Samding Dorje Phagmo
94-520: Nationalism (Mínzú) Democracy (Mínquán) Socialism (Mínshēng) The Tibet Improvement Party ( Tibetan : ནུབ་བོད་ལེགས་བཅོས་སྐྱིད་སྡུག , Wylie : nub-bod-legs-bcos-skyid-sdug , lit. ' West Tibet Reform Association ' ; Chinese : 西藏革命黨 ; pinyin : Xīzàng Gémìngdǎng , lit. ' Tibet Revolutionary Party ' ) was a nationalist , revolutionary , anti- feudal and pro- Republic of China political party in Tibet . It
188-726: A Hadith ( 聖訓 ), a saying of the prophet Muhammad , which says "Loving the Motherland is equivalent to loving the Faith" ( “愛護祖國是屬於信仰的一部份” ). Hu Songshan harshly criticized those who were non-patriotic and those who taught anti-nationalist thinking, saying that they were fake Muslims. Ma Qixi was a Muslim reformer, leader of the Xidaotang , and he taught that Islam could only be understood by using Chinese culture such as Confucianism. He read classic Chinese texts and even took his cue from Laozi when he decided to go on Hajj to Mecca . Ma Fuxiang ,
282-511: A nation and promotes the cultural and national unity of all Chinese people. According to Sun Yat-sen 's philosophy in the Three Principles of the People , Chinese nationalism is evaluated as multi-ethnic nationalism , which should be distinguished from Han nationalism or local ethnic nationalism . Modern Chinese nationalism emerged in the late Qing dynasty (1644–1912) in response to
376-625: A Chinese Muslim general and Kuomintang member, was another Chinese nationalist. Ma Fuxiang preached unity of all Chinese people, and even non-Han Chinese people such as Tibetans and Mongols to stay in China. He proclaimed that Mongolia and Tibet were part of the Republic of China, and not independent countries. Ma Fuxiang was loyal to the Chinese government, and crushed Muslim rebels when ordered to. Ma Fuxiang believed that modern education would help Hui Chinese build
470-487: A Chinese nationalist who fought against Western imperialism to the people of China in order to deflect criticism by opponents that his government was feudal and oppressed minorities like Tibetans and Buddhist Mongols. He presented himself as a Chinese nationalist to his advantage to keep himself in power as noted by the author Erden. In Xinjiang , the Chinese Muslim general Ma Hushan supported Chinese nationalism. He
564-564: A Chinese people with strong work ethic, "a strong sense of nationalism, and a militaristic mentality." In his writing "Revolutionary Army," Zou Rong , an active Chinese revolutionary at the turn of the twentieth century, demanded an educational revolution for the Han people who were suffering under the oppressive rule of the Manchus. He argued that China should be a nation of the orthodox Han Chinese and no alien race shall rule over them. According to Zou,
658-550: A Soviet puppet, and fought against him in 1937. The Tungans (Chinese Muslims, Hui people) had anti-Japanese sentiment. General Ma Hushan's brother Ma Zhongying denounced separatism in a speech at Id Kah Mosque and told the Uyghurs to be loyal to the Chinese government at Nanjing . The 36th division had crushed the Turkish Islamic Republic of East Turkestan , and the Chinese Muslim general Ma Zhancang beheaded
752-494: A better society and help China resist foreign imperialism and help build the nation. He was praised for his "guojia yizhi"(national consciousness) by non-Muslims. Ma Fuxiang also published many books, and wrote on Confucianism and Islam, having studied both the Quran and the Spring and Autumn Annals . Ma Fuxiang had served under the Chinese Muslim general Dong Fuxiang , and fought against
846-681: A force of 500 armed Chinese soldiers; naturally this condition was not at all acceptable to the Tibetan Government in Lhasa. While negotiations were going on between the Lhasa Government, the Panchen Lama and the Chinese authorities about this escort issue, he was stuck in Jyekundo. He had therefore been busy investigating reports of unusual children born in the area, who might be the reincarnation of
940-564: A late Qing reformer who failed to reform the Qing government in 1896 and was later expelled to Japan, where he began work on his ideas of Chinese nationalism. The effects of World War I continually shaped Chinese nationalism. Despite joining the Allied Powers, China was again severely humiliated by the Versailles Treaty of 1919 which transferred the special privileges given to Germany to
1034-433: A mixture of the descendants of foreign Muslims like Arabs and Persians, mixed with Han Chinese who converted to Islam. Chinese Muslims are sinophones, speaking Chinese and practicing Confucianism. Hu Songshan , a Muslim Imam from Ningxia , was a Chinese nationalist and preached Chinese nationalism and unity of all Chinese people, and also against foreign imperialism and other threats to China's sovereignty. He even ordered
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#17328475556011128-501: A modern, secular government which would improve infrastructure, introduce newer technology, better education, and a standing army. Pandatsang Rapga was strongly influenced by the ideas of Sun Yat-sen , and especially his Three Principles of the People . He believed that change in Tibet would only be possible in a manner similar to when the Qing Dynasty was overthrown in China, and borrowed
1222-599: A neo-nationalistic movement used to elevate Chiang's control of everyday lives. Frederic Wakeman suggested that the New Life Movement was "Confucian fascism". In response to the Cultural Revolution , Chiang Kai-shek launched a Chinese Cultural Renaissance movement which followed in the steps of the New Life Movement, the movement promoted Confucian values. In addition to anti-Manchurism and anti-imperialism, political scientist Chalmers Johnson has argued that
1316-570: A people of China. The Chinese nation has also been referred to as the descendants of Yan and Yellow Emperors , legendary rulers who are considered the historical ancestors of the Huaxia people, an ethnic group whose members were the ancestors of the Han Chinese . The complexity of the relationship between ethnicity and Chinese identity was best exemplified during the Taiping Rebellion in which
1410-646: A result, nationalistic rhetoric was largely subsumed into internationalist rhetoric. On the other hand, the primary focus of Chinese nationalism in Taiwan was the preservation of the ideals and lineage of Sun Yat-sen, the party which he founded, the Kuomintang (KMT), and anti-Communism . While the definition of Chinese nationalism differed in the Republic of China (ROC) and the PRC, the KMT and
1504-623: A role in Chinese nationalism, declaring that China should regain its "lost territories" and form a Greater China . To this day, the Republic of China maintains its territorial claims since its inception in 1912. Its territorial claims were inherited from the Great Qing government as part of the Imperial Edict of the Abdication of the Qing Emperor . Defining the relationship between ethnicity and
1598-429: A situation in which Chinese nationalism has in practice meant Han dominance of minority areas and peoples and assimilation of those groups. Since Xi Jinping took power, assimilation of non-Han ethnic groups has been overt and intensified while preferential policies for ethnic minorities have shrunk. During the 1960s and 1970s, Chinese nationalism within mainland China became mixed with the rhetoric of Marxism , and as
1692-457: A strong state and society that could stand in a hostile international arena. Unlike many nationalist projects in other countries, the trend among Chinese intellectuals was to regard tradition as unsuitable for China's survival and instead to view tradition as a source of China's problems. For the Qing dynasty, ethnicity was a troublesome issue. Some of the ethnic groups within the empire were identified according to language and culture, including
1786-527: A vague spiritual focus for unified opposition against the Soviet Union. The Uyghur warlord Yulbars Khan was pro-China and supported the Republic of China. The Uyghur politician Masud Sabri served as the governor of Xinjiang Province from 1947 to 1949. Pandatsang Rapga , a Tibetan politician, founded the Tibet Improvement Party with the goal of modernisation and integration of Tibet into
1880-563: Is a Chinese at his death; 3) his/her mother is a Chinese while his/her father's nationality is unclear or stateless. In 1919, the May Fourth Movement grew out of student protests against the Treaty of Versailles , especially its terms allowing Japan to keep territories surrendered by Germany after the Siege of Tsingtao , and spurned upsurges of Chinese nationalism amongst the protests. In
1974-522: Is a multi-ethnic state, with the majority Han as one of many ethnic groups of China, each of whose culture and language should be respected (akin to Soviet patriotism ). The government also instituted policies of affirmative action , in general, the ethnic policy of the People's Republic of China at the time was strongly influenced by the nature of its Marxist-Leninist state . Despite this official view, assimilationist attitudes remain deeply entrenched, and popular views and actual power relationships create
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#17328475556012068-514: Is not monolithic but exists in various forms, including political, liberal, ethnical, and state nationalism. Over the first half of the twentieth century, Chinese nationalism has constituted a crucial part of many political ideologies, including the anti-Manchuism during the 1911 Revolution , the anti-imperialist sentiment of the May Fourth Movement in 1919, and the Maoist thoughts that guided
2162-778: The Chinese Flag to be saluted during prayer, and that all Imams in Ningxia preach Chinese nationalism. Hu Songshan led the Ikhwan , the Chinese Muslim Brotherhood, which became a Chinese nationalist, patriotic organization, stressing education and independence of the individual. Hu Songhan also wrote a prayer in Arabic and Chinese, praying for Allah to support the Chinese Kuomintang government and defeat Japan. Hu Songshan also cited
2256-481: The Communist Revolution in 1949. The origin of modern Chinese nationalism can be traced back to the intellectual debate about the subjects of race and nation which occurred during the late nineteenth century. Shaped by the global discourse about Social Darwinism , reformers and intellectuals both held debates about how they should build a new Chinese national subject based on a proper racial order, particularly
2350-572: The Eight-Nation Alliance that punished China for the Boxer Rebellion . During the Late Qing reforms , the rise of the national education trend emphasizes instilling national values in education and inspiring patriotic sentiments. For example, the Chinese geography textbooks published during the period usually praised China's superior geographical conditions, and such texts generally came from
2444-572: The Empire of Japan . This resulted in the May Fourth Movement of 1919, which developed into nationwide protests that saw a surge of Chinese nationalism. Large-scale military campaigns led by the Kuomintang (KMT) during the Warlord Era that overpowered provincial warlords and sharply reduced special privileges for foreigners helped further strengthen and aggrandize a sense of Chinese national identity. After
2538-551: The Han Kitab . They asserted that there was no contradiction between Confucianism and Islam, and no contradiction between being a Chinese national and a Muslim. Chinese Muslim students returning from study abroad, from places such as Al-Azhar University in Egypt, learned about nationalism and advocated Chinese nationalism at home. One Imam, Wang Jingzhai , who studied at Mecca, translated a Hadith, or saying of Muhammad, "Aiguo Aijiao"- loving
2632-553: The Kalachakra ('Wheel of Time') tantric teachings. Choekyi Nyima also gave Dorzhiev gifts including some golden statues. In 1906, Sir Charles Alfred Bell , was invited to visit the 9th Panchen Lama at Tashilhunpo , where they had friendly discussions on the political situation. He fled to Inner Mongolia , China in 1924 after a dispute with the thirteenth Dalai Lama when he sensed that he might face threat after his own monastery’s monks were prohibited from holding any office in
2726-515: The Ming and Qing Empires . Chinese nationalism as it emerged in the early 20th century was based on the experience of Japanese nationalism , especially as viewed and interpreted by Sun Yat-sen . In 1894, Sun founded the Revive China Society , which was the first Chinese nationalist revolutionary society. Chinese nationalism was rooted in the long historic tradition of China as the center of
2820-529: The Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission , talked Rapga into traveling to China in 1936 to join the commission. The Tibet Improvement Party had "a hundred or so sympathizers among Khamba traders" according to Melvyn C. Goldstein. Rapga hailed the three principles of Dr. Sun for helping Asian peoples against foreign imperialism and called for the feudal system to be overthrown. In addition, he stated that "The Sanmin Zhuyi
2914-452: The Republic of China . Rapga stated that the party goal was revolution and "liberation of Tibet from the existing tyrannical government". It is challenging to assess the actual political power of the party. The Tibetan government of the Dalai Lama controlled the western part of Kham, constituting one-third of the entire Kham region. However, there was significant support for certain ideas of
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3008-463: The close Sino-German relations at the time promoted close ties between the Nationalist Government and Nazi Germany . The New Life Movement was a government-led civic movement in 1930s China initiated by Chiang Kai-shek to promote cultural reform and Neo-Confucian social morality and to ultimately unite China under a centralized ideology following the emergence of ideological challenges to
3102-557: The humiliating defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War and the invasion and pillaging of Beijing by the Eight-Nation Alliance . In both cases, the aftermath forced China to pay financial reparations and grant special privileges to foreigners. The nationwide image of China as a superior Celestial Empire at the center of the universe was shattered, and last-minute efforts to modernize the old system were unsuccessful. These last-minute efforts were best exemplified by Liang Qichao ,
3196-511: The ideology of the Chinese Communist Party in the discussion of Chinese nationalism, which he labels "peasant nationalism." In some revolutionary circles in the 19th century, the significance of the development of a Chinese national identity was the result of an attempt to negatively identify the Han people by turning them against the Qing dynasty, which was non-Chinese in their view. Under this initial view of Chinese nationalism,
3290-414: The 13th Dalai Lama; the deep spiritual link between the two Lamas had never wavered despite apparent political difficulties and attempted Chinese interference. In fact, when the search team arrived to see him, the Panchen Lama had already identified three potential candidates. He gave their details to the search party leader, Kewtsang Rinpoche , who then investigated further. One of these three candidates
3384-406: The 1911 Revolution, Sun Yat-sen established the Republic of China, the national flag of which contained five colors with each symbolizing a major racial ethnicity of China. This marked a shift from the earlier discourse of radical racism and assimilation of the non-Han groups to the political autonomy of the five races. The rhetorical move, as China historian Joseph Esherick points out, was based on
3478-414: The 1920s and 1930s, the official Chinese nationalistic view was heavily influenced by modernism and Social Darwinism , and it included advocacy of the cultural assimilation of ethnic groups in the western and central provinces into the "culturally advanced" Han state, a policy which would enable them to become members of the Chinese nation in name as well as in fact. Furthermore, it was also influenced by
3572-640: The Boxers were supported by some members of the Imperial Army . Their slogan was "Support the Qing, destroy the foreigners!". In 1909, the Law of Nationality of Great Qing ( Chinese : 大清國籍條例 ; pinyin : Dà qīng guójí tiáolì ) was published by the Manchu government, which defined Chinese with the following rules: 1) born in China while his/her father is a Chinese; 2) born after his/her father's death while his/her father
3666-532: The Buddhist reformist monk Gendün Chöpel and the poet Canlocen. Kunphela was the most powerful man in Tibet after the 13th Dalai Lama , Thubten Gyatso, in the period between 1931 and 1933. After the death of the Dalai Lama, Kunphela lost his dominant position and was exiled. In 1937, he managed to flee, settling in Kalimpong. The party considered the then government of Tibet as entirely outdated and feudal, and sought
3760-590: The CCP mobilized the peasantry to fight against the Japanese invaders. Johnson contends that early nationalism of the Kuomintang was quite similar to the late nineteenth-century nationalism in Europe, as both referred to the search for their national identities and positions in the modern world by the intelligentsia. He argues that nationalism constructed by the intellectuals is not identical to nationalism based on mass mobilization, as
3854-440: The CCP were both adamant in their claims on Chinese territories such as Senkaku (Diaoyutai) Islands . In the 1990s, the dissolution of the Soviet Union , rising economic standards and the lack of any other legitimizing ideology, has led to what most observers see as a resurgence of nationalism within mainland China. Chinese Muslims have played an important role in Chinese nationalism. Chinese Muslims, known as Hui people, are
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3948-605: The Central Tibetan government and his officials were locked up in Lhasa . Among the Mongols, the 9th Panchen Lama became a well liked figure. At the same time, study of documents did not confirm widespread claims that rebellions in the 1930s Mongolia were inspired or supported by the 9th Panchen Lama. The Dalai Lama was attempting to collect revenue from the Panchen Lama's estate to cover a fourth of Tibet's military expenses, and to reduce
4042-533: The Chinese identity has been a very complex issue throughout Chinese history . In the 17th century, with the help of Ming Chinese rebels, the Manchus conquered China proper and set up the Qing dynasty. Over the next centuries, they would incorporate groups such as the Tibetans , the Mongols, and the Uyghurs into territories which they controlled. The Manchus were faced with the simultaneous task of maintaining loyalty among
4136-575: The Chinese identity was primarily associated with the majority Han ethnic group. After Qing's defeat in the Sino-Japanese War of 1895 , reformers and intellectuals debated about how to strengthen the nation, the discussion of which centered on the issue of race. Liang Qichao , a late Qing reformist who participated in the Hundred Days' Reform of 1898, contended that the boundary between Han and Manchu must be erased ( ping Man-Han zhi jie ). Liang
4230-653: The Empire of Japan was defeated by Allies in World War II , Chinese nationalism again gained traction as China recovered lost territories previously lost to Japan before the war, including Northeast area and the island of Taiwan . However, the Chinese Civil War , (which had paused due to the Second Sino-Japanese War ) had resumed, damaging the image of a unified Chinese identity. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP)
4324-609: The Han Chinese, as the descendants of the Yellow Emperor , must overthrow the Manchu rule to restore their legitimacy and rights. Wang Jingwei , a Chinese revolutionary who later became an important figure in the Kuomintang , also believed that the Manchus were an inferior race. Wang contended that a state consisting of a single race would be superior to those multiracial ones. Most of the Republican revolutionaries agreed that preserving
4418-479: The Japanese. Translations from Egyptian writings and the Quran were used to support propaganda in favour of a Jihad against Japan. Ma Bufang , a Chinese Muslim general who was part of the Kuomintang, supported Chinese nationalism and tolerance between the different Chinese ethnic groups. The Japanese attempted to approach him however, their attempts at gaining his support were unsuccessful. Ma Bufang presented himself as
4512-476: The Manchu-Han relations laid the foundation for anti-Manchuism, an ideology that early Republican and nationalist revolutionaries advocated in their efforts to overthrow the Qing dynasty and found a new Republic in China. More broadly, Liang's view was that modernity was "an age of struggle among nations for the survival of the fittest" and that therefore the Qing government should support industrialization and develop
4606-577: The Manchu-Han relations. After the collapse of the Qing regime and the founding of the Republic of China in 1912, concerns of both domestic and international threat made the role of racism decline, while anti-imperialism became the new dominant ideology of Chinese nationalism over the 1910s. While intellectuals and elites advocated their distinctive thoughts on Chinese nationalism, political scientist Chalmers Johnson has pointed out that most of these ideas had very little to do with China's majority population—the Chinese peasantry. He thus proposes to supplement
4700-479: The Manchus who originated in a non-Han Chinese population and ruled the dynasty. Most citizens had multiple identities, of which the locality was more important than the nation as a whole. Anyone who wanted to rise in government non-military service had to be immersed in Confucian classics, and pass the imperial examination . If accepted, they would be rotated around the country, so the bureaucrats did not identify with
4794-525: The Panchen Lama, they visited the Panchen Lama in Kham, eastern Tibet, to seek his advice. He was staying in Jyekundo , a district of eastern Kham that had been annexed from Tibetan government control by the Chinese "during their invasion". The Panchen Lama, being under Chinese power, was being held up there in his attempt to return to Central Tibet due to Chinese interference and insistence that he must be accompanied by
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#17328475556014888-525: The People's Republic of China in Chinese Mainland and the Republic of China retreated to Taiwan. While it was initially rejected by Mao Zedong and his Chinese Communist Party, it later became accepted, the concept of "Chinese" created in Mao's period was "huge Chinese family" or a political union including the Han Chinese and 55 other ethnic groups . Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China,
4982-403: The Republic of China . Thubten Choekyi Nyima, 9th Panchen Lama Thubten Choekyi Nyima ( Tibetan : ཐུབ་བསྟན་ཆོས་ཀྱི་ཉི་མ་ , Wylie : Thub-bstan Chos-kyi Nyi-ma , ZYPY : Tubdain Qoigyi Nyima ) (1883–1937), often referred to as Choekyi Nyima , was the ninth Panchen Lama of Tibet . Thubten Choekyi Nyima is the 9th in his lineage, as recognized by Tashi Lhunpo Monastery ,
5076-422: The Republic of China, also adopted the ideas of Sun Yat-sen like Rapga. The Republic of China Kuomintang government under Chiang Kai-shek sought to extend Chinese influence in Tibet. Chiang covertly propped up and financed Rapga and his movement. Rapga wanted to battle the Tibetan Army with a pro-China Khampa militia, seeking Chiang's assistance in September 1943 right before the Cairo Conference . Rapga used
5170-416: The Tibetan Progressive Party. The Tibetan name ( Tibetan : ནུབ་བོད་ལེགས་བཅོས་སྐྱིད་སྡུག , Wylie : nub-bod-legs-bcos-skyid-sdug ) translates as "West Tibet Reform Association". The party was founded in 1939 in Kalimpong in India by Pandatsang Rapga , who came from the extensive Pandatsang family, a wealthy wool merchant family from Kham . The other core members of the movement were Thubten Kunphela ,
5264-433: The Uyghur emirs Abdullah Bughra and Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra . Ma Zhancang abolished the Islamic Sharia law which was set up by the Uyghurs, and set up military rule instead, retaining the former Chinese officials and keeping them in power. The Uyghurs had been promoting Islamism in their separatist government, but Ma Hushan eliminated religion from politics. Islam was barely mentioned or used in politics or life except as
5358-425: The area, while masquerading as a pilgrim beggar monk. When Rapga placed a request for 2,000 membership cards and 4,000 membership forms, the British official H. E. Richardson caught wind of his activities in Kalimpong and the existence of the Tibet Improvement Party. The British deliberated among themselves whether the Tibetan government should be tipped off about the party. On 10 April, The Tibet Improvement Party
5452-418: The barbarian world and there was little concept of the belief that Chinese interests were served by a powerful Chinese state. Commenter Lucian Pye has argued that the modern " nation state " is fundamentally different from a traditional empire, and argues that dynamics of the current People's Republic of China (PRC) – a concentration of power at a central point of authority – share an essential similarity with
5546-407: The borders of the Qing Empire to keep its territories intact. With the increasing threat from the imperialist powers in the 1910s, anti-imperialist sentiments started to grow and spread in China. An ideal of "a morally just universe," anti-imperialism made racism appear shameful and thus took over its dominant role in the conceptualization of Chinese nationalism. Yet racism never perished. Instead, it
5640-559: The country is equivalent to loving the faith. Chinese Muslims believed that their "Watan" Arabic : وطن , lit. 'country; homeland' was the whole of the Republic of China, non-Muslims included. General Bai Chongxi , the warlord of Guangxi , and a member of the Kuomintang, presented himself as the protector of Islam in China and harbored Muslim intellectuals fleeing from the Japanese invasion in Guangxi. General Bai preached Chinese nationalism and anti-imperialism. Chinese Muslims were sent to Saudi Arabia and Egypt to denounce
5734-441: The fate of multi-ethnic states such as Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire . It also became a very powerful force during the Japanese occupation of Coastal China during the 1930s and 1940s and the atrocities committed then. With the 1911 Revolution and the appearance of modern nationalist theories, " Zhonghua minzu " in the early Republic of China , referred to the Five Races Under One Union concept. This principle held that
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#17328475556015828-406: The first chapters of the textbooks, which were convenient for guiding students to develop a love for their motherland when they first came into contact with China's geography. Chinese nationalists drew inspiration from Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War , which they broadly viewed as demonstrating the fallacy of a European-centric racial hierarchy. The Second Sino-Japanese war was one of
5922-410: The five major ethnicities in China, the Han Chinese, Manchus , Mongols , Hui , and Tibetans , all belonged to a single Chinese identity. The government promoted Chinese nationalism for these five ethnic groups but with the Han Chinese are main ethnic group of "Zhonghua minzu" or China, this continued by Nationalist rule under Chiang Kai-shek and his Kuomintang in all China until the proclamation of
6016-548: The foreigners during the Boxer Rebellion. The Muslim unit he served in was noted for being anti-foreign, being involved in shooting a Westerner and a Japanese to death before the Boxer Rebellion broke out. It was reported that the Muslim troops were going to wipe out the foreigners to return a golden age for China, and the Muslims repeatedly attacked foreign churches, railways, and legations, before hostilities even started. The Muslim troops were armed with modern repeater rifles and artillery, and reportedly enthusiastic about going on
6110-444: The government extended the number of ethnicities comprising the Chinese nation to these 56. Before Xi Jinping took power in 2012, Chinese nationalism of the People's Republic of China was influenced strongly by the Soviet Korenizatsiya policy. The Chinese Communist Party also criticized that the Kuomintang-led Republic of China for supporting Han chauvinism. The official ideology of the People's Republic of China asserts that China
6204-401: The ideas of Sun Yatsen like the Kham revolutionary Pandatsang Rapga . It has been suggested he read the works of Sun Yatsen which were translated by Rapga. In 1936, a team of monks from Lhasa were on the way to north-eastern Tibet to search for the new reincarnation of the 13th Dalai Lama , who had died in 1933. First, because of the historical close relationship between the Dalai Lama and
6298-412: The locality. The depth of two-way understanding and trust developed by European political leaders and their followers did not exist. China's defeat by Japan in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) was fundamental to the development of the first generation of Chinese nationalists. The most dramatic watershed came in 1900, in the wake of the invasion, capture, and pillaging of the national capital by
6392-467: The most important events in the modern construction of Chinese nationalism. The Chinese experience in the war helped create an ideology based on the concept of “the people” as a political body in its own right, “a modern nation as opposed to a feudal empire.” The discussion of modern Chinese nationalism has dominated many political and intellectual debates since the late nineteenth century. Political scientist Suisheng Zhao argues that nationalism in China
6486-401: The movement. The relationship between many Khampas and the Tibetan government in Lhasa was highly negative. Hundreds of traders from Kham and a section of the Pandatsang family viewed the party as a tool to establish an independent Kham state, equally independent of both China and the Dalai Lama's Tibetan state. The 9th Panchen Lama Thubten Choekyi Nyima, who was also pro-Chinese and worked with
6580-443: The nationalist movements led by the Kuomintang, as well as the May Fourth Movement in 1919, were not mass movements because their participants were only a small proportion of the society where the peasants were simply absent. When the Second Sino-Japanese War broke out in 1937, the CCP began to mobilize the Chinese peasantry through mass propaganda of national salvation ( Chinese : 救國 ; pinyin : Jiùguó ) Johnson observed that
6674-492: The offensive and killing foreigners. Ma Fuxiang led an ambush against the foreigners at Langfang and inflicted many casualties, using a train to escape. Dong Fuxiang was a xenophobe and hated foreigners, wanting to drive them out of China. Various Muslim organizations in China like the Islamic Association of China and the Chinese Muslim Association were sponsored by the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party. Chinese Muslim imams had synthesized Islam and Confucianism in
6768-419: The people who they ruled and maintaining their distinct identity. The main method by which they accomplished control of the Chinese heartland was by portraying themselves as enlightened Confucian sages part of whose goal was to preserve and advance Chinese civilization. Over the course of centuries, the Manchus were gradually assimilated into Chinese culture and eventually, many Manchus identified themselves as
6862-400: The power of the Panchen Lama, who at the time enjoyed rule over an effectively autonomous region around Shigatse. In China, the ninth Panchen Lama worked on plans to develop Tibet along modern lines. He also held a position in the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission . The Panchen Lama was considered extremely "pro-Chinese", according to official Chinese sources. Choekyi adopted
6956-549: The practical concerns of both imperial threats from the international environment and conflicts on the Chinese frontiers. While both Japan and Russia were encroaching China, the newly born republic also faced ethnic movements in Mongolia and Tibet which claimed themselves to be part of the Qing Empire rather than the Republic of China. Pressured by both domestic and international problems, the fragile Republican regime decided to maintain
7050-462: The primary shift of the CCP's post-1937 propaganda was its focus on the discourse of national salvation and the temporary retreat of its Communist agenda on class struggle and land redistribution. The wartime alliance of the Chinese peasantry and the CCP manifests how the nationalist ideology of the CCP, or the peasant nationalism, reinforced the desire of the Chinese to save and build a strong nation. Irredentism and expansionism have also played
7144-465: The race was vital to the survival of the nation. Since the Han had asserted its dominant role in Chinese nationalism, the Manchus had to be either absorbed or eradicated. Historian Prasenjit Duara summarized this by stating that the Republican revolutionaries primarily drew on the international discourse of "racist evolutionism" to envision a "racially purified China." Nationalism (Mínzú) Democracy (Mínquán) Socialism (Mínshēng) After
7238-530: The rebels fiercely fought against the Manchus on the ground that they were barbarians and foreigners while at the same time, others fought just as fiercely on behalf of the Manchus on the ground that they were the preservers of traditional Chinese values. The Yihetuan , also known as the Boxers, were a Chinese nationalist and pro-Qing monarchist secret society which instigated and led the Boxer Rebellion from 1899 to 1901. Their motivations were Anti-Christianism and resistance to Westernisation . At their peak,
7332-493: The rise of power of the CCP through its alliance with the peasantry should also be understood as "a species of nationalism." Johnson observes that social mobilization, a force that unites people to form a political community together, is the "primary tool" for conceptualizing nationalism. In the context of social mobilization, Chinese nationalism only fully emerged during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), when
7426-576: The status quo. The Movement attempted to counter threats of Western and Japanese imperialism through a resurrection of traditional Chinese morality, which it held to be superior to modern Western values. As such the Movement was based upon Confucianism , mixed with Christianity , nationalism and authoritarianism that have some similarities to fascism. It rejected individualism and liberalism , while also opposing socialism and communism . Some historians regard this movement as imitating Nazism and being
7520-527: The term "hopelessly ill-suited for the modern world" to describe the Tibetan government of the Dalai Lama, and the Tibet Improvement Party openly supported the Kuomintang and the Republic of China against the Lhasa government of Tibet. Chiang gave a Chinese passport to Rapga, as well as 100,000 yuan every month. In 1945, Rapga sent Gendün Chöphel on a mission to Lhasa via Tawang and Bhutan to draw maps of
7614-528: The theories and ideas of the Kuomintang as the basis for his model for Tibet. The party was funded by the Kuomintang and by the Pandatsang family. It was said that Rapga "was a devout believer in the political ideology of Sun Yat-sen and had translated some of Sun's more important writings into Tibetan", including the Three Principles of the People. The Kuomintang General Huang Musong , who was also Chairman of
7708-581: The traditional seat of Panchen Lamas. In 1901, Choekyi Nyima was visited by the Mongolian Lama, Agvan Dorzhiev . Although he only stayed for two days at Tashilhunpo , Dorzhiev received some secret teachings from the Panchen Lama, as well as readings of the Prayer of Shambhala , written by Lobsang Palden Yeshe , the sixth (or third) Panchen Lama, concerning the Buddhist kingdom of Shambhala , which were of great importance to Dorzhiev's developing understanding of
7802-477: The world, in which all other states were offshoots and owed some sort of deference. That sense of superiority underwent a series of terrible shocks in the 19th century, including large-scale internal revolts, and more grievously the systematic gaining and removal of special rights and privileges by foreign nations who proved their military superiority during the First and Second Opium Wars , based on modern technology that
7896-401: Was affiliated with the Kuomintang and was supported by mostly Khampas , with the Pandatsang family playing a key role. The Tibetan, Chinese, and English versions of the party names all have separate meanings. The Chinese name ( Chinese : 西藏革命黨 ; pinyin : Xīzàng Gémìngdǎng ) means "Tibet Revolutionary Party". In English, it is known as the Tibet Improvement Party or alternatively
7990-659: Was already dead and another ran away crying when shown the objects belonging to the late Dalai Lama. The third candidate, who lived in Taktser , was characterised as "fearless" and he was indeed found to be the true incarnation. Thus, it was this Panchen Lama Thubten Choekyi Nyima who first discovered and identified the 14th Dalai Lama. In 1937, the Panchen Lama died in Gyêgu (Tibetan: Jyekundo ; Chinese: Yushu) in Qinghai Province without being able to return to Tsang. The tombs of
8084-522: Was also expelled and went to Nanjing. In 1946, Gendün Chöpel disguised as a monk and went to Tibet on behalf of Rapga, to gather intelligence and support for the party. However, he was quickly arrested by the Tibetans and imprisoned until 1950. This event led to the end of the movement. Chinese nationalism Chinese nationalism is a form of nationalism in which asserts that the Chinese people are
8178-406: Was among the most prominent nationalists who viewed earlier conceptions of a Han-focused national identity as too restrictive. Liang attributed the decline of China to the Qing dynasty ruled by the Manchus, who treated the Han as an "alien race" and imposed a racial hierarchy between the Han and the Manchus while ignoring the threat of imperial powers. However Liang's critique of the Qing court and
8272-637: Was chief of the 36th Division of the National Revolutionary Army . He spread anti-Soviet , and anti-Japanese propaganda , and instituted a colonial regime over the Uyghurs . Uyghur street names and signs were changed to Chinese, and the Chinese Muslim troops imported Chinese cooks and baths, rather than using Uyghur ones. The Chinese Muslims even forced the Uyghur carpet industry at Khotan to change its design to Chinese versions. Ma Hushan proclaimed his loyalty to Nanjing, denounced Sheng Shicai as
8366-696: Was embedded by other social realms, including the discourse of eugenics and racial hygiene . The Blue Shirts Society , a fascist paramilitary organization within the Kuomintang that modelled itself after Mussolini 's blackshirts of the National Fascist Party , was anti-foreign and anti-communist , and it stated that its agenda was to expel foreign (Japanese and Western) imperialists from China, crush Communism, and eliminate feudalism. In addition to being anticommunist, some KMT members, like Chiang Kai-shek's right-hand man Dai Li were anti-American , and wanted to expel American influence. In addition,
8460-498: Was intended for all peoples under the domination of foreigners, for all those who had been deprived of the rights of man. But it was conceived especially for the Asians. It is for this reason that I translated it. At that time, a lot of new ideas were spreading in Tibet", during an interview in 1975 by Dr. Heather Stoddard. The ultimate goal of the party regarding the future of Tibet was that Tibet would become an autonomous republic within
8554-401: Was lacking in China. It was a matter of humiliation one after another, the loss of faith in the Qing dynasty. By the 1890s, disaffected Chinese intellectuals began to develop "a new nationalist commitment to China as a nation-state in a world dominated by predatory imperialist nation states." Overall, their concern was not in preserving a traditional Chinese order but instead the construction of
8648-493: Was reported to the Tibetan government by Richardson. The extradition of Rapga was then demanded by the Tibetan government on 26 April. However, since Rapga declared himself a national of China, Richardson could not go through with the extradition. Richardson instead advised deportation to China. On 19 June 1946, Rapga's house was raided by the police under British orders for plotting revolution, counterfeiting, and spying. Rapga destroyed all relevant party documents beforehand, since he
8742-546: Was tipped off by the Chinese commissioner in Delhi, but the police searched a suit pocket and found letters documenting Rapga's correspondence with the Chinese over the Tibet Improvement Party. Subsequently, Rapga was ordered to be deported from British India. However, he requested assistance from the Mongolian and Tibetan Affairs Commission in China to halt the deportation. Rapga was expelled from British India in 1947 to Shanghai. Kunphela
8836-469: Was victorious in 1949, as the KMT government retreated to Taiwan. Under Mao Zedong , the CCP began to employ Chinese nationalism as a political tool. Chinese nationalism has become more Han -centric since Xi Jinping assumed power in 2012. The first state of China was confirmed as the Shang dynasty (c. 1570 BC-c. 1045 BC). The Chinese concept of the world was largely a division between the civilized world and
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