骨嵬 ; Gǔwéi , the Nivkh name for Ainu) from Sakhalin invaded and fought with the Jilimi (Nivkh people) every year. On 30 November 1264, the Mongols attacked

9476-783: The worldwide political movement coordinated by the Comintern . During the Cold War in the United Kingdom, trade union leaders and other leftists were sometimes derisively described as Bolshies . The usage is roughly equivalent to the term " commie ", "Red", or " pinko " in the United States during the same period. The term Bolshie later became a slang term for anyone who was rebellious, aggressive, or truculent. Sakhalin Sakhalin (Russian: Сахали́н , IPA: [səxɐˈlʲin] )

9579-784: Was an area of land settled by Ukrainians which is a part of the Russian Far East in the area of the Amur River and the Pacific Ocean . It was named by the Ukrainian settlers. The territory consists of over 1,000,000 square kilometres and has a population of 3.1 million (1958). The Ukrainian population in 1897 made up 15% of the Primorskaya Oblast's population. The territory was also informally known as Ukrainian : Закитайщина , romanized :  Zakytaishchyna , "Trans-China", i.e., "land beyond China". Zeleny Klyn became part of

9682-534: Was an island. The first European known to visit Sakhalin was Martin Gerritz de Vries , who mapped Cape Patience and Cape Aniva on the island's east coast in 1643. The Dutch captain, however, was unaware that it was an island, and 17th-century maps usually showed these points (and often Hokkaido as well) as part of the mainland. As part of a nationwide Sino-French cartographic program, Jesuits Jean-Baptiste Régis , Pierre Jartoux, and Xavier Ehrenbert Fridelli joined

9785-694: Was changed to All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). At the 19th Party Congress in 1952 the Party was renamed the Communist Party of the Soviet Union at Stalin's suggestion. Bolo was a derogatory expression for Bolsheviks used by British service personnel in the North Russian Expeditionary Force which intervened against the Red Army during the Russian Civil War. Adolf Hitler , Joseph Goebbels , and other Nazi leaders used it in reference to

9888-458: Was generally allied with the recallists. With most Bolshevik leaders either supporting Bogdanov or undecided by mid-1908 when the differences became irreconcilable, Lenin concentrated on undermining Bogdanov's reputation as a philosopher. In 1909, he published a scathing book of criticism entitled Materialism and Empirio-criticism (1909), assaulting Bogdanov's position and accusing him of philosophical idealism . In June 1909, Bogdanov proposed

9991-459: Was no formalized border around the island. The Qing dynasty was a pre- modern or ‘world empire’ which did not place emphasis on demarcating borders in the manner of the modern ‘national empires’ of the nineteenth and early twentieth century (Yamamuro 2003: 90–97). The island was also called "Kuye Fiyaka". The word "Kuye" used by the Qing is "most probably related to kuyi , the name given to the Sakhalin Ainu by their Nivkh and Nanai neighbors." When

10094-449: Was not until the 113th Rifle Brigade and the 365th Independent Naval Infantry Rifle Battalion from Sovetskaya Gavan landed on Tōro, a seashore village of western Karafuto, on August 16 that the Soviets broke the Japanese defense line. Japanese resistance grew weaker after this landing. Actual fighting continued until August 21. From August 22 to August 23, most remaining Japanese units agreed to

10197-499: Was probably broader than it is now. Main rivers: The Tym , 330 km (205 mi) long and navigable by rafts and light boats for 80 km (50 mi), flows north and northeast with numerous rapids and shallows, and enters the Sea of Okhotsk . The Poronay flows south-southeast to the Gulf of Patience or Shichiro Bay, on the southeastern coast. Three other small streams enter the wide semicircular Aniva Bay or Higashifushimi Bay at

10300-400: Was put in charge of district security as well as the annual collection and delivery of fur. By 1750, fifty-six hala and 2,398 households were registered as fur tribute payers, – those who paid with fur were rewarded mainly with Nishiki silk brocade , and every year the dynasty supplied the chief of each clan and village with official silk clothes ( mangpao , duanpao ), which were the gowns of

10403-580: Was seen even by fellow party members as being so narrow-minded and unable to accept criticism that he believed that anyone who did not follow him was his enemy. Trotsky , one of Lenin's fellow revolutionaries, compared Lenin in 1904 to the French revolutionary Maximilien Robespierre . The two factions of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) were originally known as hard (Lenin supporters) and soft (Martov supporters). In

10506-411: Was taken to help ensure that the revolutionaries stayed focused on their duties and motivated them to perform their jobs. Lenin also used the party money to print and copy pamphlets which were distributed in cities and at political rallies in an attempt to expand their operations. Both factions received funds through donations from wealthy supporters. Further differences in party agendas became evident as

10609-625: Was won over by the Bolsheviks. The lines between the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks hardened in April 1905 when the Bolsheviks held a Bolsheviks-only meeting in London, which they called the 3rd Party Congress . The Mensheviks organised a rival conference and the split was thus finalized. The Bolsheviks played a relatively minor role in the 1905 Revolution and were a minority in the Saint Petersburg Soviet of Workers' Deputies led by Trotsky. However,

#759240