Ovruch ( Ukrainian : Овруч ) is a city in Korosten Raion , Zhytomyr Oblast , northern Ukraine . Until 2020, it was the administrative center of the former Ovruch Raion , until it was merged into Korosten Raion . It has a population of approximately 15,250 (2022 estimate), and is home to the Ovruch air base .
158-472: In addition to the Ukrainian Овруч ( Ovruch ), in other languages the name of the city is Polish : Owrucz and Yiddish : אוורוטש . Ovruch originated as an important town of Kievan Rus' , first mentioned as Vruchiy in 977. Later after the sack of Iskorosten it became the capital city of Drevlian. Saint Hyacinth of Poland evangelized in the town between 1222 and 1234. The area suffered during
316-414: A weak yer vowel that would eventually disappear completely, for example Old East Slavic котъ /kɔtə/ > Ukrainian кіт /kit/ 'cat' (via transitional stages such as /koˑtə̆/, /kuˑt(ə̆)/, /kyˑt/ or similar) or Old East Slavic печь /pʲɛtʃʲə/ > Ukrainian піч /pitʃ/ 'oven' (via transitional stages such as /pʲeˑtʃʲə̆/, /pʲiˑtʃʲ/ or similar). This raising and other phonological developments of the time, such as
474-564: A "firm within a firm". While the competitions for the Palace of the Soviets were still unfolding, Shchusev was instructed to take over ongoing high-profile Constructivist projects, and to redesign and complete them in "neoclassical style". The first three victims of Stalinist "improvement" were the giant theatre in Novosibirsk (original design by Alexander Grinberg [ ru ] , 1928–1931);
632-503: A "true" recreation of the medieval spirit, while Shchusev was more responsive to Art Nouveau influences. According to Ikonnikov, Shchusev stood above Pokrovsky, due to a combination of his natural intuitive talent, first-hand knowledge of world architecture, and experience in archaeological research. Works by "second-tier" architects such as Ilya Bondarenko were markedly inferior to those of either Shchusev or Pokrovsky. In 1911, Shchusev won an invitational competition with his design of
790-634: A 1985 Soviet college textbook. Even Nesterov complained that Shchusev was all about stylization rather than style . Shchusev's first completed constructivist buildings—a sanatorium in Matsesta and a compact residential building [ ru ] in Moscow—were conceived in 1927 and built in 1928. The largest of his constructivist designs, the Narkomzem Building [ ru ] in Moscow,
948-610: A body of national literature, institute a Ukrainian-language educational system, and form an independent state (the Ukrainian People's Republic , shortly joined by the West Ukrainian People's Republic ). During this brief independent statehood the stature and use of Ukrainian greatly improved. In the Russian Empire Census of 1897 the following picture emerged, with Ukrainian being the second most spoken language of
1106-422: A brief public smear campaign , Shchusev lost all his executive positions and design contracts, and was effectively banished from architectural practice. Modern Russian historians of art agree that the charges of professional dishonesty, plagiarism , and exploitation raised against Shchusev were, for the most part, justified. In the following years he gradually returned to practice, and restored his public image as
1264-515: A busy transport hub. In May 1949, Shchusev suffered a heart attack during a brief business trip to Kyiv. He decided to return to Moscow, and a few days later died in a hospital. In the last decade of his life, Shchusev designed and built very few memorable buildings. However, in the same period he amassed an exceptional number of state awards, including four Stalin Prizes : for the IMEL building (1940),
1422-583: A church architect, and developed his proto-modernist style, which blended Art Nouveau with Russian Revival architecture . Immediately before and during World War I he designed and built railway stations for the von Meck family, notably the Kazansky Rail Terminal in Moscow. After the October Revolution , Shchusev pragmatically supported the Bolsheviks , and was rewarded with the contract for
1580-470: A church architect, and quickly progressed from historic styles to the creation of his own proto-modernist style, blending Art Nouveau with the Russian Revival tradition. He did not have as much luck in getting lucrative residential and government contracts; his lay buildings of the period are scarce and, as a whole, are distinctly inferior to his churches. Shchusev's church murals , influenced by
1738-563: A competent architect in his own right, described Shchusev as an unforgiving, disrespectful, ruthless exploiter of "lesser people". "He had zero tolerance to his assistants, especially to me. Due to my peasant roots and sketchy education, he looked at me like an American or an Englishman looks at а "defective" native. This was the most conspicuous and substantial side of his personality." According to Tamonkin, Shchusev treated his wife, children, and his junior brother Pavel just as harshly: in his bipolar world of "important" and "unimportant" people,
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#17328557261521896-581: A cross at a later date..." In 1933, the formerly independent architectural firms of Moscow were nationalized and reorganized into ten state-owned workshops. Shchusev was appointed the head of the 2nd State Workshop, a fairly large design firm employing dozens of professional architects and engineers. Some—such as Dmitry Chechulin , Alexey Rukhlyadev [ ru ] , and the tandem of Leonid Savelyev [ ru ] and Oswald Stapran [ ru ] —were managing their own project teams . The remaining staff formed Shchusev's personal team,
2054-528: A larger temporary structure that could also function as a tribune for the use of government officials. The second wooden mausoleum was built in April and opened to visitors in August 1924. Five years later, the government decided that the concept "had passed the test of time", and awarded Shchusev a contract to design a third, permanent mausoleum. An early proposal by Shchusev and Isidor Frantsuz [ ru ]
2212-461: A palace". Shchusev wisely skipped the second, most publicized stage of the contest. His entries in the third and the fourth stages were properly neoclassical but uninspiring. Joseph Stalin had already made his choice in favor of Boris Iofan , and was suspicious of Shchusev's motives: "Shchusev's project is the same Cathedral of Christ the Saviour , but without the cross. Perhaps, Shchusev hopes to add
2370-507: A perfect monolith . The opportunity was lost when the architects replaced most of the porphyry with granite. Shchusev created an illusion that the Mausoleum is made of solid granite blocks, when in reality it is primarily concrete covered with thin granite panels. This third mausoleum, superficially similar to its predecessor, disposed with pilasters and fluted panels ; while the second wooden Mausoleum had leaned to simplified neoclassicism,
2528-637: A policy of defending Ukraine's interests within the Soviet Union. He proudly promoted the beauty of the Ukrainian language and developed plans to expand the role of Ukrainian in higher education. He was removed, however, after only a brief tenure, for being too lenient on Ukrainian nationalism. The new party boss from 1972 to 1989, Volodymyr Shcherbytsky , purged the local party, was fierce in suppressing dissent, and insisted Russian be spoken at all official functions, even at local levels. His policy of Russification
2686-555: A result of close Slavic contacts with the remnants of the Scythian and Sarmatian population north of the Black Sea , lasting into the early Middle Ages , the appearance of the voiced fricative γ/г (romanized "h"), in modern Ukrainian and some southern Russian dialects is explained by the assumption that it initially emerged in Scythian and related eastern Iranian dialects, from earlier common Proto-Indo-European *g and *gʰ . During
2844-494: A scholarship from the Chișinău city council, Alexey and his younger brother Pavel (1880–1957) graduated from the local gymnasium and continued their educations at the university level . Pavel, like Alexey, would become an architect and a bridge engineer ; he would collaborate with Alexey on bridge projects in Moscow and be the custodian of Alexey's artwork and archive after his death. In 1891, Alexey left Chișinău and enrolled at
3002-587: A second chance. The smear campaign instantly waned. In July 1938, Schusev's new workshop was reorganized as the Akademproekt Institute, a state-owned firm nominally charged with the design of various academy projects. In the ten years that followed, Shchusev designed various academy institute buildings in Moscow and the building of the Kazakhstan Academy of Sciences in Almaty . However, the designs for
3160-624: A self-aware Ukrainian nation would threaten the unity of the empire. In 1804 Ukrainian as a subject and language of instruction was banned from schools. In 1811, by order of the Russian government, the Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was closed. In 1847 the Brotherhood of St Cyril and Methodius was terminated. The same year Taras Shevchenko was arrested, exiled for ten years, and banned for political reasons from writing and painting. In 1862 Pavlo Chubynsky
3318-691: A small war-torn town situated between Moscow and the Rzhev salient . A few months later Shchusev proposed to rebuild Istra into an exclusive winter skiing resort. The new city hall, designed by Lanceray, looked suspiciously similar to Stockholm City Hall , at approximately the same size but with a Naryshkin Baroque exterior. The city hall was surrounded by wildly decorated hotels and outlying wooden tourist lodges with luxurious interiors. The purpose of this fantastic, improbable, yet highly publicized proposal remains unexplained. According to Chmelnizki, it could have been
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#17328557261523476-694: A special state-owned workshop for urban redevelopment. The Akademproekt, expanded through the hire of Shchusev's former associates, was overloaded with ongoing projects and new defense contracts. The former included expansion of the Lenin Mausoleum, the new Lubyanka Building styled after the Palazzo della Cancelleria in Rome, and Academy of Sciences projects in Moscow, Moscow Oblast , and Almaty , which were standard, unremarkable Stalinist edifices with perfectly symmetrical floorplans and central porticos . In 1947, when
3634-581: A study for a closed city , probably related to the military intelligence facilities near Istra. The city hall was a fantasy meant to deceive, but various lesser, low-cost buildings were not, and several were actually built near the New Jerusalem Monastery . In 1943–1948, Shchusev worked on projects for restoring Stalingrad , Veliky Novgorod , Chișinău , Tuapse , and Khreshchatyk Street in Kyiv . These projects were planned not at Akademproekt but at
3792-480: A two-storey floorplan for easier separation and distribution of passenger flow, the client insisted on a cheaper single-storey plan. Construction began in 1913 but was interrupted by World War I and the revolutions of 1917 . The team of artists and craftsmen, which united almost all of the Mir iskusstva group, fell apart; but Shchusev managed to retain the core of his architectural assistants. Painter Eugene Lanceray , one of
3950-883: A variant name of the Little Russian language . In a private letter from 1854, Taras Shevchenko lauds "our splendid Ukrainian language". Valuyev's decree from 1863 derides the "Little Russian" language throughout, but also mentions "the so-called Ukrainian language" once. In Galicia, the earliest applications of the term Ukrainian to the language were in the hyphenated names Ukrainian-Ruthenian (1866, by Paulin Święcicki ) or Ruthenian-Ukrainian (1871, by Panteleimon Kulish and Ivan Puluj ), with non-hyphenated Ukrainian language appearing shortly thereafter (in 1878, by Mykhailo Drahomanov ). A following ban on Ukrainian books led to Alexander II 's secret Ems Ukaz , which prohibited publication and importation of most Ukrainian-language books, public performances and lectures, and even banned
4108-625: Is based on the character of contemporary written sources, ultimately reflecting socio-historical developments, and he further subdivides the Middle period into three phases: Ukraine annually marks the Day of Ukrainian Writing and Language on 9 November, the Eastern Orthodox feast day of Nestor the Chronicler . The era of Kievan Rus' ( c. 880–1240) is the subject of some linguistic controversy, as
4266-517: Is flanked by two round towers, probably in imitation of the Saint Sophia Cathedral in Kyiv . The building is distinguished by elaborate brick facades, interlaced with bands of polished colored stone. The complicated design of pilasters points to a complex system of roofing and to a very high dome. The dome and vaults collapsed during the siege of Ovruch by Gediminas in 1321. The ruins of the church survived until 1842, when they crumbled, with
4424-465: Is more mutual intelligibility with Belarusian , and a closer lexical distance to West Slavic Polish and South Slavic Bulgarian . Ukrainian is a descendant of Old East Slavic , a language spoken in the medieval state of Kievan Rus' . In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , the language developed into Ruthenian , where it became an official language, before a process of Polonization began in
4582-769: Is one of the East Slavic languages in the Indo-European languages family, and it is spoken primarily in Ukraine . It is the first (native) language of a large majority of Ukrainians . Written Ukrainian uses the Ukrainian alphabet , a variant of the Cyrillic script . The standard language is studied by the National Academy of Sciences of Ukraine and Potebnia Institute of Linguistics . Comparisons are often made between Ukrainian and Russian , another East Slavic language, yet there
4740-534: Is referred to as "Old Ukrainian", but elsewhere, and in contemporary sources, is known as the Ruthenian language, and from the end of the 18th century to the present what in Ukraine is known as "Modern Ukrainian", but elsewhere is known as just Ukrainian. Aleksey Shchusev Alexey Victorovich Shchusev (Russian: Алексей Викторович Щусев ; 8 October [ O.S. 26 September] 1873 – 24 May 1949)
4898-557: The 1911 Rome Exhibition and developed a keen interest in each other's works; Piacentini would refer to Shchusev's architecture until the 1950s. In 1918, Shchusev and Ivan Zholtovsky assumed control of the New Moscow redevelopment plan sponsored by the communist city council. The planning team emerged as an extension of Zholtovsky's workshop; but by 1922 Shchusev, as the chairman of the Moscow Architectural Society, became
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5056-632: The Académie Julian . Upon returning to Saint Petersburg, Shchusev tried to set up an independent practice, but failed to find clients. His fortunes changed in 1901–1902, when his design for a new iconostasis for the main cathedral of the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra was noticed approvingly by fellow architects and the Orthodox clergy. He was appointed as a consultant to the Holy Synod , and soon had
5214-658: The Belarusian border, Ovruch is part of the geographical region of Polesia . It is located 48 kilometres (30 mi) from Korosten , 133 kilometres (83 mi) from Zhytomyr , and 92 kilometres (57 mi) from Mazyr , in Belarus; and it is 100 kilometres (62 mi) from the ghost town of Pripyat , near the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant . Ukrainian language Ukrainian ( українська мова , ukrainska mova , IPA: [ʊkrɐˈjinʲsʲkɐ ˈmɔʋɐ] )
5372-670: The Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg . In his first years at the Academy, Shchusev attended both architecture and painting classes. In 1894, he joined the class of Leon Benois and concentrated on architecture. At about the same time, 1893 or 1894, he designed and built his first tangible project on a private estate in Bessarabia . In 1895, he took his first study tour of Central Asia , with professor Nikolay Veselovsky . In
5530-552: The Kazansky rail terminal in Moscow. Work on the proposal continued for at least three more years; the first relatively complete elevations were published in 1913. While the 1911 plans tended toward Shchusev's free-flowing church style, the final result was different. Shchusev decided to break the 220 meter long facade into an asymmetric row of visually separate pavilions , and to use Naryshkin Baroque styling. He visited old towns to study their extant baroque architecture, and used
5688-719: The Latin language. Much of the influence of Poland on the development of the Ukrainian language has been attributed to this period and is reflected in multiple words and constructions used in everyday Ukrainian speech that were taken from Polish or Latin. Examples of Polish words adopted from this period include zavzhdy (always; taken from old Polish word zawżdy ) and obitsiaty (to promise; taken from Polish obiecać ) and from Latin (via Polish) raptom (suddenly) and meta (aim or goal). Significant contact with Tatars and Turks resulted in many Turkic words, particularly those involving military matters and steppe industry, being adopted into
5846-663: The Lenin Mausoleum . He consecutively designed and built three mausoleums, two temporary and one permanent, and supervised the latter's further expansion in the 1940s. In the 1920s and early 1930s he successfully embraced Constructivist architecture , but quickly reverted to historicism when the government deemed modernism inappropriate for the Communist state. He was one of the members of the art association ‘ The Four Arts ’, which existed in Moscow and Leningrad in 1924-1931. His career proceeded smoothly until September 1937, when, after
6004-472: The Mongol invasion in 1240, and then it passed under Mongol suzerainty. In the 14th century it became part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . It became one of many Lithuanian defensive strongholds in the region against possible Tatar invasions. In 1483, Crimean Tatars destroyed the settlement. From the 16th century the town was governed by starosts , and it flourished and became a subregional center. According to
6162-557: The Novgorod Republic did not call themselves Rus ' until the 14th century; earlier Novgorodians reserved the term Rus ' for the Kiev , Pereyaslavl and Chernigov principalities. At the same time as evidenced by contemporary chronicles, the ruling princes and kings of Galicia–Volhynia and Kiev called themselves "people of Rus ' " (in foreign sources called " Ruthenians "), and Galicia–Volhynia has alternately been called
6320-557: The Palace of the Soviets , held in four stages in 1931–1933, coincided with the sharp turn of Soviet architecture from the modernism of the 1920s to the monumental historicism of Stalinist architecture . Shchusev's drafts, published in 2001, indicate that he had probably anticipated the stylistic revolution as early as 1931. His first entry in the competition, though, was thoroughly modernist, reminiscent of Le Corbusier , and fairly modest in size. Critics complained that it "did not look like
6478-613: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . By the 18th century, Ruthenian diverged into regional variants, and the modern Ukrainian language developed in the territory of present-day Ukraine. Russification saw the Ukrainian language banned as a subject from schools and as a language of instruction in the Russian Empire , and continued in various ways in the Soviet Union . Even so, the language continued to see use throughout
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6636-518: The Treaty of Lublin (1569), Owrucz passed to Poland within the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth . The town further blossomed as the seat of county sejmiks . From 1614 until his death in 1616, the starost of Owrucz was Michał Wiśniowiecki , grandfather of future Polish King Michał Korybut Wiśniowiecki . A Dominican Monastery was founded, confirmed by Bishop Aleksander Sokołowski in 1638. In 1641, Polish King Władysław IV Vasa granted Owrucz city rights. It
6794-629: The Vkhutemas , they lacked the classical visual arts education that was a prerequisite to "stylistic improvements". Thus, in April–May 1932 the government appointed Shchusev and Bruno Taut as joint project managers. By the end of the year, Taut dropped out; and Shchusev assumed full responsibility. The first part of the hotel, modified according to Shchusev's design, was opened in December 1935. The longer, northwestern facade received positive reviews, but
6952-399: The law of Ukraine "On protecting the functioning of the Ukrainian language as the state language" was approved by the parliament, formalizing rules governing the usage of the language and introducing penalties for violations. The literary Ukrainian language, which was preceded by Old East Slavic literature, may be subdivided into two stages: during the 12th to 18th centuries what in Ukraine
7110-425: The 11th–12th century, but started becoming more similar to them around the 13th–15th centuries. The modern Russian language hence developed from the fusion of this Novgorod dialect and the common dialect spoken by the other Kievan Rus', whereas the modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages developed from dialects which did not differ from each other in a significant way. Ukrainian linguist Stepan Smal-Stotsky denies
7268-451: The 13th century, eastern parts of Rus (including Moscow) came under Tatar rule until their unification under the Tsardom of Muscovy , whereas the south-western areas (including Kyiv ) were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania . For the following four centuries, the languages of the two regions evolved in relative isolation from each other. Direct written evidence of the existence of
7426-666: The 13th century, when German settlers were invited to Ukraine by the princes of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, German words began to appear in the language spoken in Ukraine. Their influence would continue under Poland not only through German colonists but also through the Yiddish-speaking Jews. Often such words involve trade or handicrafts. Examples of words of German or Yiddish origin spoken in Ukraine include dakh ("roof"), rura ("pipe"), rynok ("market"), kushnir ("furrier"), and majster ("master" or "craftsman"). In
7584-514: The Communist Party elite". The first, temporary, wooden mausoleum was designed overnight and erected in three days, at temperatures reaching −30 °C. Due to a lack of time and resources, Shchusev's original proposal was scaled down to a bare minimum. The resulting makeshift hut was too small for its intended role as a communist shrine; thus in March 1924 Shchusev was commanded to design and build
7742-589: The Cossack motherland, Ukrajina , as a self-appellation for the nation of Ukrainians, and Ukrajins'ka mova for the language. Many writers published works in the Romantic tradition of Europe demonstrating that Ukrainian was not merely a language of the village but suitable for literary pursuits. However, in the Russian Empire expressions of Ukrainian culture and especially language were repeatedly persecuted for fear that
7900-474: The German occupiers operated a Jewish forced labour battalion in the town. Mordechai Schlein , a Jewish-Belarussian partisan, blew up a restaurant with about 200 German officers in it. During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine , on March 6, at 2:32 a.m., the occupants launched 3 bomb attacks on the residential sector of Ovruch. A total of 45 private houses were damaged, 5 of which were completely destroyed. There
8058-575: The Imperial Academy, Shchusev studied old Northern Russian architecture in Kostroma , Rostov , and Yaroslavl ; and the European architecture of Romania and Austria-Hungary . The next year, he graduated from the academy with the right to a state-sponsored tour of Europe . While the paperwork for the latter was being prepared, he traveled to Chișinău to marry his fiancée, Maria Karchevskaya. He spent
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#17328557261528216-516: The Kazansky terminal, he reduced his involvement to quick sketches , which were then distributed to his assistants for proper drawing. Almost all ink drawings and watercolours published by Shchusev in the 1920s–1940s under his own name were created by others. Shchusev valued fine draftsmanship; a few well executed watercolors could guarantee an applicant a place in Shchusev's firm. This was, for instance,
8374-578: The Kazansky terminal, was a transitional design that contravened his own warnings. The exterior decor is a coarse imitation of Baroque, intended to blend with the historicist terminal; but the expressive uncluttered floorplan is certainly modernist. In 1925, Shchusev took part in three high-profile architectural competitions: to design the Gosprom in Kharkiv , the Central Telegraph [ ru ] , and
8532-570: The Lenin Mausoleum against German airstrikes . Shchusev decided that the task was technically impossible, and Lenin's body was evacuated to Siberia [ ru ] . Little is known about Shchusev's other emergency assignments until the erection of the temporary war trophy pavilion in Gorky Park (1941–1942). The "unexpectedly effective" wooden structure strangely combined expressiveness with mandatory monumentality. In September 1942, Shchusev, Lanceray, and their assistants came to Istra ,
8690-456: The Mausoleum was designed solely by Frantsuz. Subsequent research reinstated Shchusev to his rightful place; it is, however, true that during the design process Shchusev often traveled out of Moscow, leaving Frantsuz as the de facto lead architect. Typically for Shchusev, the approved design changed many times during construction. Initially, Shchusev wanted to dress the cast-in-place concrete frame in black porphyry , to create an illusion of
8848-557: The Meyerhold Theatre in Moscow ( Mikhail Barkhin [ ru ] , Sergey Vakhtangov, and Vsevolod Meyerhold , 1930–1931); and the Moscow Hotel (Leonid Savelyev and Oswald Stapran, 1931). In the case of the Moscow Hotel, Shchusev's takeover was publicly explained as being necessary due to the inexperience of Savelyev and Stapran, who had allegedly made too many design errors and failed to correct them. According to Chmelnizki, Savelyev and Stapran were sufficiently competent to complete their original design; but, like most graduates of
9006-420: The Orthodox church spoke Ruthenian. The 1654 Pereiaslav Agreement between Cossack Hetmanate and Alexis of Russia divided Ukraine between the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and the Tsardom of Russia. During the following century, both monarchies became increasingly intolerant of Ukrainian own cultural and political aspirations. Ukrainians found themselves in a colonial situation. The Russian centre adopted
9164-405: The Polish nobility. Many Ukrainian nobles learned the Polish language and converted to Catholicism during that period in order to maintain their lofty aristocratic position. Lower classes were less affected because literacy was common only in the upper class and clergy. The latter were also under significant Polish pressure after the Union with the Catholic Church . Most of the educational system
9322-421: The Principality or Kingdom of Ruthenia. Also according to Andrey Zaliznyak, the Novgorodian dialect differed significantly from that of other dialects of Kievan Rus during the 11th–12th century, but started becoming more similar to them around 13th–15th centuries. The modern Russian language hence developed from the fusion of this Novgorodian dialect and the common dialect spoken by the other Kievan Rus, whereas
9480-501: The Russian Empire. According to the Imperial census's terminology, the Russian language ( Русскій ) was subdivided into Ukrainian (Малорусскій, ' Little Russian '), what is known as Russian today (Великорусскій, ' Great Russian '), and Belarusian (Бѣлорусскій, 'White Russian'). The following table shows the distribution of settlement by native language ( "по родному языку" ) in 1897 in Russian Empire governorates ( guberniyas ) that had more than 100,000 Ukrainian speakers. Although in
9638-460: The Russian version of the Empire style , respectively. During the Russian Civil War , Shchusev stayed in Moscow, collaborating with the Bolshevik authorities on urban planning matters. By 1921, he had become the informal doyen of Moscow's community of old-school architects, and was elected chairman of their association, the Moscow Architectural Society (MAO). His tangible projects of the early 1920s—the 1922–1923 propylaea on Tverskaya Square,
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#17328557261529796-460: The Soviet Union and a special term, "a language of inter-ethnic communication", was coined to denote its status. After the death of Stalin (1953), a general policy of relaxing the language policies of the past was implemented (1958 to 1963). The Khrushchev era which followed saw a policy of relatively lenient concessions to development of the languages at the local and republic level, though its results in Ukraine did not go nearly as far as those of
9954-407: The Soviet policy of Ukrainianization in the 1920s. Journals and encyclopedic publications advanced in the Ukrainian language during the Khrushchev era, as well as transfer of Crimea under Ukrainian SSR jurisdiction. Yet, the 1958 school reform that allowed parents to choose the language of primary instruction for their children, unpopular among the circles of the national intelligentsia in parts of
10112-399: The State Bank in Moscow. All three of Shchusev's proposals were distinctly constructivist, and all three lost to other entrants. In 1928–29, Shchusev lost another competition, to design the Lenin Library in Moscow. This time, he produced two proposals with almost identical floorplans. The first proposal featured a symmetrical neoclassical facade, and was rejected as "outdated". The second
10270-447: The USSR, meant that non-Russian languages would slowly give way to Russian in light of the pressures of survival and advancement. The gains of the past, already largely reversed by the Stalin era, were offset by the liberal attitude towards the requirement to study the local languages (the requirement to study Russian remained). Parents were usually free to choose the language of study of their children (except in few areas where attending
10428-564: The Ukrainian language dates to the late 16th century. By the 16th century, a peculiar official language formed: a mixture of the liturgical standardised language of Old Church Slavonic , Ruthenian and Polish . The influence of the latter gradually increased relative to the former two, as the nobility and rural large-landowning class, known as the szlachta , was largely Polish-speaking. Documents soon took on many Polish characteristics superimposed on Ruthenian phonetics. Polish–Lithuanian rule and education also involved significant exposure to
10586-415: The Ukrainian language held the formal position of the principal local language in the Ukrainian SSR . However, practice was often a different story: Ukrainian always had to compete with Russian, and the attitudes of the Soviet leadership towards Ukrainian varied from encouragement and tolerance to de facto banishment. Officially, there was no state language in the Soviet Union until the very end when it
10744-465: The Ukrainian language. Examples include torba (bag) and tyutyun (tobacco). Because of the substantial number of loanwords from Polish, German, Czech and Latin, early modern vernacular Ukrainian ( prosta mova , " simple speech ") had more lexical similarity with West Slavic languages than with Russian or Church Slavonic. By the mid-17th century, the linguistic divergence between the Ukrainian and Russian languages had become so significant that there
10902-409: The Ukrainian school might have required a long daily commute) and they often chose Russian, which reinforced the resulting Russification. In this sense, some analysts argue that it was not the "oppression" or "persecution", but rather the lack of protection against the expansion of Russian language that contributed to the relative decline of Ukrainian in the 1970s and 1980s. According to this view, it
11060-464: The academy contract. When Beria was appointed the chief of the NKVD , the Akademproekt became the NKVD's in-house design firm and received contracts for the expansion of the Lubyanka Building and the Lenin Mausoleum . After World War II, Beria left the NKVD to supervise the Soviet atomic bomb project , and the Akademproekt concentrated on top-secret research facilities such as the future Kurchatov Institute . The connection between Beria and Shchusev
11218-413: The advocate was the architect of the Lenin Mausoleum. Prior to 1937, Shchusev never hesitated to use the mausoleum as his trump card; although, after 1937, according to Vaskin, that argument lost its former effectiveness. The record of Shchusev's advocacy begins with the arrest of Nesterov in 1924; a few days later, Nesterov was released and the charges against him dropped. In 1925, Shchusev appealed for
11376-530: The architect's name. According to Hugh Hudson and Karl Schlögel , the attack on Shchusev was orchestrated by Alabyan in an attempt to subdue independent professionals who stood in the way of the Union of Soviet Architects. The campaign killed lesser known urbanists Solomon Lisagor [ ru ] and Mikhail Okhitovich ; but, according to Schlögel, its true target was the older generation of established architects, such as Shchusev. Mark Meerovich agrees with
11534-437: The as-built internal volume of the third Mausoleum encompassed 2,400 cubic metres (85,000 cu ft), suggesting that there already was a spacious underground compound. Further expansion followed in 1939–1946, but the only visible changes, credited solely to Shchusev, were the redesign of Lenin's sarcophagus and the government tribunal. Around 1923–1924, Shchusev embraced the rising constructivism movement. He supported
11692-858: The best works of Russian Art Nouveau is the cathedral of the Marfo-Mariinsky Convent in Moscow , which Shchusev designed in collaboration with Nesterov in 1908 and completed in 1912. Prior to the outbreak of World War I , Shchusev also designed and built churches in Bari and Sanremo , in Italy ; in Cuhureshti in Moldova ; and on the Kulikovo Field in Southern Russia. The last building to be completed before 1918
11850-401: The case with Mikhail Posokhin [ ru ] , who was hired in 1935 and by 1946 had become the leader of his own design institute. However, most of Shchusev's staff stayed with the firm for decades. Some long-term associates, particularly Eugene Lanceray and Isidor Frantsuz, are well known to art collectors, and their works are usually easily identifiable. Others worked exclusively for
12008-535: The chance to assist Mikhail Nesterov with the repairs to the poorly-built church in Abastumani . Nesterov was impressed, and became Shchusev's patron. Shchusev's contracts with the Kharitonenko [ ru ] and von Meck families and the charity of Grand Duchess Elisabeth were, to varying degrees, the result of Nesterov's recommendations. In the course of a decade, Shchusev established himself as primarily
12166-480: The chancellery and gradually evolved into the Ruthenian language. Polish rule, which came later, was accompanied by a more assimilationist policy. By the 1569 Union of Lublin that formed the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, a significant part of Ukrainian territory was moved from Lithuanian rule to Polish administration, resulting in cultural Polonization and visible attempts to colonize Ukraine by
12324-518: The city core from the rapidly increasing congestion. Most of the city within the Garden Ring would remain intact, with carefully placed "rays" of boulevards and parks extending from the Kremlin to the suburbs. Shchusev consistently rejected large-scale, all-or-nothing redevelopment ideas, and preferred continuing to build off of the existing city. He often clashed with the city authorities, arguing against
12482-464: The complicated system of vaulting and the considerable height of the drum. As a consequence of this oversight, the drum was restored according to a model typical of more archaic churches, rather than for the turn of the 13th century. Adjacent buildings of St. Basil's Convent were built on the model of medieval architecture of Pskov , simultaneously with the restoration of the main church. Located in northwestern Ukraine, 50 kilometres (31 mi) south of
12640-491: The connection may be purely coincidental. On 30 August 1937, at the peak of the Great Purge , Pravda published an exposé by Savelyev and Stapran accusing Shchusev of plagiarism , dishonesty, "counter-revolutionary mindset", and "harbouring the enemies of the state". Within a week, the smear campaign escalated into a public mobbing . New accusations ranged from "anti-soviet physiognomy " to having had contacts with
12798-571: The country, and remained particularly strong in Western Ukraine . Specific developments that led to a gradual change of the Old East Slavic vowel system into the system found in modern Ukrainian began approximately in the 12th/13th century (that is, still at the time of the Kievan Rus') with a lengthening and raising of the Old East Slavic mid vowels e and o when followed by a consonant and
12956-418: The demolition of historic buildings. By the end of 1925, his preservationist stance had come into disfavour with the government, which replaced him with the far more amenable Sergey Shestakov [ ru ] . Shchusev's master plan was duly approved and then retired to the archives. When they did not threaten historic buildings, Shchusev used the latest ideas of European and American planners. He liked
13114-601: The design, whether from his own or the client's desires. He was equally at home dealing with Orthodox bishops, railway executives, and Bolshevik leaders . An often quoted shchusevism asserts that "If I could negotiate with the priests, I would somehow do it with the Bolsheviks" ( Russian : Если я умел договариваться с попами, то с большевиками я как-нибудь договорюсь ). The Bolsheviks, in return, appreciated Shchusev's willingness to adapt. Lazar Kaganovich privately wrote that Shchusev, "a businesslike and pragmatic eclecticist ",
13272-602: The drafts, but only two (Frantsuz and Yakovlev) were credited as junior co-authors. One of Shchusev's last constructivist building in Moscow, the Military Transport Academy, was designed in 1929–1930 and completed in 1934. According to Dmitry Chmelnizki, it was "one of Shchusev's best works... True modern architecture – rational, restrained, serious and finely drawn". Finally, in 1930 Shchusev designed two constructivist hotel buildings for Intourist . The hotel in Batumi
13430-518: The end of September, Shchusev had been dismissed from all his managerial positions; his chair of the 2nd State Workshop passed to Chechulin. The new boss immediately fired those who sympathized with Shchusev, and distributed his ongoing projects to other assistants. Very few people, notably Eugene Lanceray and Viktor Vesnin , dared to defend Shchusev in public. The magazines released in October reviewed Shchusev's IMEL building favorably but did not mention
13588-544: The evolutionary end of the Neorussian style that emerged around 1880 in the works of Victor Vasnetsov and the Abramtsevo art colony [ ru ] . The style, very different from the "official" Russian Revival , was further developed by Fyodor Schechtel , who introduced the ideas of Finnish Art Nouveau , and ultimately peaked in the works of Shchusev and Vladimir Pokrovsky [ ru ] . Pokrovsky leaned to
13746-507: The exception of three apses and a portion of the northern wall with an arch. In 1907 Aleksey Shchusev was commissioned to restore the church to its presumed original form, incorporating the remains of Rurik's church into its edifice. Restoration work lasted for two years, and it won Schusev the prestigious title of the Academician of Architecture. More recently, the accuracy of his restoration has been questioned, as it didn't take into account
13904-468: The executed Mikhail Tukhachevsky , and multiple counts of intentional wrecking . Karo Alabyan , the leader of the Stalinist Union of Soviet Architects [ ru ] , arranged a "unanimous indignation" by its Moscow cell, and expelled Shchusev from the Union. Dmitry Chechulin , Shchusev's trusted deputy at the workshop, joined the "purge frenzy", along with many of his former associates. By
14062-407: The existence of a common Old East Slavic language at any time in the past. Similar points of view were shared by Yevhen Tymchenko , Vsevolod Hantsov , Olena Kurylo , Ivan Ohienko and others. According to this theory, the dialects of East Slavic tribes evolved gradually from the common Proto-Slavic language without any intermediate stages during the 6th through 9th centuries. The Ukrainian language
14220-722: The expansion of the Lenin Mausoleum (1946), the Navoi Theater in Tashkent (1948), and the Komsomolskaya-Koltsevaya station (1952, posthumously). According to Chmelnizki, these awards were not indicative of Shchusev's own achievements. Rather, they reflected the influence of Shchusev's ultimate employers – the NKVD in 1938–1946 and the MGB in 1946–1948. The minions of these, the most influential entities of Stalin's regime, quite naturally reaped
14378-472: The family belonged to the second class. At the same time, Shchusev often acted as the advocate for the "lesser people" wrongfully persecuted by the communist regime. He was quite effective in this role, owing to his business skill and his first-hand knowledge of the communist leaders, the NKVD chiefs in particular. The NKVD was undeaf to voices of the professional elite, and often heeded their pleas—even moreso when
14536-409: The few reliable sources on the inner workings of the Shchusev firm, stayed with it until the end of his life. It took until 1926 to complete and commission the first part of the terminal; the western facade was finished in 1940. The last part of the original plan [ ru ] was not built until the 1990s. Shchusev's firm also designed adjacent service buildings and the elevated viaduct of
14694-436: The firm and remained unknown; their authorship cannot be reliably ascertained. The back-and-forth, iterative cycle of sketching and drafting allowed Shchusev to explore many alternatives simultaneously, and to keep on improving the design during construction. His completed buildings invariably deviate from the originally approved draft. Shchusev considered himself a builder, rather than a designer, and never hesitated to change
14852-493: The freedom in the treatment of form foreshadow Shchusev's constructivist buildings... thoroughly modern, in spite of clear allusions to Old Russian architecture". According to biographer Kirill Afanasyev [ de ] , the most visually striking is the small church on the Natalievka estate [ ru ] , conceived as a private museum of Russian icons . The best known of Shchusev's churches, and arguably one of
15010-670: The government announced plans to construct a series of skyscrapers in Moscow, Shchusev applied for the contract to design the future Hotel Ukraina , but lost to the team of Arkady Mordvinov and Vyacheslav Oltarzhevsky . Shchusev's final major work was the Komsomolskaya–Koltsevaya metro station, which was conceived by Shchusev in 1945, fully designed by Alisa Zabolotnaya and Viktor Kokorin [ ru ] in 1949, and built in 1949–1951. The base structure, using then novel all-steel construction, provided for an exceptionally spacious interior. The main Baroque motif echoes
15168-504: The idea of standalone high-rise buildings, as advocated by Le Corbusier and Walter Gropius , but considered them too expensive for the Soviet economy and too hazardous for the existing level of technology. Although in 1924 he declared himself anti-Americanist , by 1929 he had changed his mind. This is evident from his patronage of the Russian edition of Richard Neutra 's Wie Baut Amerika? ( How Does America Build? ). Shchusev still deplored
15326-545: The irregularities of medieval churches, but soon went beyond what he found in historical sources and elevated asymmetry and irregularity to an almost grotesque level. According to Dmitry Chmelnizki [ de ] , the best example of this style is the Saint Basil Monastery in Ovruch , designed in 1907–1909 and completed in 1910: "the strictly functional floorplan, nearly absolute absence of direct borrowings, and
15484-575: The knowledge thus gained in his design for the exterior of the new building. The design for the staggered corner tower borrows from the Söyembikä Tower and the Borovitskaya Tower , and is at the same time distinctly unique. The clock tower and the clock itself were influenced by St Mark's Clocktower in Venice . Functionally, the terminal was compromised by cost cuts. Although Shchusev preferred
15642-417: The language of much of the literature was purely or heavily Old Church Slavonic . Some theorists see an early Ukrainian stage in language development here, calling it Old Ruthenian; others term this era Old East Slavic . Russian theorists tend to amalgamate Rus' to the modern nation of Russia, and call this linguistic era Old Russian. However, according to Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak (2012), people from
15800-459: The main building of the academy, which Shchusev worked on until his death, remained a fruitless exercise in visionary architecture . The Akademproekt was the creation of Lavrentiy Beria , Shchusev's former client in the Caucasus. Dmitry Chmelnizki speculates that in the autumn of 1937 Shchusev fled Moscow for the Caucasus to appeal directly to Beria, and that Beria indeed helped the architect with
15958-528: The merger of the Old East Slavic vowel phonemes и /i/ and ы /ɨ/ into the specifically Ukrainian phoneme /ɪ ~ e/, spelled with и (in the 13th/14th centuries), and the fricativisation of the Old East Slavic consonant г /g/, probably first to /ɣ/ (in the 13th century), with /ɦ/ as a reflex in Modern Ukrainian, did not happen in Russian. Only the fricativisation of Old East Slavic г /g/ occurred in Belarusian, where
16116-456: The modern Ukrainian and Belarusian languages developed from the dialects which did not differ from each other in a significant way. After the fall of the Kingdom of Ruthenia, Ukrainians mainly fell under the rule of Lithuania and then Poland . Local autonomy of both rule and language was a marked feature of Lithuanian rule. In the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Old East Slavic became the language of
16274-491: The most Stalin Prizes in technology and architecture. The awards did not make Shchusev invulnerable to unpredictable twists of Stalinist politics. In 1948, when a new smear campaign was directed at Karo Alabyan , Boris Iofan , and Ivan Zholtovsky , Shchusev was not targeted directly; but he nevertheless temporarily lost his control over the Akademproekt. He had to appeal directly to Stalin to have it restored. Posthumously,
16432-533: The motive, but does not name Alabyan, or any particular person. According to Dmitry Chmelnizki, neither the people behind the attack, nor their motives can be established with any certainty. One possible pretext, mentioned in Nikita Khrushchev 's memoirs, was Shchusev's public compassion for the recently executed Iona Yakir . Khrushchev wrote that "all this was reported to Stalin, but Stalin restrained himself and made no move against Shchusev". Alternatively,
16590-501: The name Little Russia for Ukraine and Little Russian for the language, an expression that originated in Byzantine Greek and may originally have meant "old, original, fundamental Russia", and had been in use since the 14th century. Ukrainian high culture went into a long period of steady decline. The Kyiv-Mohyla Academy was taken over by the Russian Empire. Most of the remaining Ukrainian schools also switched to Polish or Russian in
16748-467: The nascent modernism , was radically different from contemporary revivalist practice . Another personal touch, already present in the Pochayiv Cathedral, is the deliberate asymmetry of Shchusev's churches. One facade of the church may look perfectly symmetrical, while the other is distinctly irregular. According to Andrey Ikonnikov [ ru ] , in the beginning Shchusev merely imitated
16906-459: The native language for the majority in the nation on the eve of Ukrainian independence, a significant share of ethnic Ukrainians were russified. In Donetsk there were no Ukrainian language schools and in Kyiv only a quarter of children went to Ukrainian language schools. The Russian language was the dominant vehicle, not just of government function, but of the media, commerce, and modernity itself. This
17064-610: The nearby Alekseevskaya railway line [ ru ] that serves as a picture frame for the terminal. In 1914–1916, Shchusev also designed a series of station buildings for the new railroad lines in the Upper Volga region . Most of the lesser stations followed a standardized design inspired by Petrine and Elizabethan Baroque . The larger stations, in Krasnoufimsk and Sergach , were styled in Elizabethan Baroque and
17222-433: The new school in public, but never allied himself with constructivism sensu stricto , which comprised a small group engaged in endless rivalries with other avant-garde factions . Shchusev expressly warned against superficial imitations of modernist ideas with inappropriate materials and for inappropriate functions. His first building of the constructivist period, the railway workers' club [ ru ] adjacent to
17380-565: The ornamentation of the Kazansky terminal, which was in turn based on the 17th century church of the Hodegetria [ ru ] in Rostov . The design earned Shchusev his fourth Stalin Prize , awarded posthumously in 1952. Later, foreign and Soviet authors alike criticized the "floridly overdone" design for its excessive and obtrusive historicism, which, according to Ikonnikov, was inappropriate for
17538-462: The patriarch of Stalinist architecture . The causes of his downfall and the forces behind his subsequent recovery remain unknown. Alexey Shchusev was born in Chișinău (in present-day Moldova , then part of the Russian Empire ), as the fourth of five children in the family of a provincial civil administrator. Both his parents died when Alexey was fifteen years old. With the help of older siblings and
17696-615: The pavilions of the 1923 All-Russian Exhibition of Agriculture and Domestic Industry, and the two temporary Lenin mausoleums of 1924—were not meant to last, and were demolished by the end of the decade. On the night of 22–23 January 1924, Shchusev was summoned to the Kremlin to receive the most important commission of his life, the design of the Lenin Mausoleum . The reasons for choosing Shchusev remain unknown. Dmitry Chmelnizki speculates that, regardless of Shchusev's conservative planning policies, he had already become "the architect closest to
17854-486: The persecution could have been provoked by Shchusev's conflict with Vyacheslav Molotov in June 1937. Shchusev disappeared from public and, according to his assistant Irina Sinyova, locked himself in his study in Moscow. The state made no attempt to prosecute him; according to Chmelnizki, the more established architects were usually exempt from the reign of terror that ravaged all levels of Soviet society. A few months later,
18012-425: The population said Ukrainian was their native language. Until the 1920s the urban population in Ukraine grew faster than the number of Ukrainian speakers. This implies that there was a (relative) decline in the use of Ukrainian language. For example, in Kyiv, the number of people stating that Ukrainian was their native language declined from 30.3% in 1874 to 16.6% in 1917. During the seven-decade-long Soviet era ,
18170-510: The present-day reflex is /ɣ/. Ahatanhel Krymsky and Aleksey Shakhmatov assumed the existence of the common spoken language of Eastern Slavs only in prehistoric times. According to their point of view, the diversification of the Old East Slavic language took place in the 8th or early 9th century. Russian linguist Andrey Zaliznyak stated that the Old Novgorod dialect differed significantly from that of other dialects of Kievan Rus' during
18328-499: The president of the Academy of Sciences Vladimir Komarov quietly awarded Shchusev the contract for the design of the academy headquarters, with sufficient funding to relaunch his design workshop. According to Sinyova, Komarov acted with the prior consent of the Council of People's Commissars . The government did not denounce the charges made against Shchusev, but tacitly agreed to give him
18486-573: The printing of Ukrainian texts accompanying musical scores. A period of leniency after 1905 was followed by another strict ban in 1914, which also affected Russian-occupied Galicia. For much of the 19th century the Austrian authorities demonstrated some preference for Polish culture, but the Ukrainians were relatively free to partake in their own cultural pursuits in Halychyna and Bukovina , where Ukrainian
18644-493: The process. The latter was completed to a nondescript design by Dmitry Chechulin in 1940, as Tchaikovsky Hall [ ru ] . In 1934–1936, Shchusev's workshop proposed a large number of lavish, eclectic , and sometimes utterly improbable buildings for Moscow, foreshadowing the late Stalinist style of the post-war years. Only one of them [ ru ] would be built. A theater in Tashkent , designed during
18802-457: The release of art historian Nikolai Sychov . Shchusev's conservative views on city planning and redevelopment were influenced by his experiences in Ukraine , Bessarabia , and Italy , where he had learnt the art of adaptation to historical environments. His approach to reconciling past and present was similar to that of the younger generation of Italian urbanists, particularly Marcello Piacentini . The two architects had known each other since
18960-555: The release of muralist Vladimir Komarovsky [ ru ] . When the initial appeal failed, Shchusev arranged a joint petition with fellow artists. In the same year, Shchusev defended painter Vladimir Golitsyn [ ru ] and art historian Yury Olsufyev [ ru ] . All three were scions of princely families, and thus easy targets of the Red Terror . However, Komarovsky and Olsufyev were killed in December 1937 and March 1938, respectively, when Shchusev himself
19118-719: The rules of totalitarian architecture . Although he publicly declared that "The State wants splendor!" ( Russian : Государство требует пышности! ), he still valued functionality and freedom of composition above exterior decorations. He disposed with his trademark asymmetry but never mastered the new visual code of "superhuman monumentality". Very soon, he lost out to the younger generation of architects, who willfully and sincerely embraced totalitarianism . According to Chmelnizky, Shchusev performed in Stalinist architecture as brilliantly as he did in Art Nouveau and Constructivism; but this time
19276-562: The rural regions of the Ukrainian provinces, 80% of the inhabitants said that Ukrainian was their native language in the Census of 1897 (for which the results are given above), in the urban regions only 32.5% of the population claimed Ukrainian as their native language. For example, in Odesa (then part of the Russian Empire), at the time the largest city in the territory of current Ukraine, only 5.6% of
19434-594: The same period, would be built in the 1940s, in a simplified, scaled-down form. Shchusev fared much better in the Caucasus region. In 1933, he won a competition for the Institute of Marx-Engels-Lenin (IMEL) in Tbilisi . The project, sponsored and supervised by Beria, was completed in 1938 and instantly became a benchmark of Stalinist architecture. It is distantly reminiscent of the 1913 Hill Auditorium by Albert Kahn , although
19592-614: The same year, Shchusev designed and built a crypt chapel in Russo-Byzantine style at the Alexander Nevsky Lavra . Later, according to Shchusev himself, he browsed through the obituaries in a newspaper, and was making cold calls to the families of the deceased. A family member accepted his offer, and Shchusev (still an undergraduate student) received his first commission in Saint Petersburg. In 1896, his last year at
19750-661: The sixteenth and first half of the 17th century, when Ukraine was part of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, albeit in spite of being part of the PLC, not as a result. Among many schools established in that time, the Kyiv-Mohyla Collegium (the predecessor of the modern Kyiv-Mohyla Academy ), founded by the Orthodox Metropolitan Peter Mogila , was the most important. At that time languages were associated more with religions: Catholics spoke Polish, and members of
19908-511: The sole leader of the project. Although his staff was composed of modernist architects, from the Vesnin brothers to the Vkhutemas freshmen, the result was thoroughly conservative, with large territorial expansion into moderately dense suburbs and little intrusion into the old city. Shchusev proposed relocating the national administrative center northwest, to the Khodynka Field , thus relieving
20066-504: The state awarded Shchusev unprecedented honours. A brief propaganda campaign declared him the most valuable and talented of all Soviet architects, elevating him to the same level that Vladimir Mayakovsky held in poetry. His religious and modernist heritage was forgotten; instead, the critics emphasized Shchusev's active aversion to " cosmopolitanism " and his contribution to the creation of " socialist realism in architecture". Despite all accolades, Shchusev ultimately failed to adapt to
20224-482: The superlatives had nothing to do with art. Rather, they marked "the highest degree of compliance with the requirements of censorship", including Shchusev occasionally acting as a censor himself. In the early 1900s, Shchusev rapidly progressed from the role of an individual contractor to that of a charismatic leader of a large professional firm. A skilled draftsman in ink and watercolors, he created his own recognizable drawings himself until around 1914. While working on
20382-460: The taller and shorter southwestern facade came in for much criticism due to its proportions and conspicuously asymmetric decor. This time, asymmetry was a forced ad hoc response to the structural weakness of the former Grand Hotel building, which had been incorporated into the new hotel. The theaters in Novosibirsk and Moscow were less fortunate. The former was completed to Shchusev's exterior design in 1945, losing Grinberg's interior innovations in
20540-462: The term native language may not necessarily associate with the language they use more frequently. The overwhelming majority of ethnic Ukrainians consider the Ukrainian language native , including those who often speak Russian. According to the official 2001 census data, 92.3% of Kyiv region population responded "Ukrainian" to the native language ( ridna mova ) census question, compared with 88.4% in 1989, and 7.2% responded "Russian". In 2019,
20698-558: The territories controlled by these respective countries, which was followed by a new wave of Polonization and Russification of the native nobility. Gradually the official language of Ukrainian provinces under Poland was changed to Polish, while the upper classes in the Russian part of Ukraine used Russian. During the 19th century, a revival of Ukrainian self-identification manifested in the literary classes of both Russian-Empire Dnieper Ukraine and Austrian Galicia . The Brotherhood of Sts Cyril and Methodius in Kyiv applied an old word for
20856-569: The third was certainly influenced by the Russian avant-garde . Like Shchusev's churches, the mausoleum is distinctly and deliberately asymmetrical, although the asymmetry escapes the notice of casual observers. Although the building exterior, and the image of Lenin's sarcophagus inside, became the symbols of Soviet Moscow, very little is known about the subterranean core of the Mausoleum. As of 2021, its floor plans, structural and vertical layout remain classified. A single 1930 publication revealed that
21014-516: The use of Ukrainian. The educational system in Ukraine has been transformed over the first decade of independence from a system that is partly Ukrainian to one that is overwhelmingly so. The government has also mandated a progressively increased role for Ukrainian in the media and commerce. In the 2001 census , 67.5% of the country's population named Ukrainian as their native language (a 2.8% increase from 1989), while 29.6% named Russian (a 3.2% decrease). For many Ukrainians (of various ethnic origins),
21172-569: The winter of 1897–1898 in Samarkand , with Veselovsky, studying and documenting medieval shrines. This exposure to Islamic architecture would influence his design of the 1898 orientalist Karchevsky House in Chișinău, and later designs for Soviet-era projects built in the Caucasus, Kazakhstan, and Central Asia. In August 1898, Shchusev and his wife started their sixteen-month Grand Tour , via Vienna , Trieste , Italy to Tunisia , and then via Italy to Paris , where Shchusev studied for six months at
21330-547: The works of Viktor Vasnetsov and Mikhail Vrubel , did not impress contemporary observers either. Alexander Blok complained that they were "neither bold, nor religious". In 1904, the Holy Synod entrusted Shchusev with the restoration of the ruined twelfth century church [ ru ] in Ovruch . Shchusev's controversial five-domed design in the Byzantine style was much debated by architects and preservationists, but
21488-855: Was a royal city of Poland. After the Second Partition of Poland in 1793 it was annexed by the Russian Empire . In 1881, it had a population of 5,941. The city suffered from the man-made famine Holodomor of 1932-1933 . In 2008, the National Museum of the Holodomor Genocide published the National Book of Memory of the Victims of the Holodomor of 1932-1933 in Ukraine. Zhytomyr region - Zhytomyr. According to historical records, more than 1517 people died during Holodomor in 1932-1933. During World War II ,
21646-472: Was a Russian and Soviet architect who was successful during three consecutive epochs of Russian architecture – Art Nouveau (broadly construed), Constructivism , and Stalinist architecture , being one of the few Russian architects to be celebrated under both the Romanovs and the communists, becoming the most decorated architect in terms of Stalin prizes awarded. In the 1900s, Shchusev established himself as
21804-527: Was a need for translators during negotiations for the Treaty of Pereyaslav , between Bohdan Khmelnytsky , head of the Zaporozhian Host , and the Russian state. By the 18th century, Ruthenian had diverged into regional variants, developing into the modern Belarusian , Rusyn , and Ukrainian languages. The accepted chronology of Ukrainian divides the language into Old Ukrainian, Middle Ukrainian, and Modern Ukrainian. Shevelov explains that much of this
21962-644: Was also completed in 1911. Thus, Shchusev joined the small circle of builders of very large structures during this time. The first building to display Shchusev's distinct style was the diminutive chapel at the grave of Natalya Shabelskaya [ ru ] in Nice (1904–1907). Although Shchusev clearly alluded to medieval Vladimir-Suzdal architecture , he carefully avoided rote stylization. Instead of merely copying his sources, he created his own free-flowing visual language . This approach, common in Art Nouveau and in
22120-681: Was also significant damage to 43 apartments in a multi-storey building, the premises of a children's and youth art center, a music school and a gym. Around 20:30, Russian troops conducted 6 more air strikes. Three civilians were killed. As a result, the building of the Ovruch Employment Center was completely destroyed. Also damaged were the premises of the Ovruch City Hospital, the Centers for administrative services, apartments in 8 multi-storey buildings, about 5 private houses, one of which
22278-553: Was completed in 1934, the hotel in Baku in 1938. The recently established Intourist was operated by the NKVD , so these hotels were rarely mentioned by Soviet media. It is not possible to trace the beginning of Shchusev's collaboration with Lavrentiy Beria to these projects; however, as the chief of the Transcaucasian communist party organization, Beria was, ex officio , Shchusev's direct client. The architectural competition for
22436-400: Was completely destroyed, and 2 more are in disrepair. The only mark of the town's antiquity is St. Basil's Church, commissioned by Rurik II of Kyiv from his court architect Pyotr Miloneg [ uk ] in the late 1190s. The church was built in Rurik's votchina and was dedicated to his patron saint. St. Basil's Church has four pillars, three apses and one dome. The western facade
22594-429: Was conceived in 1928–1929 and completed in 1933. The true authorship of the building's design, which was probably influenced by the Schocken building in Stuttgart , cannot be resolved. All sources credit its design to Alexander Grinberg [ ru ] and Shchusev. Grinberg stepped aside at an early stage of the project; Shchusev managed the construction personally. Three men of Shchusev's team produced most of
22752-401: Was conspicuously asymmetric, with a circular tribune at the front left corner. The government rejected it and instructed the architects to follow the pattern of the wooden mausoleum. The resulting design, credited to Shchusev, Frantsuz, and interior designer G. K. Yakovlev, was built in sixteen months in 1929–1930. An urban legend , supported by local historian Alexey Klimenko, asserts that
22910-490: Was exiled for seven years to Arkhangelsk . The Ukrainian magazine Osnova was discontinued. In 1863, the tsarist interior minister Pyotr Valuyev proclaimed in his decree that "there never has been, is not, and never can be a separate Little Russian language". Although the name of Ukraine is known since 1187, it was not applied to the language until the mid-19th century. The linguonym Ukrainian language appears in Yakub Holovatsky 's book from 1849, listed there as
23068-468: Was expecting arrest; Golitsyn perished during World War II. Likewise, Shchusev failed to help Nesterov's son-in-law Victor Schroeter [ ru ] but eventually secured the release of Nesterov's daughter Olga. In 1943, Shchusev, Igor Grabar , Boris Asafyev , and Victor Vesnin jointly appealed to Beria for the release of painter Pyotr Neradovsky [ ru ] and managed to extricate him from exile. In 1948, Shchusev and Grabar arranged
23226-448: Was formed by convergence of tribal dialects, mostly due to an intensive migration of the population within the territory of today's Ukraine in later historical periods. This point of view was also supported by George Shevelov 's phonological studies, which argue that specific features were already recognizable in the southern dialects of Old East Slavic (seen as ancestors to Ukrainian) as far back as these varieties can be documented. As
23384-407: Was gradually Polonized. In Ruthenia, the language of administrative documents gradually shifted towards Polish. Polish has had heavy influences on Ukrainian (particularly in Western Ukraine ). The southwestern Ukrainian dialects are transitional to Polish. As the Ukrainian language developed further, some borrowings from Tatar and Turkish occurred. Ukrainian culture and language flourished in
23542-495: Was inevitable that successful careers required a good command of Russian, while knowledge of Ukrainian was not vital, so it was common for Ukrainian parents to send their children to Russian-language schools, even though Ukrainian-language schools were usually available. The number of students in Russian-language in Ukraine schools was constantly increasing, from 14 percent in 1939 to more than 30 percent in 1962. The Communist Party leader from 1963 to 1972, Petro Shelest , pursued
23700-423: Was lessened only slightly after 1985. The management of dissent by the local Ukrainian Communist Party was more fierce and thorough than in other parts of the Soviet Union. As a result, at the start of the Mikhail Gorbachev reforms perebudova and hlasnist’ (Ukrainian for perestroika and glasnost ), Ukraine under Shcherbytsky was slower to liberalize than Russia itself. Although Ukrainian still remained
23858-473: Was more valuable to the regime than the earnest, stubborn neoclassicist Ivan Zholtovsky . The charges of plagiarism and running a "creative sweatshop " that were raised in 1937 were, for the most part, justified. Shchusev's workplace ethics were not much different from those of other Soviet architectural bosses, but his treatment of assistants was particularly controversial. Nikifor Tamonkin (1881–1951), one of his closest associates for almost forty years, and
24016-528: Was nevertheless approved for construction in 1907. Further debate followed; and in 1908 Shchusev was forced to submit a revised design, with the help of Pyotr Pokryshkin [ ru ] and Leonid Vesnin . From 1908 to 1911, the church was rebuilt, according to the revised design. In 1905, Shchusev was commissioned to design the new cathedral [ ru ] at the Pochayiv Lavra . The building, executed in Novgorod-Pskov medieval style , and starkly contrasting with its Ukrainian Baroque setting,
24174-430: Was proclaimed in 1990 that Russian language was the all-Union state language and that the constituent republics had rights to declare additional state languages within their jurisdictions. Still it was implicitly understood in the hopes of minority nations that Ukrainian would be used in the Ukrainian SSR, Uzbek would be used in the Uzbek SSR , and so on. However, Russian was used as the lingua franca in all parts of
24332-458: Was rumoured for decades. While Dmitry Chmelnizki takes it for granted, biographer Alexander Vaskin [ ru ] disagrees. According to Vaskin, the hypothesis is "interesting" and "plausible"; but there is very little direct evidence. The only certain fact is that Shchusev was a frequent guest at Beria's residence [ ru ] . Shortly after the beginning of Operation Barbarossa , Anastas Mikoyan summoned Shchusev to fortify
24490-492: Was strikingly modernist, leaning more to the works of Le Corbusier and Erich Mendelsohn , rather than Russian constructivism. The rival team of Vladimir Shchuko and Vladimir Helfreich went in the reverse direction, from modernism to Art Deco ; the latter proposal won the contest. Avant-garde groups unanimously condemned "stylistic double-dealing" by both Shchusev and Shchuko. Contempt for Shchusev's indiscriminate "omnivoracity" persisted for decades, even making its way into
24648-400: Was substantially less the case for western Ukraine, which escaped the artificial famine , Great Purge , and most of Stalinism . And this region became the center of a hearty, if only partial, renaissance of the Ukrainian language during independence. Since 1991, Ukrainian has been the official state language in Ukraine, and the state administration implemented government policies to broaden
24806-712: Was the church of the Brotherhood Cemetery [ ru ] , which was built during the war to administer last rites to the dying soldiers and was demolished in the 1940s. The stylistic classification of Shchusev's churches in Soviet and Russian literature has been heavily influenced by politics. For most of the Soviet period, Art Nouveau was despised as a decadent movement . Stalin-era critics avoided references to Art Nouveau altogether, presenting Shchusev's work as an indigenous, patriotic, and "progressive" art. The official brief biography, written in 1948 for an American audience, omitted church designs altogether. Late Soviet theory, as outlined by Ikonnikov, placed Shchusev at
24964-415: Was widely used in education and official documents. The suppression by Russia hampered the literary development of the Ukrainian language in Dnipro Ukraine, but there was a constant exchange with Halychyna, and many works were published under Austria and smuggled to the east. By the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the collapse of Austro-Hungary in 1918, Ukrainians were ready to openly develop
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