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111-407: The abbey was originally built to the south of the city walls around the year 1070, but this soon proved to be too small to accommodate the influx of Irish monks. A new site outside of the western city gate was purchased, and construction of a new abbey began around 1100. Around 1300 the city walls were extended and St. James became a part of the fortified city. The new western gate, directly adjacent to

222-401: A Scots language text (NLS Acc.11218/4). 49°01′07″N 12°05′18″E  /  49.01861°N 12.08833°E  / 49.01861; 12.08833 John Knox Christianity • Protestantism John Knox ( c.  1514 – 24 November 1572) was a Scottish minister , Reformed theologian , and writer who was a leader of the country's Reformation . He was the founder of

333-641: A "striking resemblance" to the earliest types of knotwork found in the Insular art manuscripts of Ireland and the British Isles . Interlace is a key feature of the "Style II" animal style decoration of Migration Period art, and is found widely across Northern Europe, and was carried by the Lombards into Northern Italy. Typically the long "ribbons" eventually terminate in an animal's head. By about 700 it becomes less common in most of Europe, but continues to develop in

444-521: A Romanesque revival style. The most famous architectural element of the church is its north portal (the Schottenportal ), which occupies a full third of the north wall, and is richly decorated with both ornamental and figural sculptures. The proper interpretation of this sculptural program has been debated since the beginning of the 19th century. In the 1990s it was suggested that only the tympanum , archivolt , and jambs formed an original composition of

555-635: A cloister to the south. Construction was completed by about 1185. Regensburg became an important center for the missionary work of Irish monks in Europe; the Scots Monastery in Vienna is one of its daughter foundations. The St. Jakob monastery had close connections with the monastic school at Cashel back in Ireland and attracted the theologian Honorius of Autun (d.1151) towards the end of his life. In 1577, shortly after

666-558: A congregation of English exiles in Frankfurt to become one of their ministers. He accepted the call with Calvin's blessing. But no sooner had he arrived than he found himself in a conflict. The first set of refugees to arrive in Frankfurt had subscribed to a reformed liturgy and used a modified version of the Book of Common Prayer . More recently arrived refugees, however, including Edmund Grindal ,

777-479: A half and two years old. John Calvin, who had lost his own wife in 1549, wrote a letter of condolence. Parliament reconvened on 15 January 1561 to consider the Book of Discipline . The Kirk was to be run on democratic lines. Each congregation was free to choose or reject its own pastor, but once he was chosen he could not be fired. Each parish was to be self-supporting, as far as possible. The bishops were replaced by ten to twelve " superintendents ". The plan included

888-455: A priest and a notary in 1540. He was still serving in these capacities as late as 1543 when he described himself as a "minister of the sacred altar in the diocese of St Andrews, notary by apostolic authority" in a notarial deed dated 27 March. Rather than taking up parochial duties in a parish, he became tutor to two sons of Hugh Douglas of Longniddry . He also taught the son of John Cockburn of Ormiston . Both of these lairds had embraced

999-567: A sacrifice." Wishart was subsequently prosecuted by Beaton's Public Accuser of Heretics, Archdeacon John Lauder . On 1 March 1546, he was burnt at the stake in the presence of Beaton. Electors of Saxony Holy Roman Emperors Building Literature Theater Liturgies Hymnals Monuments Calendrical commemoration Knox had avoided being arrested by Lord Bothwell through Wishart's advice to return to tutoring. He took shelter with Douglas in Longniddry . Several months later he

1110-807: A sermon denouncing certain celebrations which Knox had interpreted as rejoicing at the expense of the Reformation. She charged that Knox spoke irreverently of the Queen in order to make her appear contemptible to her subjects. After Knox gave an explanation of the sermon, Mary stated that she did not blame Knox for the differences of opinion and asked that in the future he come to her directly if he heard anything about her that he disliked. Despite her gesture, Knox replied that he would continue to voice his convictions in his sermons and would not wait upon her. During Easter in 1563, some priests in Ayrshire celebrated Mass, thus defying

1221-761: A small French army. She dispatched the Earl of Argyll and Lord Moray to offer terms and avert a war. She promised not to send any French troops into Perth if the Protestants evacuated the town. The Protestants agreed, but when the Queen Regent entered Perth, she garrisoned it with Scottish soldiers on the French payroll. This was seen as treacherous by Lord Argyll and Lord Moray, who both switched sides and joined Knox, who now based himself in St Andrews . Knox's return to St Andrews fulfilled

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1332-516: A strong relationship with the famous school at Cashel . Honorius Augustodunensis (died ca. 1151), a highly influential medieval theologian, spent the last years of his life in the monastery. It is also possible that the 12th-century Middle High German Kaiserchronik was written here, though this is disputed. The foundation of the monastery is described, for example, by Konrad von Megenberg in chapter six of his De limitibus parochiarum civitatis Ratisbonensis . A papal bull of 1577 transferred

1443-553: A system of national education based on universality as a fundamental principle. Certain areas of law were placed under ecclesiastical authority. The Parliament did not approve the plan, however, mainly for reasons of finance. The Kirk was to be financed out of the patrimony of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland. Much of this was now in the hands of the nobles, who were reluctant to give up their possessions. A final decision on

1554-448: A two-handed sword in order to defend him. In December 1545, Wishart was seized on Beaton's orders by the Earl of Bothwell and taken to the Castle of St Andrews . Knox was present on the night of Wishart's arrest and was prepared to follow him into captivity, but Wishart persuaded him against this course saying, "Nay, return to your bairns [children] and God bless you. One is sufficient for

1665-682: A week, each lasting well over two hours. The services used a liturgy that was derived by Knox and other ministers from Calvin's Formes des Prières Ecclésiastiques . The church in which he preached, the Église de Notre Dame la Neuve —now known as the Auditoire de Calvin —had been granted by the municipal authorities, at Calvin's request, for the use of the English and Italian congregations. Knox's two sons, Nathaniel and Eleazar, were born in Geneva, with Whittingham and Myles Coverdale their respective godfathers. In

1776-551: A week, however, he was giving his first sermon to a congregation that included his old teacher, John Major . He expounded on the seventh chapter of the Book of Daniel , comparing the Pope with the Antichrist . His sermon was marked by his consideration of the Bible as his sole authority and the doctrine of justification by faith alone , two elements that would remain in his thoughts throughout

1887-594: The Book of Common Order . He left Geneva to head the English refugee church in Frankfurt but he was forced to leave over differences concerning the liturgy , thus ending his association with the Church of England. The University of Edinburgh Heritage Collection holds a copy of The Book of Common Order , translated into Scots Gaelic by John Carswell. It is the first book printed in any Gaelic language. On his return to Scotland, Knox led

1998-501: The Book of Kells and the Cross of Cong . Whole carpet pages were illuminated with abstract patterns, including much use of interlace, and stone high crosses combined interlace panels with figurative ones. Insular interlace was copied in continental Europe, closely in the Franco-Saxon school of the 8th to 11th centuries, and less so in other Carolingian schools of illumination, where

2109-700: The Church of Scotland . Born in Giffordgate, a street in Haddington, East Lothian , Knox is believed to have been educated at the University of St Andrews and worked as a notary-priest. Influenced by early church reformers such as George Wishart , he joined the movement to reform the Scottish Church . He was caught up in the ecclesiastical and political events that involved the murder of Cardinal David Beaton in 1546 and

2220-559: The Dowager Queen of Scotland and regent on behalf of her daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots . This biblical position was not unusual in Knox's day; however, even he was aware that the pamphlet was dangerously seditious. He therefore published it anonymously and did not tell Calvin, who denied knowledge of it until a year after its publication, that he had written it. In England, the pamphlet was officially condemned by royal proclamation. The impact of

2331-495: The Harrowing of Hell . At the lowermost level monks are depicted with gospel books in hand, thus pilgrims and missionaries. Therefore, if the central figures at left are auspicious, while those at right carry negative connotations, the exact opposite situation prevails at the lowest levels. The general preference for the left side, however, is resumed at the middle level. Here the figures at right appear to represent vices. For example,

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2442-474: The Last Judgment . It remains only to describe the jambs, which are decorated with a striking array of ornament, and at top and bottom with a variety of kneeling figures. The identities of some of these figures may be ascertained through their attributes. For example, the foremost figure at the lower right holds a t-shaped staff, which accessory was commonly associated with hermits and monks. The central figure at

2553-605: The National Library of Scotland . Pride of place goes to a volume of texts written in 1080 by the Irish Benedictine monk Marianus , the founder of the community at Regensburg (NLS Acc.11218/1). This contains, in Marianus's hand, the earliest written Gaelic words to be found in any work in Scotland. There is also a translation of a Latin text into Scots, made in 1596 by Fr James Dalrymple and seen as of great importance as

2664-620: The Perpetual Diet of Regensburg determined, under pressure from Napoleon Bonaparte , to secularize all the church lands of the Empire , the Monastery was uniquely successful in avoiding this fate. Arbuthnot and his influential monk, Alexander Horn , lobbied Macdonald and Lauriston , Scottish Catholic generals in the French army. Horn, as the official British agent in Regensburg, further appealed to

2775-657: The Scottish Parliament met to settle religious issues. Knox and five other ministers, all called John, were called upon to draw up a new confession of faith . Within four days, the Scots Confession was presented to Parliament, voted upon, and approved. A week later, the Parliament passed three acts in one day: the first abolished the jurisdiction of the Pope in Scotland, the second condemned all doctrine and practice contrary to

2886-649: The Sutton Hoo treasure. The most elaborate interlaced zoomorphics occur in Viking Age art of the Urnes style (arising before 1050), where tendrils of foliate designs intertwine with the stylized animals. The full-flowering of Northern European interlace occurred in the Insular art of the British Isles, where the animal style ornament of Northern Europe blended with ribbon knotwork and Christian influences in such works as

2997-622: The Treaty of Berwick , support from England finally arrived and by the end of March, a significant English army joined the Scottish Protestant forces. The sudden death of Mary of Guise in Edinburgh Castle on 10 June 1560 paved the way for an end to hostilities, the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh , and the withdrawal of French and English troops from Scotland. On 19 July, Knox held a National Thanksgiving Service at St Giles'. On 1 August,

3108-525: The early medieval Croatia on stone carvings from the 9th to 11th centuries. Interlaces were widely used in times of Serbian Morava architectural school from the 14th to 15th century. They were used on and within churches and monasteries, as well as in religious literature. Interlaces are also an important ornament used in Brâncovenesc architecture , an architectural style that evolved in Romania during

3219-615: The grammar school in Haddington . At this time, the priesthood was the only path for those whose inclinations were academic rather than mercantile or agricultural. He proceeded to further studies at the University of St Andrews or possibly at the University of Glasgow . He studied under John Major , one of the greatest scholars of the time. Knox was ordained a Catholic priest in Edinburgh on Easter Eve of 1536 by William Chisholm , Bishop of Dunblane . Knox first appears in public records as

3330-949: The visual arts , interlace is a decorative element found in medieval art . In interlace, bands or portions of other motifs are looped, braided , and knotted in complex geometric patterns, often to fill a space. Interlacing is common in the Migration period art of Northern Europe , in the early medieval Insular art of Britain and Ireland, and Norse art of the Early Middle Ages , and in Islamic art . Intricate braided and interlaced patterns, called plaits in British usage, first appeared in late Roman art in various parts of Europe, in mosaic floors and other media. Coptic manuscripts and textiles of 5th- and 6th-century Christian Egypt are decorated with broad-strand ribbon interlace ornament bearing

3441-455: The 12th century, while the remaining portions of the Schottenportal were assembled from spolia during the Renaissance. While this theory would have absolved art historians of the duty of interpreting the program as a unified whole, it has not met with wide acceptance. Indeed, a thorough examination of the structure seems to have demonstrated conclusively that the entire portal was assembled in

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3552-499: The 8th to 10th centuries are followed by the intricate interlacings common in later medieval Islamic art . Interlaced elaborations are also found in Kufic calligraphy . Interlace and knotwork are often found in Byzantine art , continuing Roman usage, but they are not given great prominence. One notable example of a widespread local usage of interlace is the three-ribbon interlace found in

3663-531: The British Isles and Scandinavia , where it is found on metalwork, woodcarving, runestones , high crosses , and illuminated manuscripts of the 7th to 12th centuries. Artist George Bain has characterised the early Insular knotwork found in the 7th-century Book of Durrow and the Durham Cathedral Gospel Book fragment as "broken and rejoined" braids. Whether Coptic braid patterns were transmitted directly to Hiberno-Scottish monasteries from

3774-560: The British government. Arbuthnot declared the abbey a Scottish national shrine and the two priests successfully obtained the support of Charles Erskine , cardinal protector of Scotland in Rome. An express exemption was made in favour of the Scots abbey although it was not allowed to take any new novices. In 1814, it came under the authority of the Bishop of Regensburg , but it was still not dissolved, since

3885-526: The Christ child; the former, as the "new Eve," holds an apple, while the latter holds the book of life. The reliefs at either side show human figures caressing each other, that is, in attitudes of harmony. The corresponding central figure on the lowest zone at right, on the other hand, is bracketed by aggressive, hostile beasts; this may represent the Antichrist . However, if the central figures at left and right are understood to stand for good and evil, respectively,

3996-660: The Irish monks included many manuscript treasures. It is possible that it also contained parts of the library of the Viennese abbey. When the two last Scots monks finally left Regensburg in 1862, Anselm Robertson of Fochabers , the last prior, transported many of the greatest treasures to the Benedictine Abbey at Fort Augustus . In 1992, the Regensburg books and manuscripts from the Fort Augustus Collection were deposited in

4107-497: The Irish possession had always been illegitimate. It was also partly because the Irish community in Regensburg was in any case in terminal decline: the last Irish abbot had just died leaving a single monk and one novice. But the strategic thinking behind the decision was certainly to provide a Catholic bulwark against the Scottish Reformation. The Scots Monastery was independent of German church authorities, instead coming under

4218-625: The Napoleonic period, a rare accomplishment. It was demoted to a priory in 1820, but monks remained in residence until 1862, when the Bavarian government bought the property and turned it into a seminary for training Catholic priests. The abbey complex consisted of a number of buildings. The two most significant structures, the church and the cloister, both survive. The cloister is however significantly altered, having been destroyed by fires in 1278 and 1546, and rebuilt between 1866 and 1872. The entire complex

4329-613: The Protestant Reformation in Scotland, in partnership with the Scottish Protestant nobility . The movement may be seen as a revolution since it led to the ousting of Mary of Guise, who governed the country in the name of her young daughter Mary, Queen of Scots . Knox helped write the new confession of faith and the ecclesiastical order for the newly created Reformed Church, the Kirk . He wrote his five-volume The History of

4440-591: The Protestants responded by retaking Edinburgh. This time, on 24 October 1559, the Scottish nobility formally deposed Mary of Guise from the regency. Her secretary, William Maitland of Lethington , defected to the Protestant side, bringing his administrative skills. From then on, Maitland took over the political tasks, freeing Knox for the role of religious leader. For the final stage of the revolution, Maitland appealed to Scottish patriotism to fight French domination. Following

4551-469: The Reformation in Scotland between 1559 and 1566. He continued to serve as the religious leader of the Protestants throughout Mary's reign. In several interviews with the Queen, Knox admonished her for supporting Catholic practices. After she was imprisoned for her alleged role in the murder of her husband Lord Darnley , and King James VI was enthroned in her stead, Knox openly called for her execution. He continued to preach until his final days. John Knox

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4662-478: The Scottish Reformation, a papal bull transferred the monastery from Irish to Scottish monks. The monastery was in decline by that time, with only one monk and one novice. The first Scottish abbot was Ninian Winzet (1518–92), an opponent of the reformer John Knox . Mary Queen of Scots ordered Abbot Winzet to train priests for Catholic missionary work in Scotland; the first priests were sent long after his death in 1623. The monastery managed to avoid dissolution during

4773-588: The Swiss reformer Heinrich Bullinger in Zurich . Bullinger's responses were equally cautious, but Knox had already made up his mind. On 20 July 1554, he published a pamphlet attacking Mary Tudor and the bishops who had brought her to the throne. He also attacked the Holy Roman Emperor , Charles V , calling him "no less enemy to Christ than was Nero". In a letter dated 24 September 1554, Knox received an invitation from

4884-569: The appointed regent for the infant Mary, Queen of Scots , had decided with the Queen Mother, Mary of Guise , and Cardinal David Beaton to persecute the Protestant sect that had taken root in Scotland. Wishart travelled throughout Scotland preaching in favour of the Reformation , and when he arrived in East Lothian , Knox became one of his closest associates. Knox acted as his bodyguard, bearing

4995-580: The assumed name John Sinclair with William Cecil , Elizabeth's chief adviser, for English support. Knox sailed secretly to Lindisfarne , off the northeast coast of England at the end of July, to meet James Croft and Sir Henry Percy at Berwick upon Tweed . Knox was indiscreet and news of his mission soon reached Mary of Guise. He returned to Edinburgh telling Croft he had to return to his flock, and suggested that Henry Balnaves should go to Cecil. When additional French troops arrived in Leith , Edinburgh's seaport,

5106-664: The authority of the Bishop of London , Nicholas Ridley . Knox returned to London in order to deliver a sermon before the King and the Court during Lent and he again refused to take the assigned post. Knox was then told to preach in Buckinghamshire and he remained there until Edward's death on 6 July. Edward's successor, Mary Tudor , re-established Roman Catholicism in England and restored the Mass in all

5217-409: The best place of asylum for Protestants. In one letter he wrote: I neither fear nor eschame to say, is the most perfect school of Christ that ever was in the earth since the days of the apostles. In other places I confess Christ to be truly preached; but manners and religion so sincerely reformed, I have not yet seen in any other place ... Knox led a busy life in Geneva. He preached three sermons

5328-453: The bishops decided to call the hearing off. Knox was now free to preach openly in Edinburgh. William Keith, the Earl Marischal , was impressed and urged Knox to write to the Queen Regent. Knox's unusually respectful letter urged her to support the Reformation and overthrow the church hierarchy. Queen Mary took the letter as a joke and ignored it. Shortly after Knox sent the letter to the Queen Regent, he suddenly announced that he felt his duty

5439-449: The building was much shorter than the present structure, although of the same width. A new church, the structure which has substantially survived up to the present day, was constructed at some point between 1175 and 1180. It is an example of Romanesque architecture : a three-aisled basilica with three apses, towers at the east, and a transept at the west. A gallery, in which an organ has since been installed, extends over all three aisles in

5550-439: The castle and eventually their families and friends took refuge with them, about a hundred and fifty men in all. Among their friends was Henry Balnaves , a former secretary of state in the government, who negotiated with England for the financial support of the rebels. Douglas and Cockburn suggested to Knox to take their sons to the relative safety of the castle to continue their instruction in reformed doctrine, and Knox arrived at

5661-405: The castle on 10 April 1547. Knox's powers as a preacher came to the attention of the chaplain of the garrison, John Rough . While Rough was preaching in the parish church on the Protestant principle of the popular election of a pastor, he proposed Knox to the congregation for that office. Knox did not relish the idea. According to his own account, he burst into tears and fled to his room. Within

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5772-417: The church, became known as the Jakobstor . This Church of St. James, a three-aisled basilica with three apses and two east towers, was dedicated in 1120. Only the east end of this early building survives. The monastic church was expanded beginning around 1150, under Abbot Gregor. This second church, which stands today, was given a two-story transept or westwerk at the west end, an elaborate north portal, and

5883-400: The churches. With the country no longer safe for Protestant preachers, Knox left for the Continent in January 1554 on the advice of friends. On the eve of his flight, he wrote: Sometime I have thought that impossible it had been, so to have removed my affection from the realm of Scotland, that any realm or nation could have been equal dear to me. But God I take to record in my conscience, that

5994-440: The current state of religion and that her servants should not be molested or troubled. Many nobles accepted this, but not Knox. The following Sunday, he protested from the pulpit of St Giles'. As a result, just two weeks after her return, Mary summoned Knox. She accused him of inciting a rebellion against her mother and of writing a book against her own authority. Knox answered that as long as her subjects found her rule convenient, he

6105-410: The day without a change of posture while an officer watched over them with a whip in hand. They sailed to France and navigated up the Seine to Rouen . The nobles, some of whom would have a bearing on Knox's later life such as William Kirkcaldy and Henry Balnaves, were sent to various castle-prisons in France. Knox and the other galley slaves continued to Nantes and stayed on the Loire throughout

6216-410: The document was complicated later that year when Elizabeth Tudor , a Protestant, became Queen of England. Although Knox had not targeted Elizabeth, he had deeply offended her, and she never forgave him. With a Protestant on the throne, the English refugees in Geneva prepared to return home. Knox himself decided to return to Scotland. Before his departure, various honours were conferred on him, including

6327-399: The eastern Mediterranean or came via Lombardic Italy is uncertain. Art historian James Johnson Sweeney argued for direct communication between the scriptoria of Early Christian Ireland and the Coptic monasteries of Egypt. This new style featured elongated beasts intertwined into symmetrical shapes, and can be dated to the mid-7th century based on the accepted dating of examples in

6438-403: The firebrand preacher, but he saw Knox as a potential asset. Knox was asked to come to London to preach before the Court. In his first sermon, he advocated a change for the 1552 Book of Common Prayer . The liturgy required worshippers to kneel during communion . Knox and the other chaplains considered this to be idolatry . It triggered a debate where Archbishop Cranmer was called upon to defend

6549-415: The freedom of the city of Geneva. Knox left in January 1559, but he did not arrive in Scotland until 2 May 1559, owing to Elizabeth's refusal to issue him a passport through England. Two days after Knox arrived in Edinburgh, he proceeded to Dundee where a large number of Protestant sympathisers had gathered. Knox was declared an outlaw, and the Queen Regent summoned the Protestants to Stirling . Fearing

6660-414: The future Archbishop of Canterbury, favoured a stricter application of the book. When Knox and a supporting colleague, William Whittingham , wrote to Calvin for advice, they were told to avoid contention. Knox therefore agreed on a temporary order of service based on a compromise between the two sides. This delicate balance was disturbed when a new batch of refugees arrived that included Richard Cox , one of

6771-474: The intervention of the regent Mary of Guise . He was taken prisoner by French forces the following year and exiled to England on his release in 1549. While in exile, Knox was licensed to work in the Church of England , where he rose in the ranks to serve King Edward VI of England as a royal chaplain. He exerted a reforming influence on the text of the Book of Common Prayer . In England, he met and married his first wife, Margery Bowes. When Mary I ascended

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6882-425: The king of France, Henry II to intervene. On 29 June 1547, 21 French galleys approached St Andrews under the command of Leone Strozzi , prior of Capua . The French besieged the castle and forced the surrender of the garrison on 31 July. The Protestant nobles and others, including Knox, were taken prisoner and forced to row in the French galleys. The galley slaves were chained to benches and rowed throughout

6993-516: The landmark. He replied that he knew it well, recognising the steeple of the place where he first preached and he declared that he would not die until he had preached there again. In February 1549, after spending a total of 19 months in the galley-prison, Knox was released. It is uncertain how he obtained his liberty. Later in the year, Henry II arranged with Edward VI of England the release of all remaining Castilian prisoners. On his release, Knox took refuge in England. The Reformation in England

7104-450: The late 12th century, simultaneously with the construction of the second church. The portal is divided into thirds both horizontally and vertically. At the lowest level, the door is framed at the center by richly decorated jambs, at each side of which stands a flat field interspersed with various relief sculptures. The second level is occupied by the tympanum and archivolt at the center and by blind arcades with caryatids at right and left. At

7215-597: The law. Some Protestants tried to enforce the law themselves by apprehending these priests. This prompted Mary to summon Knox for the third time. She asked Knox to use his influence to promote religious toleration. He defended their actions and noted she was bound to uphold the laws and if she did not, others would. Mary surprised Knox by agreeing that the priests would be brought to justice. The most dramatic interview between Mary and Knox took place on 24 June 1563. Mary summoned Knox to Holyrood after hearing that he had been preaching against her proposed marriage to Don Carlos ,

7326-425: The left side, as one faces the portal, is more highly regarded than the right. Its entablature carries a rich interlace , while that at right is undecorated; the arcade in the middle zone is filled by a row of human heads, while that at right is filled with those of animals. The central sculpture in the lowest zone at left, which is set on a throne and projects significantly from the ground, clearly represents Mary with

7437-515: The marriage. Towards the end of 1550, Knox was appointed a preacher of St Nicholas' Church in Newcastle upon Tyne . The following year he was appointed one of the six royal chaplains serving the King. On 16 October 1551, John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland , overthrew the Duke of Somerset to become the new regent of the young King. Knox condemned the coup d'état in a sermon on All Saints Day . When Dudley visited Newcastle and listened to his preaching in June 1552, he had mixed feelings about

7548-403: The meantime, Elizabeth Bowes wrote to Knox, asking him to return to Margery in Scotland, which he did at the end of August. Despite initial doubts about the state of the Reformation in Scotland, Knox found the country significantly changed since he was carried off in the galley in 1547. When he toured various parts of Scotland preaching the reformed doctrines and liturgy, he was welcomed by many of

7659-423: The mob had already sacked the churches and the friaries. On 1 July, Knox preached from the pulpit of St Giles' , the most influential in the capital. The Lords of the Congregation negotiated their withdrawal from Edinburgh by the Articles of Leith signed 25 July 1559, and Mary of Guise promised freedom of conscience. Knox knew that the Queen Regent would ask for help from France, so he negotiated by letter under

7770-418: The monastery from Irish hands to abbots from Scotland. The Scottish monks were predominantly from lowland Scotland , and thus were generally not Gaels. The effect of the bull was therefore a complete break in the continuity of the abbey's tradition. In part it may have been motivated by the fact that the word Scotti had by this time come to mean 'Scots' in the modern sense, allowing the new abbots to claim that

7881-418: The monastery had laid out a large part of its fortune at an Austrian bank which the state did not want to lose. After Arbuthnot's death in 1820 the monastery was demoted to a priory because of the small number of monks forming the community. (incomplete list) (incomplete list) In 1862 the abbey was reopened as a seminary for the Roman Catholic Diocese of Regensburg . The medieval library built up by

7992-515: The new religious ideas of the Reformation . Knox did not record when or how he was converted to the Protestant faith, but perhaps the key formative influences on Knox were Patrick Hamilton and George Wishart . Wishart was a reformer who had fled Scotland in 1538 to escape punishment for heresy. He first moved to England, where in Bristol he preached against the veneration of the Virgin Mary . He

8103-421: The nobility including two future regents of Scotland, the Earl of Moray and the Earl of Mar . Though the Queen Regent, Mary of Guise , made no move against Knox, his activities caused concern among the church authorities. The bishops of Scotland viewed him as a threat to their authority and summoned him to appear in Edinburgh on 15 May 1556. He was accompanied to the trial by so many influential persons that

8214-415: The picture was pushed up to his face, the prisoner seized the picture and threw it into the sea, saying, "Let our Lady now save herself: she is light enough: let her learn to swim." After that, according to Knox, the Scottish prisoners were no longer forced to perform such devotions. In summer 1548, the galleys returned to Scotland to scout for English ships. Knox's health was now at its lowest point due to

8325-469: The pillar bases are decorated with the heads of less noble beasts, including pigs, dogs, donkeys, and vultures. Under the triumphal arch at the entrance to the central apse stand three wooden sculptures of the late twelfth century, which together form a crucifixion scene. They originally stood on the altar, but were repainted in 1874 and set in their present position in 1893. The apse itself was decorated between 1866 and 1872 by Bavarian and Austrian artists in

8436-463: The plan was delayed because of the impending return of Mary, Queen of Scots . On 19 August 1561, cannons were fired in Leith to announce Queen Mary's arrival in Scotland. When she attended Mass being celebrated in the royal chapel at Holyrood Palace five days later, this prompted a protest in which one of her servants was jostled. The next day she issued a proclamation that there would be no alteration in

8547-411: The portal reliefs have suffered from exposure to the elements, it was decided to enclose them within a glass vestibule. The work began in 1999, and was completed in 2000. The monastery was founded in the 11th century by Scotti , that is, Gaels . (See Hiberno-Scottish mission .) Some of the "Scots" monks may have come from what is now Scotland, but the majority would have been from Ireland. Regensburg

8658-556: The possibility of a summary trial and execution, the Protestants proceeded instead to Perth , a walled town that could be defended in case of a siege. At the church of St John the Baptist , Knox preached a fiery sermon and a small incident precipitated into a riot. A mob poured into the church and it was soon gutted. The mob then attacked two friaries ( Blackfriars and Greyfriars ) in the town, looting their gold and silver and smashing images. Mary of Guise gathered those nobles loyal to her and

8769-506: The practice. The result was a compromise in which the famous Black Rubric , which declared that no adoration is intended while kneeling, was included in the second edition. Soon afterwards, Dudley, who saw Knox as a useful political tool, offered him the bishopric of Rochester . Knox refused, and he returned to Newcastle. On 2 February 1553 Cranmer was ordered to appoint Knox as vicar of All Hallows, Bread Street , in London, placing him under

8880-551: The principal authors of the Book of Common Prayer . Cox brought Knox's pamphlet attacking the emperor to the attention of the Frankfurt authorities, who advised that Knox leave. His departure from Frankfurt on 26 March 1555 marked his final breach with the Church of England. After his return to Geneva, Knox was chosen to be the minister at a new place of worship petitioned from Calvin. As such, he exerted an influence on French Protestants, whether they were exiled in Geneva or in France. In

8991-479: The prophecy he made in the galleys that he would one day preach again in its church. When he did give a sermon, the effect was the same as in Perth. The people engaged in vandalism and looting. In June 1559, a Protestant mob incited by the preaching of John Knox ransacked the cathedral; the interior of the building was destroyed. The cathedral fell into decline following the attack and became a source of building material for

9102-519: The reformed faith, and the third forbade the celebration of Mass in Scotland. Before the dissolution of Parliament, Knox and the other ministers were given the task of organising the newly reformed church or the Kirk . They would work for several months on the Book of Discipline , the document describing the organisation of the new church. During this period, in December 1560, Knox's wife, Margery, died, leaving Knox to care for their two sons, aged three and

9213-402: The reliefs beneath them seem to represent a reversal of the situation. At left, a dragon is shown swallowing a lion, while at the lowermost level a siren appears, a symbol of temptation. At right, a crocodile is shown swallowing a hydrus, wrapped in a ball of clay. According to a medieval legend, the hydrus, once inside, would destroy the crocodile from within; the story was understood to represent

9324-464: The rest of his life. A few days later, a debate was staged that allowed him to lay down additional theses including the rejection of the Mass , Purgatory , and prayers for the dead . John Knox's chaplaincy of the castle garrison was not to last long. While Hamilton was willing to negotiate with England to stop their support of the rebels and bring the castle back under his control, Mary of Guise decided that it could be taken only by force and requested

9435-486: The scholar Michael Servetus , although Calvin himself was not capable of voting for or against a civil penalty against Servetus. Knox asked Calvin four difficult political questions: whether a minor could rule by divine right, whether a female could rule and transfer sovereignty to her husband, whether people should obey ungodly or idolatrous rulers, and what party godly persons should follow if they resisted an idolatrous ruler. Calvin gave cautious replies and referred him to

9546-417: The second caryatid from the right is a woman holding snakes to her breast; she may represent Luxuria (unchastity). The caryatids at left, on the other hand, appear to represent virtues. For example, the second figure from the left is a man wearing a plaited belt; he may represent Fortitudo (bravery). The uppermost register, in which Christ appears flanked by the twelve apostles, is most likely a representation of

9657-431: The severity of his confinement. He was ill with a fever and others on the ship were afraid for his life. Even in this state, Knox recalled, his mind remained sharp and he comforted his fellow prisoners with hopes of release. While the ships were lying offshore between St Andrews and Dundee , the spires of the parish church where he preached appeared in view. James Balfour , a fellow prisoner, asked Knox whether he recognised

9768-519: The sole authority of Rome . The first Scottish abbot was Ninian Winzet ( / ˈ w ɪ n j ə t / , see yogh ), the controversial critic of John Knox , who had been charged by Mary, Queen of Scots , with the task of providing priests for Scotland. However it was not until the early 17th century that the abbey was able to send missionaries to Scotland. From 1623 this was done in co-operation with English Benedictines at Douai , France . In June 1776 Charles Arbuthnot became abbot. When in 1802

9879-499: The son of Philip II of Spain . Mary began by scolding Knox, then she burst into tears. "What have ye to do with my marriage?" she asked, and "What are ye within this commonwealth?" "A subject born within the same, Madam," Knox replied. He noted that though he was not of noble birth, he had the same duty as any subject to warn of dangers to the realm. When Mary started to cry again, he said, "Madam, in God's presence I speak: I never delighted in

9990-470: The summer of 1558, Knox published his best-known pamphlet, The first blast of the trumpet against the monstruous regiment of women . In calling the "regimen" or rule of women "monstruous", he meant that it was "unnatural". Knox states that his purpose was to demonstrate "how abominable before God is the Empire or Rule of a wicked woman, yea, of a traiteresse and bastard". The women rulers that Knox had in mind were Queen Mary I of England and Mary of Guise ,

10101-476: The tendency was to foliate decorative forms. In Romanesque art these became typical, and the interlace generally much less complex. Some animal forms are also found. Geometric interlacing patterns are common in Islamic ornament. They can be considered a particular type of arabesque . Umayyad architectural elements such as floor mosaics , window grilles, carvings and wall paintings, and decorative metal work of

10212-496: The throne of England and re-established Catholicism , Knox was forced to resign his position and leave the country. Knox moved to Geneva and then to Frankfurt . In Geneva, he met John Calvin , from whom he gained experience and knowledge of Reformed theology and Presbyterian polity . He created a new order of service, The Forme of Prayers, which was eventually adopted by the Reformed Church in Scotland and came to be known as

10323-426: The top, a frieze showing Christ with the twelve apostles stands at the middle, while figureless blind arcades stand at either side. The interpretation of the tympanum is relatively uncontroversial: it portrays Christ, at the center, flanked by Sts. James and John. Numerous explanations for the remaining figures have been proposed; here only that of Richard Strobel has been presented. There are various indications that

10434-548: The town. By 1561 it had been abandoned and left to fall into ruin. With Protestant reinforcements arriving from neighbouring counties, the Queen Regent retreated to Dunbar . By now, the mob fury had spilled over central Scotland. Her own troops were on the verge of mutiny. On 30 June, the Protestant Lords of the Congregation occupied Edinburgh, though they were able to hold it for only a month. But even before their arrival,

10545-413: The transept. The nave is separated from the aisles by cylindrical masonry pillars (not monolithic columns), whose capitals are fine works of high Romanesque sculpture. Their arrangement indicates forethought, as capitals with botanical decoration alternate with those with figural decoration. The figures include wild men, lions, eagles, and crocodiles, and may have Christological significance. The corners of

10656-508: The troubles present (and appearing to be) in the realm of England are double more dolorous unto my heart than ever were the troubles of Scotland. Knox disembarked in Dieppe , France, and continued to Geneva , where John Calvin had established his authority. When Knox arrived Calvin was in a difficult position. He had recently overseen the Company of Pastors, which prosecuted charges of heresy against

10767-424: The upper right plays a bowed instrument, while the innermost figure at the upper left holds a vessel on which animal pelts are draped. These figures may refer to the history of the monastery itself: the monk with his staff to its origin among the hermits of Ireland; the musician to their position within the courtly society of Regensburg; and the fur-trader to their involvement with mercantile expeditions to Kiev . As

10878-410: The weeping of any of God's creatures; yea I can scarcely well abide the tears of my own boys whom my own hand corrects, much less can I rejoice in your Majesty's weeping." He added that he would rather endure her tears, however, than remain silent and "betray my Commonwealth". At this, Mary ordered him out of the room. Knox's final encounter with Mary was prompted by an incident at Holyrood. While Mary

10989-463: The winter. They were threatened with torture if they did not give proper signs of reverence when mass was performed on the ship. Knox recounted an incident in which one of the prisoners—possibly himself, as Knox tended to narrate personal anecdotes in the third person—was required to show devotion to a picture of the Virgin Mary. The prisoner was told to give it a kiss of veneration . He refused and when

11100-587: Was a descendant of an old Durham family and her mother, Elizabeth Aske , was an heiress of a Yorkshire family, the Askes of Richmondshire . Elizabeth presumably met Knox when he was employed in Berwick. Several letters reveal a close friendship between them. It is not recorded when Knox married Margery Bowes. Knox attempted to obtain the consent of the Bowes family, but her father and her brother Robert Bowes were opposed to

11211-474: Was a less radical movement than its Continental counterparts, but there was a definite breach with Rome. The Archbishop of Canterbury , Thomas Cranmer , and the regent of King Edward VI , the Duke of Somerset , were decidedly Protestant-minded. However, much work remained to bring reformed ideas to the clergy and to the people. On 7 April 1549, Knox was licensed to work in the Church of England . His first commission

11322-451: Was absent from Edinburgh on her summer progress in 1563, a crowd forced its way into her private chapel as Mass was being celebrated. During the altercation, the priest's life was threatened. As a result, two of the ringleaders, burgesses of Edinburgh, were scheduled for trial on 24 October 1563. In order to defend these men, Knox sent out letters calling the nobles to convene. Mary obtained one of these letters and asked her advisors if this

11433-531: Was an important centre for the Irish mission to central Europe, and the influential Scots monastery in Vienna was founded by monks from Regensburg in 1155/56. Other daughter establishments of St. Jakob were the Scots Monasteries in Erfurt (ca 1136), Würzburg (1138), Nuremberg (1140), Konstanz (1142), Eichstätt (1148/49), Memmingen (1178/81), Kiev (later 12th century) and Kelheim (1218?). The monks had

11544-409: Was born sometime between 1505 and 1515 in or near Haddington , the county town of East Lothian . His father, William Knox, was a merchant. All that is known of his mother is that her maiden name was Sinclair and that she died when John Knox was a child. Their eldest son, William, carried on his father's business, which helped in Knox's international communications. Knox was probably educated at

11655-567: Was forced to make a public recantation and was burned in effigy at the Church of St Nicholas as a sign of his abjuration. He then took refuge in Germany and Switzerland. While on the Continent , he translated the First Helvetic Confession into English. He returned to Scotland in 1544, but the timing of his return was unfortunate. In December 1543, James Hamilton, Duke of Châtellerault ,

11766-706: Was in Berwick-upon-Tweed . He was obliged to use the recently released 1549 Book of Common Prayer , which maintained the structure of the Sarum Rite while adapting the content to the doctrine of the reformed Church of England. Knox, however, modified its use to accord with the doctrinal emphases of the Continental reformers. In the pulpit, he preached Protestant doctrines with great effect as his congregation grew. In England, Knox met his wife, Margery Bowes (died c.  1560 ). Her father, Richard Bowes (died 1558),

11877-534: Was not a treasonable act. Stewart and Maitland, wanting to keep good relations with both the Kirk and the Queen, asked Knox to admit he was wrong and to settle the matter quietly. Knox refused and he defended himself in front of Mary and the Privy Council . He argued that he had called a legal, not an illegal, assembly as part of his duties as a minister of the Kirk. After he left, the councillors voted not to charge him with treason. Interlace (visual arts) In

11988-451: Was originally surrounded by a wall, which separated a cemetery to the north of the church from the street that led westwards out of the city. The first abbey church was built at the beginning of the 11th century. It was a three-aisled basilica with three apses. The only portion of this building to survive in full is its eastern end (the apses and the two flanking towers). Traces of the western wall have also been discovered, which indicate that

12099-409: Was still in charge of the pupils, the sons of Douglas and Cockburn, who wearied of moving from place to place while being pursued. He toyed with the idea of fleeing to Germany and taking his pupils with him. While Knox remained a fugitive, Beaton was murdered on 29 May 1546, within his residence, the Castle of St Andrews , by a gang of five persons in revenge for Wishart's execution. The assassins seized

12210-421: Was to return to Geneva. In the previous year on 1 November 1555, the congregation in Geneva had elected Knox as their minister and he decided to take up the post. He wrote a final letter of advice to his supporters and left Scotland with his wife and mother-in-law. He arrived in Geneva on 13 September 1556. For the next two years, he lived a happy life in Geneva. He recommended Geneva to his friends in England as

12321-559: Was willing to accept her governance, noting that Paul the Apostle had been willing to live under Nero 's rule. Mary noted, however, that he had written against the principle of female rule itself. He responded that she should not be troubled by what had never harmed her. When Mary asked him whether subjects had a right to resist their ruler, he replied that if monarchs exceeded their lawful limits, they might be resisted, even by force. On 13 December 1562, Mary sent for Knox again after he gave

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