83-915: Part of a series on the History of Assam [REDACTED] Proto-historic Pragjyotisha kingdom Danava dynasty Bhauma dynasty Sonitpura kingdom Medieval Kamarupa kingdom Varman dynasty Davaka dynasty Mlechchha dynasty Pala dynasty Late Medieval Chutia Kingdom Dimasa Kingdom Kamata Kingdom Ahom kingdom Koch kingdom Baro-Bhuyan Moamoria rebellion Modern Colonial Assam Assam Province Contemporary Assam Movement Sources Kamarupa inscriptions Buranji Categories Architecture Palaces Forts v t e Raijmel (Assamese: raij (people), mel (meeting))
166-518: A raiz mel (peoples' assembly) to protest against taxes on betel-nut and paan. An officer sent to confront the peasants, Lt. Singer, got into a fracas with the peasants and was killed, after which the protests were violently suppressed. Chief Commissioner's Province (1874–1905): In 1874, the Assam region was separated from the Bengal Presidency, Sylhet was added to it and its status was upgraded to
249-412: A Chief Commissioner's Province. The capital was at Shillong . The people of Sylhet protested the inclusion in Assam. Assamese, which was replaced by Bengali as the official language in 1837, was reinstated alongside Bengali. In 1889, oil was discovered at Digboi giving rise to an oil industry. In this period Nagaon witnessed starvation deaths, and there was a decrease in the indigenous population, which
332-410: A bayonet charge against the protesters at Patharughat in 1894. At least 15 were left dead and in the violent repression that followed villagers were tortured and their properties were destroyed or looted. In 1903, Assam Association was formed with Manik Chandra Baruah as the first secretary. Eastern Bengal and Assam under Lt. Governor (1906–1912): Bengal was partitioned and East Bengal was added to
415-536: A genetic mutation that has been estimated to have originated approximately 40,000 years ago, somewhere in China. A recent genetic and linguistic analysis in 2015 showed great genetic homogeneity between Kra-Dai speaking people, suggesting a common ancestry and a large replacement of former non-Kra-Dai groups in Southeast Asia. Kra-Dai populations are closest to southern Chinese and Taiwanese populations. The Tai practice
498-722: A retreating invading army in the 16th century. After the Ahom kingdom reached its zenith, problems within the kingdom arose in the 18th century, when it lost power briefly to rebels of the Moamoria rebellion . Though the Ahoms recaptured power, it was beset with problems, leading to the Burmese invasion of Assam in the early 19th century. With the defeat of the Burmese in the First Anglo-Burmese war and
581-483: A type of feudal governance that is fundamentally different from that of the Han Chinese people, and is especially adapted to state formation in ethnically and linguistically diverse montane environments centered on valleys suitable for wet-rice cultivation. The form of society is a highly stratified one. The Tai lived in the lowland and river valleys of mainland Southeast Asia. Assorted ethnic and linguistic group lived in
664-530: Is a people's meeting in Assam , an old political and social institution that originated in medieval times. The word raij is derived from rajya , which was originally an administrative or a fiscal unit in some parts of medieval Assam. Since these meetings could encompass more than one village, they were politically more potent than the village panchayat . Raijmels played an important role in peasant organization and uprisings in colonial Assam , especially during
747-679: Is a trait that they share with the neighboring ethnic Austroasiatic peoples as well as Austronesian peoples in Mainland Southeast Asia ( e.g. Cham in Bình Thuận Province of Vietnam , Jarai in Ratanakiri Province of Cambodia , Giarai and Ede in the Central Highlands region of Vietnam ), Malaysia, Singapore, and western Indonesia. Y-DNA haplogroups O-M95, O-M119, and O-M122 all are subclades of O-M175 ,
830-575: Is attributed to the successful manufacture of tea in 1837, and the beginning of the Assam Company in 1839. Under the Wasteland Rules of 1838, it became nearly impossible for natives to start plantations. After the liberalization of the rules in 1854, there was a land rush . The Chinese staff that was imported earlier for the cultivation of tea left Assam in 1843, when tea plantations came to be tended by local labor solely, mainly by those belonging to
913-640: Is believed that the O-M119 Y-DNA haplogroup is associated with both the Austronesian people and the Tai. The prevalence of Y-DNA haplogroup O-M175 among Austronesian and Tai peoples suggests a common ancestry with speakers of the Austroasiatic , Sino-Tibetan , and Hmong–Mien languages some 30,000 years ago in China ( Haplogroup O (Y-DNA) ). Y-DNA haplogroup O-M95 is found at high frequency among most Tai peoples, which
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#1733106011340996-682: Is covered by Heaven, that which is contained by the Earth and that on which the sun and moon shine, and regardless of whether the place was near or far, or what manner of people they are, there was no place for which they did not wish a peaceful land and a prosperous existence. It is natural that when China is governed peacefully, foreign countries would come and submit (來附)”…I am anxious that, as you are secluded in your distant places, you have not yet heard of my will. Thus, I am sending envoys to go and instruct you, so that you will all know of this" ( 14 July 1370 ). The Mongol prince Basalawarmi ruled Yunnan under
1079-655: Is still practiced by some communities in the region. Some typical sites are Daojali Hading in Dima Hasao , Sarutaru in Kamrup district and Selbagiri in the Garo Hills. There exists no archaeological evidence of Copper-Bronze or Iron Age culture in the region. This might seem like an impossibility given that corresponding cultures have been discovered in Bengal as well as Southeast Asia . It can only be conjectured that metal age sites in
1162-688: Is the history of a confluence of people from the east, west, south and the north; the confluence of the Austroasiatic , Tibeto-Burman (Sino-Tibetan), Tai and Indo-Aryan cultures. Although invaded over the centuries, it was never a vassal or a colony to an external power until the third Burmese invasion in 1821, and, subsequently, the British ingress into Assam in 1824 during the First Anglo-Burmese War . The Assamese history has been derived from multiple sources. The Ahom kingdom of medieval Assam maintained chronicles, called Buranjis , written in
1245-894: Is the largest district and Dima Hasao is the smallest district, Karbi Anglong is the largest district in terms of area and Kamrup Metropolitan is the smallest district. Tai peoples Tai peoples are the populations who speak (or formerly spoke) the Tai languages . There are a total of about 93 million people of Tai ancestry worldwide, with the largest ethnic groups being Dai , Thai , Isan , Tai Yai (Shan), Lao , Tai Ahom , Tai Kassay and some Northern Thai peoples . The Tai are scattered through much of South China and Mainland Southeast Asia , with some ( e.g. Tai Ahom , Tai Kassay, Tai Khamyang , Tai Khamti , Tai Phake , Tai Aiton) inhabiting parts of Northeast India . Tai peoples are both culturally and genetically very similar and therefore primarily identified through their language. Speakers of
1328-685: The Ahom and the Assamese languages. History of ancient Assam comes from a corpus of Kamarupa inscriptions on rock, copper plates, clay; royal grants, etc. that the Kamarupa kings issued during their reign. Evidence about the cultural history and socio-religious beliefs of the people of the region can also be derived from the Kalika Purana and the Yogini Tantra , both believed to be composed in this region around
1411-668: The Book of Later Han , which located the Shan kingdom "at the end of the boundaries of what is now Baoshan and Deihong Prefectures" and stated that Shan ambassadors came to the Han court from "beyond Yongchang " and "beyond Rinan ". Additionally, Du & Chen rejected the proposal that the ancestors of Tai people migrated en masse southwestwards out of Yunnan only after the 1253 Mongol invasion of Dali . Luo et al. (2000) proposed that Proto-Tais originated most likely from Guangxi - Guizhou , not Yunnan nor
1494-736: The Independence of India . A common theme of Medieval kingship narratives in Assam is associated with shaktism and the Kamakhya temple . The earliest inhabitants of the region are assigned to the Middle Pleistocene period (781,000 to 126,000 years ago) in the Rongram valley of Garo Hills . The Paleolithic sites, which used handaxe-cleaver tools, have affinities to the Abbevillio- Acheulean culture. Other Paleolithic sites include those in
1577-733: The Lachi speaking a Kra language . The Nung living on both sides of the Sino-Vietnamese border have their ethnonym derived from clan name Nong (儂 / 侬), whose bearers dominated what are now north Vietnam and Guangxi in the 11th century AD. In 1038, a Nong general named Nong Quanfu established a Nung state in Cao Bang , however was quickly annexed by Annamite king Ly Thai Tong in the next year. In 1048, Quanfu's son Nong Zhigao revolted against Annamese rule, and then marched eastwards to besiege Guangzhou in 1052. Another name that's shared between
1660-944: The Nellie massacre where over 3000 (non officially 10000 murdered) Bengali speaking Muslim were massacred in Nagaon district. It ended in 1985 following the Assam Accord that was signed by the agitation leaders and the Government of India. The agitation leaders formed a political party, Asom Gana Parishad , which came to power in the state of Assam in the Assembly elections of 1985. In 2012 violent riots broke out between indigenous people led by NDFB(S) and minority Muslims of BTAD. But those were termed as immigration from Bangladesh, resulting in more than 85 deaths and displacement of 400,000 people. There are 35 districts in total in Assam, by population, Nagaon
1743-648: The Nung , the Tay , and the Zhuang living along the Sino-Vietnamese border is Tho , which literally means autochthonous . However, this term was also applied to the Tho people , who are a separate group of indigenous speakers of Vietic languages, who have come under the influence of Tai culture. James R. Chamberlain (2016) proposes that the Tai-Kadai (Kra-Dai) language family was formed as early as
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#17331060113401826-697: The Nyaw or Yaw and the Phu Thai . The Zhuang in China do not constitute an autonymic unity. In various areas in Guangxi, they refer to themselves as pow ɕu:ŋ , pʰo tʰaj , pow ma:n , pow ba:n , or pow law , while those in Yunnan use the following autonyms: pu noŋ , bu daj , or bu jaj (= Bouyei , bùyi 布依). The Zhuang do not constitute a linguistic unity either, because Chinese authorities include within this group some distinct ethnic groups such as
1909-516: The Taiwanese Austronesians and the Tai-Kadai peoples of Southern China. The Tai peoples, from Guangxi began moving south – and westwards in the first millennium CE, eventually spreading across the whole of mainland Southeast Asia. Based on layers of Chinese loanwords in proto- Southwestern Tai and other historical evidence, Pittayawat Pittayaporn (2014) proposes that the southwestward migration of southwestern Tai-speaking tribes from
1992-615: The Western Han dynasty , ancestors of the Tai people were known as Dianyue (in today Yunnan ). Tai peoples migrated far and wide: by the Tang and Song periods, they were present from the Red River to the Salween River , from Baoshan to Jingdong . Du & Chen linked the ancestors of Thai people in modern- Thailand , in particular, to a 2nd-century Shan kingdom ( Shànguó 撣國) mentioned in
2075-602: The Yuan dynasty from the capital in Kunming . He ruled indirectly over an ethnically diverse collection of small polities and chieftainships. The most powerful of these states was controlled by the Duan family who ruled over the area surrounding Dali . The Ming Shi-lu reports that envoys were sent to instruct the inhabitants of Yunnan in 1371. In 1372 the famous scholar Wang Wei offered terms of surrender to Yunnan as an envoy. The envoy Wang Wei
2158-591: The 12th century BC in the middle of the Yangtze basin , coinciding roughly with the establishment of the Chu state and the beginning of the Zhou dynasty . Following the southward migrations of Kra and Hlai (Rei/Li) peoples around the 8th century BCE, the Yue (Be-Tai people) started to break away and move to the east coast in the present-day Zhejiang province , in the 6th century BCE, forming
2241-572: The 12th century in place of the Kamarupa kingdom marked the end of the Kamarupa kingdom and the period of Ancient Assam. See: Kamata kingdom , Ahom kingdom , Chutiya kingdom , Kachari kingdom , Bhuyan chieftains . In the middle of the 13th century, Sandhya, a king of Kamarupanagara, moved his capital to Kamatapur, and thus established the Kamata kingdom. on account of attacks by the Bengalis. The last of
2324-514: The 860s, many local people in what is now north Vietnam sided with attackers from Nanchao , and in the aftermath some 30,000 of them were beheaded. In the 1040s, a powerful matriarch-shamaness by the name of A Nong , her chiefly husband, and their son, Nong Zhigao , raised a revolt, took Nanning , besieged Guangzhou for fifty seven days, and slew the commanders of five Chinese armies sent against them before they were defeated, and many of their leaders were killed. The Ahomese Tai chronicle relates
2407-608: The British occupation. In 1828, two years after the Treaty of Yandaboo, Gomdhar Konwar rose in revolt against the British, but he was easily suppressed. In 1830 Dhananjoy Burhagohain , Piyali Phukan and Jiuram Medhi rose in revolt, and they were sentenced to death. In the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , rebels supporters offered resistance in the form of non-cooperation, and Maniram Dewan and Piyali Baruah were executed for their roles. In 1861 peasants of Nagaon gathered at Phulaguri for
2490-645: The Central-Southwestern Tai, followed by the Xi Ou , which became the Northern Tai ). Comparative linguistic research seems to indicate that the Tai peoples were a Proto-Tai–Kadai speaking culture of southern China and dispersed into mainland Southeast Asia. Some linguists proposes that Tai–Kadai languages may descended from the Proto-Austronesian language family. Laurent Sagart (2004) hypothesized that
2573-516: The Chief Commissioner's Province. The new region, now ruled by a Lt. Governor, had its capital at Dhaka . This province had a 15-member legislative council in which Assam had two seats. The members for these seats were recommended (not elected) by rotating groups of public bodies. The Partition of Bengal was strongly protested in Bengal, and the people of Assam were not happy either. The partition
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2656-610: The Chutiya kingdoms, a Shan group, led by Sukaphaa , established the Ahom kingdom . The 16th century is crucial in the history of medieval period because of the consolidation of the Ahoms (who annexed the Bhutiya kingdom and pushed the Kachari kingdom away from central Assam) in the east, the Koch in the west and the growth of Ekasarana Dharma of Srimanta Sankardev . After the death of Nara Narayan of
2739-705: The Daphabum area of Lohit district in Arunachal Pradesh which used stone tools from metamorphic rocks . The cave-based Paleolithic sites at Khangkhui in Ukhrul , Manipur , are placed in the Late Pleistocene period. There exists evidence of a microlithic culture in the Rongram Valley of Garo Hills that lie between the neolithic layers and virgin soil. The microliths here were made of dolerite , unlike those from
2822-415: The Kachari group. From 1859 central Indian labor was imported for the tea plantations. This labor, based on an unbreakable contract, led to a virtual slavery of this labor group. The conditions in which they were transported to Assam were so horrific that about 10% never survived the journey. The colonial government already had monopoly over the opium trade. There were immediate protests and revolts against
2905-504: The Kamata kingdom. The Koch dynasty reached its peak under his sons, Nara Narayan and Chilarai . In the eastern part of present Assam, the Kachari (south bank of river Brahmaputra, central Assam) and the Chutiya (north bank of river Brahmaputra, eastern Assam) kingdoms arose, with some Bhuyan chiefs controlling the region just west of the Chutiya kingdom. In the tract between the Kachari and
2988-651: The Kamata kings, the Khens, were removed by Alauddin Hussain Shah in 1498. But Hussein Shah and subsequent rulers could not consolidate their rule in the Kamata kingdom, mainly due to the revolt by the Bhuyan chieftains , a relic of the Kamarupa administration, and other local groups. Soon after in the beginning of the 16th century Vishwa Singha of the Koch tribe established the Koch dynasty in
3071-499: The Khmers of the upper and central Menam valley and greatly extended their territory." During the Ming dynasty in China , attempts were made to subjugate, control, tax, and settle ethnic Han along the lightly populated frontier of Yunnan with Southeast Asia (modern-day Burma , Thailand , Laos , and Vietnam ). This frontier region was inhabited by many small Tai chieftainships or states as well as other Tibeto-Burman and Mon–Khmer ethnic groups. The Ming Shi-lu records
3154-439: The Koch dynasty in the late 16th century, the Kamata kingdom broke into Koch Bihar in the west and Koch Hajo in the east. The rivalry between the two kingdoms resulted in the former allying with the Mughals and the latter with the Ahoms. Most of the 17th century saw the Ahom-Mughal conflicts , in which the Ahoms held the expansive Mughals at bay epitomized in the Battle of Saraighat of 1671, and which finally ended in 1682 with
3237-480: The Tai–Kadai languages may have originated on the island of Taiwan , where they spoke a dialect of Proto-Austronesian or one of its descendant languages. Unlike the Malayo-Polynesian group who later sailed south to the Philippines and other parts of maritime Southeast Asia, the ancestors of the modern Tai-Kadai people sailed west to mainland China and possibly traveled along the Pearl River , where their language greatly changed from other Austronesian languages under
3320-422: The Thai culture is a mixture of Tai traditions with Indic, Mon, and Khmer influences. The formidable political control exercised by the Khmer Empire extended not only over the centre of the Khmer province, where the majority of the population was Khmer, but also to outer border provinces likely populated by non-Khmer peoples—including areas to the north and northeast of modern Bangkok , the lower central plain and
3403-515: The Vietnamese cordillera into the Mekong Valley . The third and major migration direction crossed the valleys of the Red and Black River , heading west through the hills into Burma and Assam. As a result of these three bloody centuries, or with the political and cultural pressures from the north, some Tai peoples migrated southwestward, where they met the classical Indianized civilizations of Southeast Asia . Du Yuting and Chen Lufan from Kunming Institute Southeast Asian Studies claimed that, during
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3486-420: The attacks from the Bengal Sultanate , the first of which took place in 1206 by Bakhtiyar Khilji as mentioned in the Kanai-boroxiboa rock inscription, after the breakup of the ancient kingdom and the sprouting of medieval kingdoms and chieftain-ships in its place. The colonial era began with the establishment of British control after the Treaty of Yandaboo in 1826, and the post-colonial era began in 1947 after
3569-430: The bulk. The other members were elected by local public bodies like municipalities, local boards, landholders, tea planters and Muslims. As Assam got sucked into the Non-Cooperation Movement , the Assam Association slowly transformed itself into the Assam Pradesh Congress Committee (with 5 seats in AICC ) in 1920–21. Dyarchy (1921–1937): Under the Government of India Act 1919 the Assam Legislative Council membership
3652-418: The defeat of the Mughals at Itakhuli in Guwahati . The Ahom kingdom reached its westernmost boundary till Manas River which it retains until 1826. Though the Ahom kingdom saw itself as the inheritor of the glory of the erstwhile Kamarupa kingdom and aspired to extend itself to the Karatoya river, it could never do so; though an Ahom general, Ton Kham under Suhungmung , reached the river once when he pursued
3735-444: The early medieval and medieval times. The religious literature of the Neo-Vaishnavite movement introduced by Sankaradeva are other important primary sources for the region's history. The history of Assam can be divided into four eras. The ancient era began in the 4th century with the mention of Kamarupa in Samudragupta's inscriptions on the Allahabad pillar and the establishment of the Kamarupa kingdom . The medieval era began with
3818-515: The genetic connection between these two language families: Tai people tend to have high frequencies of Y-DNA haplogroup O-M95 (including its O-M88 subclade, which also has been found with high frequency among Vietnamese and among Kuy people in Laos, where they are also known as Suy, Soai, or Souei, and Cambodia ), moderate frequencies of Y-DNA haplogroup O-M122 (especially its O-M117 subclade, like speakers of Tibeto-Burman languages ), and moderate to low frequencies of haplogroup O-M119 . It
3901-429: The hills. The Tai village consisted of nuclear families working as subsistence rice farmers, living in small houses elevated above the ground. Households bonded together for protection from external attacks and to share the burden of communal repairs and maintenance. Within the village, a council of elders was created to help settle problems, organise festivals and rites and manage the village. Villages would combine to form
3984-421: The immigrant population from East Bengal increased four folds. The immigration continued in post colonial times, giving rise to the Assam Agitation of 1979. Assam Legislative Council (1912–1920): The administrative unit was reverted to a Chief Commissioner's Province (Assam plus Sylhet), with a Legislative Council added. The council had 25 members, of which the Chief Commissioner and 13 nominated members formed
4067-471: The influence of Sino-Tibetan and Hmong–Mien language infusion. However, no archaeological evidence has been identified which would correspond to the Daic (Tai-Kadai) expansion in its earliest phases. Aside from linguistic evidence, the connection between Austronesian and Tai-Kadai can also be found in some common cultural practices. Roger Blench (2008) demonstrates that dental evulsion , face tattooing , teeth blackening and snake cults are shared between
4150-448: The kingdom of Jaintia was also annexed. In 1842, the region of Matak and Sadiya was also annexed by British authorities, and in 1854, the North Cachar Hill district, under Tularam Senapati's administration, was also annexed into British Empire, thereby completing their conquest and consolidation of their rule in Assam . Bengal Presidency (1826–1873): Assam was included as a part of the Bengal Presidency . The annexation of upper Assam
4233-427: The language was then heavily influenced by local languages from Sino-Tibetan , Hmong–Mien , or other families, borrowing much vocabulary and converging typologically . Later, Sagart (2008) introduces a numeral-based model of Austronesian phylogeny, in which Tai-Kadai is considered as a later form of FATK , a branch of Austronesian belonging to subgroup Puluqic developed in Taiwan, whose speakers migrated back to
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#17331060113404316-404: The late 9th century, a new ruler, Brahmapala was elected, who established the Pala dynasty . The last Pala king was removed by the Gaur king, Ramapala, in 1110. But the two subsequent kings, Timgyadeva and Vaidyadeva, though established by the Gaur kings, ruled mostly as independents and issued grants under the old Kamarupa seals. The fall of subsequent kings and the rise of individual kingdoms in
4399-492: The mainland, both to Guangdong, Hainan and northern Vietnam around the second half of the 3rd millennium BCE. Upon their arrival in this region, they underwent linguistic contact with an unknown population, resulting in a partial relexification of FATK vocabulary. On the other hand, Weera Ostapirat supports a coordinate relationship between Tai-Kadai and Austronesian, based on a number of phonological correspondences. The following are Tai-Kadai and Austronesian lexical items showing
4482-750: The many languages in the Tai branch of the Tai–Kadai language family are spread over many countries in Southern China , Indochina and Northeast India . Unsurprisingly, there are many terms used to describe the distinct Tai peoples of these regions. According to Michel Ferlus , the ethnonyms Tai/Thai (or Tay/Thay) evolved from the etymon *k(ə)ri: 'human being' through the following chain: kəri: > kəli: > kədi:/kədaj ( -l- > -d- shift in tense sesquisyllables and probable diphthongization of -i: > -aj ). This in turn changed to di:/daj (presyllabic truncation and probable diphthongization -i: > -aj ). And then to *daj (Proto-Southwestern Tai) > tʰaj (in Siamese and Lao) or > taj (in
4565-430: The masters of Brahmaputra Valley and they began to consolidate their rule in Assam. In 1830, the Kachari king Govinda Chandra was assassinated. Seizing this opportunity, the British annexed Kachari kingdom in 1832. In 1833, the Ahom prince Purandar Singha was made a tributary ruler in Upper Assam. But owing to mismanagement and failure to pay regular revenue, the British authorities annexed his kingdom in 1838. In 1835,
4648-456: The middle Yangtze river. The Tai migrants assimilated and intermarried with the indigenous Austroasiatic peoples of Southeast Asia, or pushing them off to marginal areas, but their full expansion was halted by the Indian-influenced kingdoms of the Mon , Khmer and Cham , although the Khmer were the primary power in Southeast Asia by the time of the Tai migrations. The Tai formed small city-states known as mueang under Khmer suzerainty on
4731-423: The migrating event with the arrival of "9,000 Tai peoples, 8 noblemen, two elephants, and 300 horses" to Assam . Vietnamese scribers recorded groups of two- or three thousand "Mang savages" passing by. According to Baker, those migrants might have slowly exodused from their homeland via three routes. The early groups moved north to Guizhou . The second groups might have passed through the Red River Delta , crossing
4814-419: The modern Guangxi to the mainland of Southeast Asia must have taken place sometime between the 8th–10th centuries. Tai speaking tribes migrated southwestward along the rivers and over the lower passes into Southeast Asia, perhaps prompted by the Chinese expansion and suppression. Chinese historical texts record that, in 726 AD, hundreds of thousands Lǎo (獠) rose in revolt behind Liang Ta-hai in Guangdong , but
4897-430: The name of North Vietnam given by the ancient Chinese, would have emerged from the Austro-Asiatic *k(ə)ra:w 'human being'. lǎo 獠 < MC lawX < OC *C-rawʔ [C. rawˀ ] jiāo 交 < MC kæw < OC *kraw [ k.raw ] The etymon *k(ə)ra:w would have also yielded the ethnonym Keo/ Kæw kɛːw , a name given to the Vietnamese by Tai speaking peoples, currently slightly derogatory. In fact, Keo/ Kæw kɛːw
4980-407: The north gradually settled in the Chao Phraya valley from the tenth century onwards, in lands of the Dvaravati culture, assimilating the earlier Austroasiatic Mon and Khmer people, as well as coming into contact with the Khmer Empire. The Tais who came to the area of present-day Thailand were engulfed into the Theravada Buddhism of the Mon and the Hindu-Khmer culture and statecraft . Therefore,
5063-466: The north of modern Thailand). The Sukhothai Kingdom was founded in 1279 (in modern Thailand) and expanded eastward to take the city of Chantaburi and renamed it to Vieng Chan Vieng Kham (modern Vientiane ) and northward to the city of Muang Sua which was taken in 1271 and renamed the city to Xieng Dong Xieng Thong or "City of Flame Trees beside the River Dong," (modern Luang Prabang , Laos). The Tai peoples had firmly established control in areas to
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#17331060113405146-420: The northeast of the declining Khmer Empire. Following the death of the Sukhothai king Ram Khamhaeng , and internal disputes within the kingdom of Lanna, both Vieng Chan Vieng Kham (Vientiane) and Xieng Dong Xieng Thong (Luang Prabang) were independent city-states until the founding of the kingdom of Lan Xang in 1354. The Sukhothai Kingdom and later the Ayutthaya kingdom were established and "...conquered
5229-519: The origin of the Kra–Dai language family in southern China. The Tai branch moved south into Southeast Asia only around 1000 AD. Chinese epigraphic materials from Chu texts show clear substrate influence predominantly from Tai-Kadai, and a few items of Austroasiatic and Hmong-Mien origin. In a paper published in 2004, the linguist Laurent Sagart hypothesized that the proto-Tai–Kadai language originated as an Austronesian language that migrants carried from Taiwan to mainland China. Afterwards,
5312-459: The other Southwestern and Central Tai languages by Li Fangkuei ). Michel Ferlus ' work is based on some simple rules of phonetic change observable in the Sinosphere and studied for the most part by William H. Baxter (1992). The ethnonym and autonym of the Lao people (lǎo 獠) together with the ethnonym Gelao (Gēlǎo 仡佬), a Kra population scattered from Guìzhōu (China) to North Vietnam, and Sino-Vietnamese 'Jiao' as in Jiaozhi (jiāo zhǐ 交趾),
5395-425: The outskirts of the Khmer Empire , building the irrigation infrastructure and paddy fields for the wet-rice cultivation methods of the Tai people. Tai legends of Khun Borom , shared among various Southwestern Tai peoples of Southeast Asia , Greater Assam and Yunnan , concerns the first ruler of Meuang Thaen , whose progeny go on to find the Tai dynasties that ruled over the various Tai mueang . The Tais from
5478-401: The period of the Khmer Empire was one of great internal strife. During the 11th and 12th centuries, territories with a strong Tai presence, such as Lavo (in what is now north-central Thailand), resisted Khmer control. The Tai, from their new home in Southeast Asia, were influenced by the Khmer and the Mon and most importantly Buddhist India. The Tai kingdom of Lanna was founded in 1259 (in
5561-417: The region exist but have not yet been discovered. Though the metal age seems to be missing in Assam, the Iron Age Megalithic culture of South India finds an echo in the rich megalithic culture in the region, which begins to appear earlier than the late second millennium BCE, and which continues till today among the Khasi and the Naga people. The affinity is with Southeast Asia. The megalithic culture
5644-438: The relations between the Ming court in Beijing and the Tai-Yunnan frontier as well as Ming military actions and diplomacy along the frontier. The first communication between the Ming dynasty and Yunnan was in a formal "letter of instruction" using ritual language. Submission to the Ming was described as part of the cosmological order: "From ancient times, those who have been lords of all under Heaven have looked on that which
5727-429: The rest of India. Shreds of crude hand-made pottery indicate that the microlithic people were hunters and food-gatherers. Early Neolithic cultures based on the unifacially flaked hand-axe in the Garo hills have developed in line with the Hoabinhian culture, and it is conjectured that this region was the contact point for the Indian and the Southeast Asian cultures. The Late neolithic cultures have affinities with
5810-442: The spread of the Mon Khmer speaking people from Malaysia and the Ayeyarwady valley and late neolithic developments in South China . Since these cultures have been dated to 4500–4000 BCE, the Assam sites are dated to approximately that period. These neolithic sites, though widely spread, are concentrated in the hills and high grounds, due possibly to the floods. These cultures performed shifting cultivation called jhum , which
5893-441: The state of Yue and conquering the state of Wu shortly thereafter. According to Chamberlain, Yue people (Be-Tai) began to migrate southwards along the east coast of China to what are now Guangxi, Guizhou and northern Vietnam, after Yue was conquered by Chu around 333 BCE. There the Yue (Be-Tai) formed the Luo Yue , which moved into Lingnan and Annam and then westward into northeastern Laos and Sip Song Chau Tai , and later became
5976-588: The subsequent Treaty of Yandaboo , control of Assam passed into the hands of the British, which marks the end of the Medieval period. In 1824, the First Anglo-Burmese War broke out. The British attacked the Burmese garrison in Assam and by 1825, the Burmese were expelled from Assam . According to the Treaty of Yandabo , the Burmese Monarch Bagyidaw renounce all claims on Assam . The British thus became
6059-479: The sudden rise of Gopinath Bordoloi and Muhammed Saadulah and their tussle for power and influence. In 1979, Assam flared into Assam Agitation (or Assam Movement) a popular movement against illegal immigration. The movement, led AASU and AAGSP , set an agitational program to compel the government to identify and expel illegal immigrants and prevent new immigration. The agitational programs were largely non-violent, but there were incidents of acute violence, like
6142-515: The two succeeding dynasties drew their lineage from the mythical Narakasura . The kingdom reached its zenith under Bhaskaravarman in the 7th century. Xuanzang visited his court and left behind a significant account. Bhaskaravarman died without leaving behind an issue and the control of the country passed to Salasthamba, who established the Mlechchha dynasty . After the fall of the Mlechchha dynasty in
6225-612: The upper Ping River in the Lamphun - Chiang Mai region. The Tai people were the predominant non-Khmer groups in the areas of central Thailand that formed the geographical periphery of the Khmer Empire. Some Tai groups were probably assimilated into the Khmer population. Historical records show that the Tai maintained their cultural distinctiveness, although their animist religion partially gave way to Buddhism . Tai historical documents note that
6308-539: The uprisings at Phulaguri (1861), Rangia (1893-94),Lachima(1894) and Patharughat (1894). In present-day Assam, villagers continue to meet in raijmels . Notes [ edit ] ^ ( Guha 1977 :53f) References [ edit ] Guha, Amalendu (1977), Planter-Raj to Swaraj , Indian Council of Historical Research Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Raijmel&oldid=1225237384 " Category : History of Assam History of Assam The history of Assam
6391-599: Was an exonym used to refer to Tai speaking peoples, as in the epic poem of Thao Cheuang , and was only later applied to the Vietnamese. In Pupeo ( Kra branch ), kew is used to name the Tay ( Central Tai ) of North Vietnam. The name "Lao" is used almost exclusively by the majority population of Laos , the Lao people , and two of the three other members of the Lao-Phutai subfamily of Southwestern Tai: Isan speakers (occasionally),
6474-520: Was finally annulled by a royal decree in 1911. The Swadeshi movement (1905–1908) from this period, went largely unfelt in Assam, though it stirred some, most notably Ambikagiri Raychoudhury . Beginning 1905 peasants from East Bengal began settling down in the riverine tracts ( char ) of the Brahmaputra valley encouraged by the colonial government to increase agricultural production and government had successful on that mission[ ]. Between 1905 and 1921,
6557-519: Was increased to 53, of which 33 were elected by special constituencies. The powers of the council were increased too; but in effect, the official group, consisting of the Europeans, the nominated members etc. had the most influence. Assam Legislative Assembly (1937–1947): Under the Government of India Act 1935 , the council was expanded into an Assembly of 108 members, with even more powers. The period saw
6640-413: Was more than adequately compensated by the immigrant labor. Colonialism was well entrenched, and the tea, oil and coal-mining industries were putting increasing pressure on the agricultural sector which was lagging behind. The peasants, burdened under the opium monopoly and the usury by money lenders, rose again in revolt. Numerous raiz mels decided against paying the taxes. The protests culminated in
6723-636: Was murdered in 1374 and another mission was sent in 1375. Once again the mission failed. A diplomatic mission was sent to Burma in 1374, but because Annam was at war with Champa the roads were blocked and the mission was recalled. By 1380 the Ming were no longer wording their communications as if Yunnan was a separate country. Initial gentle promptings were soon to be followed by military force. Tai languages spoken today use incredibly diverse scripts, from Chinese characters to abugida scripts. The high diversity of Kra–Dai languages in southern China possibly points to
6806-534: Was suppressed by Chinese general Yang Zixu, which left 20,000 rebels killed and beheaded. Two years later, another Li chief named Chen Xingfan declared himself the Emperor of Nanyue and led a large uprising against the Chinese, but was also crushed by Yang Zixu, who beheaded 60,000 rebels. In 756, another revolt led by Huang Chien-yao and Chen Ch'ung-yu that attracted 200,000 followers and lasted four years in Guangxi. In
6889-559: Was the precursor of the fertility cult and the Saktism and the Vajrayana Buddhism that followed. The historical account of Assam begins with the establishment of Pushyavarman's Varman dynasty in the 4th century in the Kamarupa kingdom , which marks the beginning of Ancient Assam. The kingdom reached its traditional extent, from the Karatoya in the west to Sadiya in the east. This and
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