171-689: Q8 may refer to: Common abbreviation for Kuwait , used due to its phonetic similarity with the country's name Kuwait Petroleum International , a subsidiary of Kuwait Petroleum Corporation which trades under the "Q8" brand Audi Q8 , a mid-size luxury crossover SUV coupé Q8 (New York City bus) Quad 8 , the Quadraphonic version of Stereo 8 Q (TV series) , 4th series of Spike Milligan's TV comedy sketch show Pacific East Asia Cargo Airlines , IATA designator Trans Air Congo , IATA designator The quaternion group Q 8 Quran 8 , al-ʾanfāl
342-608: A 42-country UNSC military coalition forced all Iraqi troops out of Kuwait. The international community sanctioned Iraq, cutting it off from all global markets. Consequently, the Iraqi economy worsened for the remainder of the 1990s, but began to gradually rebound by the early 2000s, primarily because many countries started ignoring sanctions enforcement. Following the September 11 attacks , the United States' Bush administration began building
513-627: A British protectorate . This gave Britain exclusive access and trade with Kuwait, while denying Ottoman and Germany provinces to the north a port on the Persian Gulf. The Sheikhdom of Kuwait remained a British protectorate until 1961. After the Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1913 , Kuwait was established as an autonomous kaza , or district, of the Ottoman Empire and a de facto protectorate of Great Britain . During World War I ,
684-740: A Syrian-led branch ), the National Command never controlled the whole Ba'ath movement; there was a National Command headquartered in Syria, which commanded another Ba'ath movement. Another problem was the fact that the National Commands in Iraq and Syria were under the control of the country's respective regional commands. The National Progressive Front (NPF) was a popular front led by the Iraqi Ba'ath Party, established on 17 July 1973 (the fifth anniversary of
855-415: A maritime border with Iran , across the Persian Gulf. Most of the country's population reside in the urban agglomeration of Kuwait City , the capital and largest city. As of 2024 , Kuwait has a population of 4.82 million, of which 1.53 million are Kuwaiti citizens while the remaining 3.29 million are foreign nationals from over 100 countries. Kuwait has the third largest foreign-born population in
1026-459: A revolution " and claimed that "[Saddam] will flee the battlefield when he becomes certain that the catastrophe has engulfed every street, every house and every family in Iraq". Believing that the United States was on its side, a nationwide uprising against Saddam's rule began in March 1991 which was repressed by Saddam's loyalist forces. The Coalition successfully established a no-fly zone to halt
1197-407: A case for invading Iraq and overthrowing Saddam's regime. They falsely asserted that Iraq still possessed weapons of mass destruction and that Saddam had links with al-Qaeda . In December 2003, American troops captured Saddam and turned him over to Iraq's new Shia-led government. From 2005 to 2006, Saddam was put on trial for crimes against humanity concerning the 1982 Dujail massacre , in which
1368-537: A decade. With the success of the Iranian revolution , Iraq became the second-largest oil exporter in the world. The increase in oil exports rejuvenated the country's economy; nearly all economic indices increased to unprecedented levels. From 1970 to 1980, Iraq's economy grew by 11.7 percent. During the Iran–Iraq War Iraq's oil-exporting capabilities decreased, and the price for oil decreased simultaneously. The growth of
1539-572: A hateful epithet normally used by ultraconservative Salafis only. The Ba'ath Party policy towards the Soviet Union was, at first, one of neutrality and the party's seizure of power in 1968 was not considered an important event in Moscow. The Soviet Union (which remembered the Ba'ath Party's anti-communist purge during its 1963 stint in power) gradually improved its relations with Iraq; in 1969, it guaranteed Iraq
1710-552: A hub for the civilization from the end of the 3rd to the middle of the 1st millennium BC. After the Dilmun civilization, Failaka was inhabited by the Kassites of Mesopotamia , and was formally under the control of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon . Studies indicate traces of human settlement can be found on Failaka dating back to as early as the end of the 3rd millennium BC, and extending until
1881-462: A joint venture of Ballast Nedam . The Al Sabah strongly advocated Islamism throughout the 1980s. At that time, the most serious threat to the continuity of Al Sabah came from home-grown democrats, who were protesting the 1976 suspension of the parliament . The Al Sabah were attracted to Islamists preaching the virtues of a hierarchical order that included loyalty to the Kuwaiti monarchy. In 1981,
SECTION 10
#17328562083912052-604: A major defeat to the Iranians in the 1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes , Saddam met with Iranian monarch Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and, with the ratification of the 1975 Algiers Agreement , ceded parts of Iraqi territory in exchange for Iran's termination of support for the Kurds. With the Kurdish rebellion subsequently disadvantaged, the Iraqi military reasserted the federal government's control over Iraqi Kurdistan . In 1979, al-Bakr resigned from
2223-462: A man who kills a woman in defense of the honour of his family. This new influx of religious involvement into the government had sectarian undertones. The government's attempt to cloak itself in Islamic conservatism saw it launch verbal attacks on Iran, which were perceived by Shia Iraqis as being veiled attacks on their community, due to the shared faith between them and Iran. Sunni rhetoric emitting from
2394-576: A principal commercial center for the transit of goods between Baghdad , India, Persia, Muscat , and the Arabian Peninsula . By the late-1700s, Kuwait had established itself as a trading route from the Persian Gulf to Aleppo . During the Persian siege of Basra in 1775–79 , Iraqi merchants took refuge in Kuwait and were partly instrumental in the expansion of Kuwait's boat-building and trading activities. As
2565-480: A result of the worldwide economic depression. At its height, Kuwait's pearl industry had led the world's luxury market, regularly sending out between 750 and 800 ships to meet the European elite's desire for pearls. During the economic depression, luxuries like pearls were in little demand. The Japanese invention of cultured pearls also contributed to the collapse of Kuwait's pearl industry. Freya Stark wrote about
2736-605: A result, Kuwait's maritime commerce boomed, as the Indian trade routes with Baghdad, Aleppo, Smyrna and Constantinople were diverted to Kuwait during this time. The East India Company was diverted to Kuwait in 1792. The East India Company secured the sea routes between Kuwait, India and the east coasts of Africa. After the Persians withdrew from Basra in 1779, Kuwait continued to attract trade away from Basra. The flight of many of Basra's leading merchants to Kuwait continued to play
2907-400: A series of Iraqi military victories, a ceasefire was agreed between Iraq and Iran; the war is commonly considered status quo ante bellum . In 1989, Saddam Hussein initiated a campaign to strengthen Iraqi nationalism by rebuilding ancient temples and palaces, encouraging all Iraqis to view their country as the cradle of civilization in justification for war with Iran. In the aftermath of
3078-508: A significant role in Basra's commercial stagnation well into the 1850s. The instability in Basra helped foster economic prosperity in Kuwait. In the late 18th century, Kuwait was a haven for Basra merchants fleeing Ottoman persecution. Kuwait was the center of boat building in the Persian Gulf, its ships renowned throughout the Indian Ocean . Its sailors developed a positive reputation in
3249-601: A sizable amount of modern arms and technical aid. Relations improved during the nationalisation drive of the Iraqi Petroleum Company (IPC) (see "Economic growth" section ). Saddam Hussein visited the Soviet Union in the early 1970s, and the visit led to the signing of the Iraqi–Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Co-operation and the establishment of trade relations. In April 1972 Alexei Kosygin , Chairman of
3420-460: A stalemate in 1988, when both sides accepted UNSC Resolution 598 . Iraq emerged from the conflict under a steep economic depression while owing millions of dollars to foreign countries. Kuwait , which had loaned money to Iraq during the conflict, began demanding repayment, although Iraq was not in a position to do so. The Kuwaiti government subsequently increased the country's oil output, greatly reducing international oil prices and further weakening
3591-408: A symbol for his strength. Daud was also "rewarded" with a post; he became Minister of Defence. However, not everything was going according to Naif's and Daud's plan; al-Bakr had told the Ba'ath leadership in a secret meeting that the two would be liquidated either "during, or after, the revolution". al-Bakr, as the leader of the coup's military operation, retained his position as Regional Secretary of
SECTION 20
#17328562083913762-417: Is militarist , viewing political disputes and conflict from a military standpoint as "battles" requiring "fighting", "mobilization", "battlefields", "bastions" and "trenches". Saddamism was officially supported by Saddam Hussein's government and promoted by the Iraqi daily newspaper Babil , which was owned by Saddam's son Uday Hussein . Saddam Hussein and his ideologists sought to fuse a connection between
3933-445: Is called the "golden era of Kuwait". In 1946, crude oil was exported for the first time. In 1950, a major public-work programme began to enable Kuwaiti citizens to enjoy a luxurious standard of living. By 1952, the country became the largest oil exporter in the Persian Gulf region. This massive growth attracted many foreign workers, especially from Palestine, Iran, India, and Egypt – with the latter being particularly political within
4104-589: Is different from Wikidata All article disambiguation pages All disambiguation pages Kuwait Kuwait , officially the State of Kuwait , is a country in West Asia . It is situated in the northern edge of the Arabian Peninsula at the tip of the Persian Gulf , bordering Iraq to the north and Saudi Arabia to the south . With a coastline of approximately 500 km (311 mi), Kuwait also shares
4275-524: Is that the plan's final draft was not accepted by the highest economic elite but by the RCC, the political elite. In 1976 (as a break with the new trend) the RCC introduced the National Development Plan, which was set to last from 1976 to 1980. Unlike the previous plans, the sectoral investment-allocation figures were not made public. The Iraq Petroleum Company (IPC), the largest oil company in Iraq,
4446-533: Is the time when the Arab people unite to establish one Arab nation. The end of the transitional era would be marked by a permanent constitution; the 1970 constitution was only temporary. The Ba'ath Party dominated all government institutions, and the top decision-making body in the country was the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). The RCC was controlled by the Ba'ath Party; RCC members had to be members of
4617-529: The 17 July Revolution ). The NPF charter was signed by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr (representing the Ba'ath Party) and Aziz Muhammad (First Secretary of the Iraqi Communist Party , or ICP). In Al-Thawrah , a Ba'athist newspaper, the charter was hailed as a success for the revolution. The ICP was the most prominent party to join; however, it left the NPF in March 1979. While officially an independent organisation (and
4788-581: The 1985 Kuwait City bombings , and the hijacking of several Kuwait Airways planes. Kuwait's economy and scientific research sector significantly suffered due to the pro-Iran terror attacks. Simultaneously, Kuwait experienced a major economic crisis after the Souk Al-Manakh stock market crash and decrease in oil price . After the Iran–Iraq War ended, Kuwait declined an Iraqi request to forgive its US$ 65 billion debt. An economic rivalry between
4959-545: The Battle of Chains between the Sassanid Empire and Rashidun Caliphate was fought in Kuwait. As a result of Rashidun victory in 636 AD, the bay of Kuwait was home to the city of Kazma (also known as "Kadhima" or "Kāzimah") in the early Islamic era. In the early to mid 1700s, Kuwait City was a small fishing village . Administratively, it was a sheikhdom, ruled by local sheikhs from Bani Khalid clan. Sometime in
5130-560: The British Empire imposed a trade blockade against Kuwait because Kuwait's ruler at the time, Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah , supported the Ottoman Empire . The British economic blockade heavily damaged Kuwait's economy. In 1919, Sheikh Salim Al-Mubarak Al-Sabah intended to build a commercial city in the south of Kuwait. This caused a diplomatic crisis with Najd, but Britain intervened, discouraging Sheikh Salim. In 1920, an attempt by
5301-660: The Council of Ministers , visited Iraq and met with high-ranking officials. Kosygin's visit forced the Iraqi Communist Party (ICP) to improve its relations with the Ba'ath Party; two ICP members were given cabinet positions and repression of the ICP ended. Relations between Iraq and the Soviet Union were at its zenith during al-Bakr's rule. Iraq became a member of the Comecon (the Eastern Bloc trading organisation) as an observer in 1975. During
Q8 - Misplaced Pages Continue
5472-547: The Damascus-based Ba'ath Party . Once he assumed the presidency, a cult of personality was created around Saddam. He was represented as the father of the nation and, by extension, of the Iraqi people. National institutions (such as the National Assembly ) were established to strengthen the image of him fostered by the Iraqi propaganda machine. The Ba'ath Party also contributed to the cult of personality; by 1979 it
5643-588: The Ikhwan to build a stronghold in southern Kuwait led to the Battle of Hamdh . The Battle of Hamdh involved 2,000 Ikhwan fighters against 100 Kuwaiti cavalrymen and 200 Kuwaiti infantrymen . The battle lasted for six days and resulted in heavy but unknown casualties on both sides resulting in the victory of the Ikhwan forces and leading to the battle of Jahra around the Kuwait Red Fort. The Battle of Jahra happened as
5814-508: The Iran–Iraq War , Kuwait intentionally increased the country's oil output; this led to an international price decrease in oil. Saddam reacted by threatening to invade Kuwait if it continued to increase its oil output (which Kuwait did nevertheless). Saudi Arabia , frightened by Saddam's military strength, then persuaded Kuwait to lower its oil output. However, when Kuwait lowered its oil output Venezuela increased its output. Saddam then ordered
5985-801: The Iraqi Army or the country's paramilitary forces , such as the Popular Army and Fedayeen Saddam . The largest opposition forces were headquartered in Iraqi Kurdistan , represented by the Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP) and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan . Other organisations who opposed the regime were the Iraqi Communist Party (ICP), the al-Da'wa Party (headquartered in Tehran ) and
6156-569: The Ministry of Defence , the electricity station, radio stations, all the city's bridges and "a number of military bases". All telephone lines were cut at 03:00, by which time several tanks had been commanded to halt in front of the Presidential Palace. Abdul Rahman Arif , the then- President of Iraq , first knew of the coup when jubilant members of the Republican Guard started shooting into
6327-571: The National Progressive Front (NPF). The reason for this "curious game" was the Ba'ath Party's belief that the ICP was more dangerous than it really was. When Aziz al-Haji broke away from the ICP, established the Iraqi Communist Party (Central Command) and initiated a "popular revolutionary war" against the government, it was duly crushed. By April 1969 the "popular revolutionary" uprising had been crushed, and al-Haji recanted his beliefs publicly. Another reason for this anti-communist policy
6498-826: The Neo-Babylonian Empire period, Nabonidus had a governor in Failaka and Nebuchadnezzar II had a palace and temple in Falaika. Failaka also contained temples dedicated to the worship of Shamash , the Mesopotamian sun god in the Babylonian pantheon. Following the Fall of Babylon , the bay of Kuwait came under the control of the Achaemenid Empire (c. 550‒330 BC) as the bay was repopulated after seven centuries of abandonment. Failaka
6669-578: The Parthian Empire and the kingdom of Characene was established around Teredon in present-day Kuwait. Characene was centered in the region encompassing southern Mesopotamia, Characene coins were discovered in Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Failaka. A busy Parthian commercial station was situated in Kuwait. In 224 AD, Kuwait became part of the Sassanid Empire . At the time of the Sassanid Empire, Kuwait
6840-618: The Republic of Iraq (1992–2003), was the Iraqi one party state between 1968 and 2003 under the rule of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party . This period began with high economic growth, but ended with the country facing severe levels of socio-political isolation and economic stagnation. By the late 1990s, the average annual income had decreased drastically due to a combination of external and internal factors. UNSC sanctions against Iraq , in particular, were widely criticized for negatively impacting
7011-624: The Saudi Arabia -based radio station Voice of Free Iraq (funded and operated by the Central Intelligence Agency ) broadcast a message to the Iraqis to rise up and overthrow Saddam. The speaker on the radio was Salah Omar al-Ali , a former member of the Ba'ath Party and the ruling Revolutionary Command Council . Al-Ali's message urged the Iraqis to overthrow the "criminal tyrant of Iraq". Al-Ali's radio broadcast encouraged Iraqis to "stage
Q8 - Misplaced Pages Continue
7182-520: The Sunni -dominated Ba'athist government was drawn into an escalating conflict with the religious separatism among Shia Muslims and the ethnic separatism among Kurds . The then-ongoing Second Iraqi–Kurdish War , in particular, was increasingly becoming a concern for the government, because Kurdish rebels were receiving extensive support from Iran , Israel , and the United States . After the Iraqis suffered
7353-498: The hijab in the 1960s and 70s. Although Kuwait formally gained independence in 1961, Iraq initially refused to recognize the country's independence by maintaining that Kuwait is part of Iraq, albeit Iraq later briefly backed down following a show of force by Britain and Arab League support of Kuwait's independence. The short-lived Operation Vantage crisis evolved in July 1961, as the Iraqi government threatened to invade Kuwait and
7524-485: The original Ba'ath Party , the Iraqi-led Ba'ath Party's key slogans were "A single Arab nation with an eternal message" and "Unity, freedom, socialism". The first slogan refers to pan-Arabism and Arab nationalism . Al-Arsuzi believed that unity of the Arab people, and the establishment of an Arab nation , would lead to its becoming as strong as (or stronger than) the Soviet Union and the United States . Liberty, in
7695-538: The toppling of his statue at Firdos Square by Iraqi civilians, ending almost 35 years of Ba'athist rule. The Ba'ath Party was banned by the Coalition Provisional Authority following Iraq's invasion on 1 May. Saddam was captured later that year , and was executed in 2006 . The 1970 Iraqi Constitution stated that Iraq was in a transitional phase of development; in Ba'athist ideology , the transitional stage
7866-537: The "State of Kuwait" since 1961. Following the post-glacial flooding of the Persian Gulf basin , debris from the Tigris–Euphrates river formed a substantial delta, creating most of the land in present-day Kuwait and establishing the present coastlines. One of the earliest evidence of human habitation in Kuwait dates back to 8000 BC where Mesolithic tools were found in Burgan . Historically, most of present-day Kuwait
8037-534: The 1932 border of Kuwait. Under the terms of the newly drafted Constitution , Kuwait held its first parliamentary elections in 1963 . Kuwait University was established in 1966. Kuwait's theatre industry became well known throughout the region. After the 1967 Six Day War , Kuwait along with other Arabic speaking countries voted the three no's of the Khartoum Resolution : no peace with Israel, no recognition of Israel, and no negotiations with Israel. From
8208-485: The 1970s level. In October 1988, because of Kuwait and the UAE, international oil prices had fallen to US$ 12 per barrel. The policy which the UAE (and especially Kuwait) followed hampered Iraq's economic growth. In the Iran–Iraq War's aftermath, Iraq had grown more dependent on oil prices. The result of Kuwait and the UAE's oil policies could be felt in 1990, when international oil prices decreased to US$ 13.67 per barrel. This time,
8379-492: The 1970s onward, Kuwait scored highest of all Arab countries on the Human Development Index . The Iraqi poet Ahmed Matar left Iraq in the 1970s to take refuge in the more liberal environment of Kuwait. Kuwait is the 25th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 Global Peace Index . The Kuwait-Iraq 1973 Samita border skirmish evolved on 20 March 1973, when Iraqi army units occupied El-Samitah near
8550-580: The 1970s was not sustainable. The economy was dependent on high oil prices and Iraq's oil-exporting capabilities; once oil was out of the picture, Iraq's growth would decrease dramatically (even more so during a war). The National Development Plan (1976–1980) ended with an 11-percent increase in GNP . The Iran–Iraq War would halt Iraq's economic development and lead to the economic stagnation seen during Saddam's later rule. When Iraq implemented its plans to bomb Iran, Iran retaliated by bombing Iraq's oil facilities. By
8721-429: The 20th century AD. Many of the artifacts found in Falaika are linked to Mesopotamian civilizations and seem to show that Failaka was gradually drawn toward the civilization based in Antioch . Under Nebuchadnezzar II , the bay of Kuwait was under Babylonian control. Cuneiform documents found in Failaka indicate the presence of Babylonians in the island's population. Babylonian Kings were present in Failaka during
SECTION 50
#17328562083918892-586: The 8th chapter of the Islamic Holy book See also [ edit ] 8Q (disambiguation) [REDACTED] Topics referred to by the same term This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title formed as a letter–number combination. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article. Retrieved from " https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Q8&oldid=1229913523 " Category : Letter–number combination disambiguation pages Hidden categories: Short description
9063-403: The Arab world as the most efficient. In contrast to the secular opposition, the religious opposition was better organised and stronger. Several religious opposition groups could appeal to Iraqis, because of the secular nature of the Ba'athist government. During the Iran–Iraq War the government allowed some degree of religious freedom, but only to win support from the populace. The Ba'ath Party
9234-648: The Arab world but not a system (as generally considered in the West) which opposes private property or supports economic equality . Saddamism ( Saddamiyya ) is a political ideology based on the politics related to (and pursued by) Saddam Hussein. It has also been referred to by Iraqi politicians as Saddamist Ba'athism ( Al-Ba'athiyya Al-Saddamiyya ). It is officially described as a distinct variation of Ba'athism. It espouses Iraqi nationalism and an Iraq-centred Arab world that calls upon Arab countries to adopt Saddamist Iraqi political discourse, and reject "the Nasserite discourse" which it claims collapsed after 1967. It
9405-418: The Arab-world stage for the first time under the banner of Nasserism and Gamal Abdel Nasser by criticising the Camp David Accords between Anwar Sadat of Egypt and the state of Israel . It was in this situation that Saddam took over the offices of president, Ba'ath Party leader and Revolutionary Command Council chairman. Izzat Ibrahim al-Duri was promoted to the office of vice-chairman (equivalent to
9576-543: The Arabian Peninsula and is known to have created among the leading artists in the region. Kuwaiti popular culture, in the form of theatre, radio, music, and television soap opera, is exported to neighboring Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states. Kuwait is a founding member of the GCC and is also a member of the United Nations , the Arab League , and OPEC . The name "Kuwait" is from the Kuwaiti Arabic diminutive form of كوت ( Kut or Kout ), meaning "fortress built near water". The country's official name has been
9747-478: The Ba'ath Party's Regional Command. Saddam Hussein , as President of Iraq , was also RCC chairman and General Secretary of the Ba'ath Party's Regional (and National) Command. All decisions within the RCC had to be decided by vote; a proposition could only be enacted if two-thirds of RCC members voted in favour of it. A Council of Ministers , the cabinet, was established on the orders of the RCC to execute RCC orders submitted to it. A National Assembly existed, which
9918-469: The Ba'ath Party's rule over Iraq, the agricultural sector had been under-performing. Those in the United States who supported sanctions believed that low agricultural production in Iraq (coupled with sanctions) would lead to "a hungry population", and "a hungry population was an unruly one". The Iraqi government, which understood the serious effects the sanctions could have on Iraq, were able to increase agricultural output by 24 percent from 1990 to 1991. During
10089-500: The Ba'ath Party, and was elected to the posts of Chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council , President and Prime Minister. In the immediate aftermath of the coup, a power struggle developed between al-Bakr and Naif. In all practicality, Naif should have had the upper hand; he was a respected officer and was supported by the common soldiers. al-Bakr, however, proved to be more cunning, persuasive and organised than Naif, Daud and their supporters. One of al-Bakr's first decisions in office
10260-414: The Ba'athist sense of the word, does not mean political liberty for the individual . Instead, when Ba'athists use the term "liberty" they refer to national independence from imperialism . Socialism in Ba'athist parlance means Arab socialism . Arab socialism is distinct from the international socialist movement, opposing Marx's rejection of nationalism. According to Aflaq, socialism is a means to modernise
10431-478: The Baathist regime on at least two occasions. In January 1970, an attempted coup led by two retired officers, Major General Abd al Ghani ar Rawi and Colonel Salih Mahdi as Samarrai , was thwarted as the conspirators entered the Republican Palace . In June 1973, a plot by Nazim Kazzar , a Shia and the director of internal security, to assassinate al Bakr and Saddam Husayn was also thwarted. Both coup attempts were followed by summary trials, executions, and purges of
SECTION 60
#173285620839110602-474: The Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States." In response, the U.S. covertly provided $ 16 million in aid to Kurdistan Democratic Party rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War . The U.S. was concerned with Iraq's position on Israeli– Palestinian politics. The U.S. also disliked Iraqi support for Palestinian militant groups, which led to Iraq's inclusion on
10773-411: The Great named Failaka Ikaros because it resembled the Aegean Island of that name in size and shape. Elements of Greek mythology were mixed with the local cults. "Ikaros" was also the name of a prominent city situated in Failaka. Large Hellenistic forts and Greek temples were uncovered. Archaeological remains of Greek colonization were also discovered in Akkaz, Umm an Namil, and Subiya. At
10944-420: The ICP cabinet positions in the new government; the ICP rejected this offer. al-Bakr responded by initiating a systematic campaign against the ICP and communist sympathisers. However, as historian Charles Tripp notes in A History of Iraq , the campaign started "a curious game" whereby the government alternately persecuted and courted the party until 1972–1973, when the ICP was offered, and accepted, membership in
11115-409: The ICP had no real power, and most of its leading officials had left the country or been imprisoned or executed by the Ba'ath government. The campaign was not centered on the ICP, but also Ba'athists who did not support Saddam. Saddam had initiated a similar campaign in 1978, that time to check where the loyalties of certain left-wingers were: Ba'athism or socialism. Following the campaign, Saddam entered
11286-495: The ICP was reintroduced. The Soviet Union tried to act as a mediator between the two parties, but Soviet involvement was considered by the Ba'athist government as Soviet interference in Iraq's internal affairs. During the Iran–Iraq War Leonid Brezhnev , General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , called the war "absolutely senseless" because the conflict only benefited imperialism . However, Soviet-Iranian relations deteriorated during
11457-422: The Iranian government would quickly disintegrate during the Iraqi invasion, this did not happen. Saddam, "in a rare moment of frankness, [...] admitted as much". While the war was not going as planned, Iraq reasserted its view of the situation, and claimed that winning the war was a matter of "national honour". The majority of the Ba'athist leadership (and Saddam himself) still believed that Iran would collapse under
11628-456: The Iraqi economy, while continuing to pressure the Iraqi leadership to repay the loans. Iraq demanded that the Kuwaitis reduce their oil output, as did OPEC . In 1989, Iraq accused Kuwait of slant drilling across the Iraq–Kuwait border to steal Iraqi petroleum, and demanded compensation. Failed bilateral negotiations resulted in the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, triggering the Gulf War . Iraq occupied Kuwait until February 1991, when
11799-489: The Iraqi government killed Shiite rebels. After sentencing Saddam to death, the Iraqi tribunal executed him for crimes against humanity. In contrast to previous coups d'état in Iraq's history, the 1968 coup, referred to as the 17 July Revolution , was, according to Con Coughlin , "a relatively civil affair". The coup started in the early hours of 17 July, when a number of military units and civilian Ba'athists seized several key government and military buildings; these included
11970-467: The Iraqi government sought to discredit Iran, with scathing criticism stating that they were subscribing to a " foreign and heretical form of religion". While daily newspaper Babil , owned by Saddam's eldest son Uday Hussein , once was considered a staunch opponent of the campaign, arguing that it would undermine Iraq's religiously pluralistic society and encourage sectarian division, at another point it railed against Shias, referring to them as rafidah ,
12141-453: The Iraqis back into Iraq. That year alone, an estimated 40,000 Iraqis were taken prisoner. The defeats of 1982 were a blow to Iraq. With the economic situation worsening because of falling oil prices (and the rising military budget), the Iraqi standard of living worsened. The Revolutionary Command Council and the Ba'ath Military Command, Regional Command and National Command met in an extraordinary session in 1982 (with Saddam absent), to discuss
12312-577: The Kuwaiti border, which evoked an international crisis. On 6 February 1974, Palestinian militants occupied the Japanese embassy in Kuwait , taking the ambassador and ten others hostage. The militants' motive was to support the Japanese Red Army members and Palestinian militants who were holding hostages on a Singaporean ferry in what is known as the Laju incident . Ultimately, the hostages were released, and
12483-544: The Kuwaiti government gerrymandered electoral districts in favour of the Islamists. Islamists were the government's main allies, hence Islamists were able to dominate state agencies, such as the government ministries . During the Iran–Iraq War , Kuwait ardently supported Iraq. As a result, there were various pro-Iran terror attacks across Kuwait, including the 1983 bombings, the attempted assassination of Emir Jaber in May 1985,
12654-608: The Kuwait–Najd War in 1919–20, Ibn Saud imposed a trade blockade against Kuwait from the years 1923 until 1937. The goal of the Saudi economic and military attacks on Kuwait was to annex as much of Kuwait's territory as possible. At the Uqair conference in 1922, the boundaries of Kuwait and Najd were set; as a result of British interference, Kuwait had no representative at the Uqair conference. After
12825-582: The Persian Gulf. In the 19th century, Kuwait became significant in the horse trade , with regular shipments in sailing vessels. In the mid 19th century, it was estimated that Kuwait exported an average of 800 horses to India annually. In 1899, ruler Sheikh Mubarak Al Sabah signed an agreement with the British government in India (subsequently known as the Anglo-Kuwaiti Agreement of 1899 ) making Kuwait
12996-509: The Soviet Union's relations with Iran further deteriorated as the Soviet leadership began to criticise Islamic fundamentalism . In 1986, under Mikhail Gorbachev , the Soviet Union officially changed its position from neutral to that of "active containment" of Iran. This policy lasted until the war with Iran ended in 1988. During the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait and the following Gulf War , the Soviet Union
13167-603: The Ubaid period. Other Neolithic sites in Kuwait are located in Khiran and Sulaibikhat . Mesopotamians first settled in the Kuwaiti island of Failaka in 2000 BC. Traders from the Sumerian city of Ur inhabited Failaka and ran a mercantile business. The island had many Mesopotamian-style buildings typical of those found in Iraq dating from around 2000 BC. In 4000 BC until 2000 BC, Kuwait
13338-576: The Umma Party (based in London ). One problem with the Iraqi opposition was the lack of alliances between opposition groups (although some alliances did exist – for instance, that between the ICP and the KDP). This alliance led the ICP to move its headquarters to Iraqi Kurdistan, since their activities in other areas of Iraq were routinely repressed. The Ba'athist regime was never able to take full control of
13509-536: The United Nations, United States and the United Kingdom condemned the invasion and introduced sanctions against Iraq, and the Soviet Union and several Arab states also condemned the invasion. George H. W. Bush , President of the United States , demanded the immediate withdrawal of Iraqi troops from Kuwait and restoration of the Kuwaiti government; Saddam responded by making Kuwait an Iraqi province. The Gulf War
13680-547: The United States led a coalition to remove the Iraqi forces from Kuwait, in what became known as the Gulf War . On 26 February 1991, in phase of code-named Operation Desert Storm , the coalition succeeded in driving out the Iraqi forces. As they retreated, Iraqi forces carried out a scorched earth policy by setting oil wells on fire. Ba%27athist Iraq Ba'athist Iraq , officially the Iraqi Republic (1968–1992) and later
13851-415: The Uqair conference, Kuwait was still subjected to a Saudi economic blockade and intermittent Saudi raiding . Kuwait immensely declined in regional economic importance, due to the trade blockades and the world economic depression. Before Mary Bruins Allison visited Kuwait in 1934, Kuwait had already lost its prominence in long-distance trade. The Great Depression harmed Kuwait's economy, starting in
14022-768: The advance of Saddam's forces. Instead of occupying Iraqi Kurdistan , the Kurdish Autonomous Republic was established, with thousands of Iraqi troops stationed at the Iraqi-Kurdish border. The suppression of the rebellion led thousands of people to flee their homes, most to Turkey or Iran. On 2 and 3 April 1991 Turkey and Iran, respectively, raised the issue at the UN Security Council . The Security Council adopted Resolution 688 , which stated that Iraq had to allow access for international humanitarian organisations and report openly about government repression. In
14193-584: The aftermath of the September 11 attacks , U.S. president George W. Bush included Saddam in his Axis of evil . In 2002 the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1441 , which stated that Iraq had failed to fulfill its obligations demanded by the UN. The United States and the United Kingdom would use Resolution 1441 as a pretext for war. The 2003 US-led invasion of the country forced the Ba'ath Party and Saddam to go underground. The fall of Baghdad resulted in
14364-520: The aftermath of the Gulf War, Iraq became a target by a series of U.S. cruise missile strikes, in 1993 , 1996 and Operation Desert Fox in 1998. In 1997, Iraq prohibited all weapons inspectors of UNSCOM from sites declared to be sovereign palaces, which were compounds capable of storing chemical weapons . Iraq experienced another period of unrest in early 1999 following the killing of Mohammad Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr by Iraqi security forces. In
14535-627: The air in "a premature triumph". Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr , the leader of the operation, told Arif about his situation through military communication hardware at the base of operations. Arif asked for more time, during which he contacted other military units to seek support. As he soon found out, the odds were against him, and he surrendered. Arif telephoned al-Bakr and told him that he was willing to resign; to show his gratitude, al-Bakr guaranteed his safety. al-Bakr's deputies, Hardan al-Tikriti and Salah Omar al-Ali , were ordered to give Arif this message in person. Arif and his wife and son were quickly sent on
14706-505: The ancient Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations in Iraq to Arab nationalism by claiming that the Babylonians and ancient Assyrians are the ancestors of the Arabs . Thus, Saddam Hussein and his supporters claim that there is no conflict between Mesopotamian heritage and Arab nationalism. Saddam Hussein based his political views and ideology upon the views of Aflaq, Ba'athism's key founder. Saddam
14877-534: The anticipated blow it would have on Iraq's oil exports. The signing of a treaty with the Soviet Union led to a visit by Alexei Kosygin ( Chairman of the Council of Ministers ) and the appointment of two cabinet ministers from the Iraqi Communist Party . After the nationalisation of the IPC, Iraq's oil revenue increased from 219 million ID in 1972 to 1.7 billion ID in 1974, 3.7 billion ID in 1978 and 8.9 billion ID in 1980: by over 40 times in less than
15048-686: The attacks. After the Battle of Jahra, Ibn Saud's warriors, the Ikhwan , demanded that Kuwait follows five rules: evict all the Shias , adopt the Ikhwan doctrine , label the Turks " heretics ", abolish smoking, munkar and prostitution, and destroy the American missionary hospital. The Kuwait–Najd War of 1919–20 erupted in the aftermath of World War I . The war occurred because Ibn Saud of Najd wanted to annex Kuwait. The sharpened conflict between Kuwait and Najd led to
15219-408: The beginning, most American observers believed the sanctions would lead to Saddam's downfall. U.S. President George H. W. Bush said, "Economic sanctions in this instance if fully enforced can be very, very effective, [...] There are some indications that that he's [Saddam] already beginning to feel the pinch and nobody can stand up forever to total economic deprivation." In theory (and practice), Iraq
15390-419: The building and repair of mosques and approved the publication of Islamic literature. The Faith Campaign allowed Sunni mosques more freedom in practicing religious ceremonies and rites, which reduced substantially the opposition to the regime among Sunni Islamists. Saddam coordinated the media and educational system to put heavy emphasis on Islamic identity. Religious academic institutions were opening up across
15561-571: The context of the Arab Cold War . It was also in 1952 that the first masterplan of Kuwait was designed by the British planning firm of Minoprio , Spenceley , and Macfarlane. In 1958, Al-Arabi magazine was first published. Many foreign writers moved to Kuwait because they enjoyed greater freedom of expression than elsewhere in the Middle East. Kuwait's press was described as one of the freest in
15732-501: The country's political system. Kuwait's official state religion is Islam, specifically the Maliki school of Sunni Islam. Kuwait is a high-income economy , backed by the world's sixth largest oil reserves . Kuwait is considered to be a pioneer in the region when it comes to the arts and popular culture, often called the "Hollywood of the Gulf", the nation started the oldest modern arts movement in
15903-518: The country's quality of life, prompting the establishment of the Oil-for-Food Programme . The Ba'athist period formally came to an end with the 2003 invasion of Iraq , and the Ba'ath Party has since been indefinitely banned across the country. The Ba'ath Party, led by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr , came to power in Iraq through the bloodless 17 July 1968 Revolution , which overthrew president Abdul Rahman Arif and prime minister Tahir Yahya . By
16074-406: The country's state religion (although freedom of religion was tolerated). Some studies support the claim that Ba'athist Iraq was a totalitarian state. Natural resources and the principal means of production were defined as belonging to the Iraqi people. The Iraqi government was responsible for directing and planning the national economy. If the RCC chairman died or was incapacitated, first in
16245-450: The country, and Qu'ranic and Islamic studies were introduced into the curriculum at all school levels. A religious radio station, al-Qu'ran al-Karim Radio was set up to expand and promote Islam in Iraqi life. Aspects of the Shari'ah were adopted into the Iraqi judicial system. Judges were required to study courses on Islamic jurisprudence. The selling and consumption of alcohol was curtailed by
16416-511: The death of hundreds of Kuwaitis. The war resulted in sporadic border clashes throughout 1919–1920. When Percy Cox was informed of the border clashes in Kuwait, he sent a letter to the Ruler of Arabistan Sheikh Khazʽal Ibn Jabir offering the Kuwaiti throne to either him or one of his heirs. Khaz'al refused. He then asked: ...even so, do you think that you have come to me with something new? Al Mubarak's position as ruler of Kuwait means that I am
16587-459: The deputy head of military intelligence, and Ibrahim Daud, the head of the Republican Guard. Both Naif and Daud knew that the long-term survival of Arif's and Tahir Yahya 's government looked bleak, but also knew that the Ba'athists needed them if the coup was to be successful. For his participation in the coup, Naif demanded to be given the post of Prime Minister after the coup as a reward, and
16758-511: The developing U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism in December 1979. The U.S. remained officially neutral after Iraq's invasion of Iran in 1980. In March 1982, however, Iran began a successful counter-offensive , and the U.S. increased its support for Iraq to prevent Iran from forcing a surrender. In a U.S. bid to open full diplomatic relations with Iraq, the country was removed from the U.S. list of State Sponsors of Terrorism. Ostensibly this
16929-427: The early years of al-Bakr's rule, the Soviet Union became a strategic ally. However, with the increase in oil revenues relations between Iraq and the Soviet Union weakened. The Iraqi regime was given more freedom of choice, and lost its dependence on Soviet investments. The Soviet Union, during this period, retained its role as Iraq's largest arms supplier. With Iraq's foreign-policy priorities changing, repression against
17100-400: The end of the year, Iraq's oil exports had decreased by 72 percent because of Iran's bombing strategy. In terms of actual income, oil exports as government revenue decreased from $ 26.1 billion in 1980 to $ 10.4 billion in 1981. With oil facilities in the Persian Gulf destroyed the Iraqi regime had no choice but to export oil over land, which was far more expensive. Other problems were
17271-472: The extent of poverty in Kuwait at the time: Poverty has settled in Kuwait more heavily since my last visit five years ago, both by sea, where the pearl trade continues to decline, and by land, where the blockade established by Saudi Arabia now harms the merchants. On 22 February 1938, oil was first discovered in the Burgan field . Between 1946 and 1980, Kuwait experienced a period of prosperity driven by oil and its liberal cultural atmosphere; this period
17442-420: The first available flight to London. Later that morning, a Ba'athist broadcast announced that a new government had been established. The coup was carried out with such ease that there were no deaths. The coup succeeded because of contributions made by the military; the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party was not strong enough to take power by itself. The Ba'ath Party managed to make a deal with Abd ar-Razzaq an-Naif ,
17613-404: The former president. As events proved, this did not happen and al-Bakr died in 1982 under mysterious circumstances. Bloodshed during the conflict nearly led to a mutiny led by Maher Abd al-Rashid , father-in-law of Saddam's second son. Rashid began public criticism, and claimed that loss of life could have been averted if not for Saddam's meddling into military affairs. This confrontation with
17784-407: The government failed to repay its loans. At the end of the war, Iraq's monetary reserve had been depleted and international oil prices were not as stable (high) as they had been during the 1970s. The economy was still healthy in late 1982, due to government expenditure on large development programmes. Before the war, Iraq's workforce stood at five million. During the war, one million were mobilised in
17955-441: The gradual erosion of the government's hard currency and its steadily increasing foreign debt . At the beginning of the war the Iraqi government had a monetary reserve of $ 35 billion, and the annual growth rate was 27.9 percent. During the early war years, ambitious development plans were followed; because of high military spending (approaching 50 percent of GNP in 1982), the Iraqi economy began showing signs of bankruptcy in
18126-588: The guerrillas allowed to fly to Aden . This was the first time Palestinian guerrillas struck in Kuwait as the Al Sabah ruling family, headed by Sheikh Sabah Al-Salim Al-Sabah, funded the Palestinian resistance movement. Kuwait had been a regular endpoint for Palestinian plane hijacking in the past and had considered itself safe. Kuwait International Airport was opened in 1979 by the Al Hani Construction with
18297-426: The highest decision-making body. It was responsible for coordinating the pan-Arab Ba'ath movement . All National Command members came from their distinct regional (meaning "country" in Ba'athist etymology ) branch; for instance, there was always a member who represented the Ba'ath Party's Jordanese Regional Branch . Because of the 1966 Ba'ath Party schism (which split the Ba'ath movement into an Iraqi-led branch and
18468-460: The invasion of Kuwait to solve the country's economic problems, with the professed goal of uniting Iraq; Kuwait was considered by many Iraqis as part of Iraq. On 18 July 1990 Saddam demanded that Kuwait repay Iraq for the oil it had (according to Saddam) stolen, and nullified Iraq's debt to Kuwait. The Kuwaiti leadership failed to respond, and on 2 August 1990 the Iraqi military began the invasion of Kuwait . The invasion led to an international outcry;
18639-482: The invasion was finally averted following plans by the Arab League to form an international Arab force against the potential Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. As a result of Operation Vantage, the Arab League took over the border security of Kuwait and the British had withdrawn their forces by 19 October. Iraqi prime minister Abd al-Karim Qasim was killed in a coup in 1963 but, although Iraq recognised Kuwaiti independence and
18810-469: The late 1920s. International trading was one of Kuwait's main sources of income before oil. Kuwait's merchants were mostly intermediary merchants. As a result of the decline of European demand for goods from India and Africa, Kuwait's economy suffered. The decline in international trade resulted in an increase in gold smuggling by Kuwait's ships to India. Some local merchant families became rich from this smuggling. Kuwait's pearl industry also collapsed as
18981-437: The leadership of Saddam Hussein following disputes over oil production. The Iraqi occupation of Kuwait ended on 26 February 1991, following an American – British – French – Saudi – Egyptian - led international coalition culminating in the expulsion of Iraqi forces . Like most other Arab states of the Persian Gulf , Kuwait is an emirate ; the emir is the head of state and the ruling Al Sabah family dominates
19152-605: The line of succession was the RCC deputy chairman. There were only two RCC deputy chairmen under Ba'athist rule: Saddam (1968–1979) and Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri (1979–2003). Iraq, under the rule of the Iraqi-led Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party , was a one-party state . The Regional Command (RC, the leading organ of the Iraqi Regional Branch of the Ba'ath Party) was the party's top decision-making body; Regional Command members were elected for five-year terms at
19323-744: The mid 1700s, the Bani Utbah settled in Kuwait City. Sometime after the death of the Bani Khalid's leader Barak bin Abdul Mohsen [ ar ] and the fall of the Bani Khalid Emirate , the Utub were able to wrest control of Kuwait as a result of successive matrimonial alliances . In the latter half of the eighteenth century, Kuwait began establishing itself as a maritime port and gradually became
19494-545: The mid-1970s, Saddam Hussein , through his post as chief of the party's intelligence services, became the country's de facto leader, despite al-Bakr's de jure presidency. Under Saddam's new policies, the Iraqi economy and citizens' living standards grew, and Iraq's standing within the Arab world increased significantly. As land reforms were introduced, the country's wealth was distributed more equally. However, several internal factors were imminently threatening Iraq's stability;
19665-502: The mid-to-late 1980s, international oil prices collapsed. The Organisation for Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) established a quota system in which the international oil price (for its members) was set at US$ 18 per barrel. This system did not work, as Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) did not follow OPEC policy and continued to flood the market with their oil. The result was that international oil prices were still at
19836-436: The mid-to-late 1980s. The war had cost the Iraqi government 226 billion dollars, which in turn had led to a staggering foreign debt of between 80 and 100 billion dollars. The rate of debt increase was estimated to be 10 billion a year. Another problem facing the regime was in agriculture; manpower had been depleted during the war years, and agricultural production plummeted. The situation became even bleaker after
20007-638: The military led to the greater independence of military planning from Ba'athist-leadership interference. Shortly afterwards, the Iraqi Air Force once again established air superiority. The turn of events caused the Iraqi government to focus on Iraqi Kurdistan which had revolted. Saddam appointed his cousin Ali Hasan al-Majid as military chief in Kurdistan. al-Majid initiated the al-Anfal campaign ; chemical weapons were used against civilians. In April 1988, after
20178-413: The military threat was perceived to be reduced, Britain continued to monitor the situation and kept forces available to protect Kuwait until 1971. There had been no Iraqi military action against Kuwait at the time: this was attributed to the political and military situation within Iraq which continued to be unstable. A treaty of friendship between Iraq and Kuwait was signed in 1963 by which Iraq recognised
20349-493: The military. By the mid-to-late 1970s, Saddam's power within the Ba'ath Party and the government grew; he became de facto leader of the country, although al-Bakr remained as president, Ba'ath Party leader and Revolutionary Command Council chairman. In 1977, following a wave of protests by Shias against the government, al-Bakr relinquished his control over the Ministry of Defence; Adnan Khairallah Tulfah , Saddam's brother-in-law,
20520-440: The only non-Ba'athist political forum), the NPF's leadership consisted entirely of Ba'athist members or Ba'athist loyalists. The organisation's purpose was to give the Ba'athist regime a semblance of popular support. Throughout the NPF's existence, Naim Haddad was its general secretary. The Iraqi opposition manifested itself in three forms: guerilla warfare against the regime; acts of sabotage or terrorism ; and desertion from
20691-408: The operation against him, Baghdad could have become the centre, in the words of journalist Con Coughlin, "of an ugly bloodbath". al-Bakr strengthened his position in the party with the help of Saddam's newly established party security apparatus and the intelligence services. Most of 1968 was used to repress non-Ba'athist thought and groups; for instance, a campaign against Nasserists and communists
20862-565: The party's regional congress. The Regional Secretary (commonly referred to as the General Secretary) was the head of the Regional Command, chaired its sessions and was leader of the Ba'ath Party Regional Branch in Iraq. In theory members of the Regional Command were responsible to the party congress, but in practice they controlled the congress, and the leadership often decided results beforehand. The party's National Command was, in theory,
21033-597: The possibility of a ceasefire proposal to the Iranian government. The ceasefire proposal made at the meeting was rejected by the Iranian government. If the proposal had been accepted Saddam would have not have survived politically, since it was supported by all members of the Regional Command, National Command and the Revolutionary Command Council. It was at this time that rumours started circulating that Hussein would step down as president to make way for al-Bakr ,
21204-476: The post of vice-president in the West). There were also rumours within the top echelons of power that al-Bakr (with the assistance of Iraqi Ba'athists who opposed Saddam) was planning to designate Hafez al-Assad as his successor. Immediately after Saddam seized power, over 60 members of the Ba'ath Party and the government leadership were charged with fomenting an anti-Iraqi Ba'athist plot in collaboration with al-Assad and
21375-533: The presidency and was succeeded by Saddam. The Ba'ath Party suppressed a surge of Shia-led anti-government protests. Alarmed by the Iranian Revolution , Saddam adopted an aggressive foreign policy stance towards Iran's new theocratic leader Ruhollah Khomeini , who had begun calling for the establishment of a similar Shia theocracy in Saddam's secular Iraq ; the Iraqi leadership feared that the Iranians would leverage
21546-440: The previous regime in 1965 to continue until its end date in 1969. The Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) decided by the mid-1970s to alter the planning system; instead of creating stable Five-Year Plans (as had been done earlier), an annual investment plan was to be created. Every year, the RCC convened to create an investment for the year to come; for example, there were separate investment plans for 1976 and 1977. Another change
21717-479: The religious zeal among Iraq's Shia-majority population to destabilize the country. Believing Iran had been militarily weakened by internal post-revolutionary chaos , Saddam and his government invaded Iran in September 1980, triggering the eight-year-long Iran–Iraq War . For the duration of the conflict, Iraq's economy deteriorated and became dependent on foreign loans to fund the war effort. The Iran–Iraq War ended in
21888-588: The result of the Battle of Hamdh . A force of three to four thousand Ikhwan , led by Faisal Al-Dawish , attacked the Red Fort at Al-Jahra, defended by fifteen hundred men. The fort was besieged and the Kuwaiti position precarious The Ikhwan attack repulsed for the while, negotiations began between Salim and Al-Dawish; the latter threatened another attack if the Kuwaiti forces did not surrender. The local merchant class convinced Salim to call in help from British troops, who showed up with airplanes and three warships, ending
22059-548: The room with three accomplices and threatened Naif with death. Naif responded by crying out; "I have four children". Saddam ordered Naif to leave Iraq immediately if he wanted to live. Naif complied, was exiled to Morocco . An assassination attempt in 1973 was unsuccessful, but he was assassinated in London on the orders of Saddam in 1978. Daud shared a similar fate, and was exiled to Saudi Arabia . The Ba'athists were by no means ensured of victory; if any of Naif's supporters had known of
22230-416: The sanction years, the agricultural sector witnessed "a boom of unprecedented proportions". The Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) introduced several decrees during this period to increase agricultural performance. These decrees may be separated into three categories: The RCC introduced Decree No. 367 in 1990, which stated that all lands which were not under production by their owners would be taken over by
22401-458: The situation in Iraqi Kurdistan, with the exception of an interregnum between the end of the Iran–Iraq War and the 1991 uprising . Another problem was that the Iraqi opposition had frequent problems with internal strife; for instance, the ICP was forced to hold a party congress in 1985 to stabilise the party. A more immediate problem was the strength of Iraq's secret services , renowned in
22572-402: The state. Establishments which involved the vices of gambling or alcohol were restricted or closed. Prostitution was deemed illegal and punishable by death. The Fedayeen Saddam , the paramilitary force loyal to the regime were well known for beheading suspected prostitutes. Thieves were punished with amputation. Saddam Hussein introduced in a new penal code article 111, exempting from punishment
22743-414: The state; if the owner could not use all the land he owned, he would lose it. However, the RCC's policy was not "all stick and no carrot". The government made it easier for farmers and landowners to receive credit. On 30 September 1990, the Ministry of Agriculture announced that it would increase loans to farmers by 100 percent, and would subsidise machinery and tools. In October 1990, the RCC stated it
22914-501: The sudden fall in oil prices triggered reactions in Iraq; in Al-Thawra , the Ba'ath Party newspaper, Foreign Minister Aziz criticised Kuwait and the UAE's oil policies. Because of the sudden slump, Saddam claimed at an Arab League conference that international oil prices could increase to US$ 25 per barrel without hurting exports. Saddam also claimed that the abrupt fall in oil prices decreased Iraq's oil revenue by one billion dollars. Iraq
23085-450: The summer heat caused the government to move it). At the time, Kuwait was considered the most developed country in the region. Kuwait was the pioneer in the Middle East in diversifying its earnings away from oil exports. The Kuwait Investment Authority is the world's first sovereign wealth fund. Kuwaiti society embraced liberal and non-traditional attitudes throughout the 1960s and 1970s. For example, most Kuwaiti women did not wear
23256-615: The time of Alexander the Great, the mouth of the Euphrates River was located in northern Kuwait. The Euphrates river flowed directly into the Persian Gulf via Khor Subiya which was a river channel at the time. Failaka was located 15 kilometers from the mouth of the Euphrates river. By the first century BC, the Khor Subiya river channel dried out completely. In 127 BC, Kuwait was part of
23427-420: The true ruler of Kuwait. So there is no difference between myself and them, for they are like the dearest of my children and you are aware of this. Had someone else come to me with this offer, I would have complained about them to you. So how do you come to me with this offer when you are well aware that myself and Al Mubarak are one soul and one house, what affects them affects me, whether good or evil. Following
23598-477: The two countries ensued after Kuwait increased its oil production by 40 percent. Tensions between the two countries increased further in July 1990, after Iraq complained to OPEC claiming that Kuwait was stealing its oil from a field near the border by slant drilling of the Rumaila field . In August 1990, Iraqi forces invaded and annexed Kuwait without any warning. After a series of failed diplomatic negotiations,
23769-400: The war against Iran. Of the million sent to war, 100,000 died. The labour shortage led to stagnation; to fill the gap, an increasing number of women were hired. There was a shift in industrial production during the war from consumer to military goods. Social programmes that had been established in the previous decade began to deteriorate, and the average standard of living decreased. During
23940-649: The war due to Iran's support for anti-communist forces in the Afghan Democratic Republic . During Yuri Andropov 's rule of the Soviet Union, there were rumors that the USSR was increasing its shipments of modern arms to Iraq during its war with Iran. This proved to be wrong, and Saddam openly complained that the Treaty of Friendship signed with the Soviet Union "has not worked." During the rule of Konstantin Chernenko ,
24111-556: The war. Minister of Foreign Affairs Tariq Aziz acknowledged that the situation had become so bad that the Iraqi government could not afford to pay for the food it had imported. Former foreign creditors were reluctant to loan money to Iraq because of the economy's near-bankruptcy. When the war started, Saddam was widely quoted as saying that Iraq faced the war with a two-year supply "of all key commodities."; this proved true. Beginning in October 1982, Iraq's foreign assets began to dwindle as
24282-418: The weight of Iraqi force. On 17 July 1981, on the 13th anniversary of the bloodless 1968 coup, Ardulfurataini was adopted as the official national anthem of Iraq, with its lyrics mentioned of prominent figures in Iraqi history, including Saladin , Harun al-Rashid and al-Muthanna ibn Haritha , along with the last verse extolled by Ba'athism. In 1982, Iran counter-attacked and was successful in driving
24453-420: The world . Before the discovery of oil reserves in 1938, the country was a regional trade port; from 1946 to 1982, the country underwent large-scale modernization, largely based on income from oil production . In the 1980s, Kuwait experienced a period of geopolitical instability and an economic crisis following the stock market crash . In 1990, Kuwait was invaded and subsequently annexed by Iraq under
24624-517: The world . Kuwait was the pioneer in the literary renaissance in the Middle East. In June 1961, Kuwait became independent with the end of the British protectorate and the Sheikh Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah became Emir of Kuwait . Kuwait's national day , however, is celebrated on 25 February, the anniversary of the coronation of Sheikh Abdullah (it was originally celebrated on 19 June, the date of independence, but concerns over
24795-471: Was (in theory) democratically elected by the Iraqi people; the problem was that the RCC had the authority to decide how much (or little) power the National Assembly should have. The constitution of 1970 proclaimed Ba'athist Iraq as "a sovereign people's democratic republic" dedicated to the establishment of a Ba'athist socialist society . Although the state was officially secular, Islam was proclaimed
24966-657: Was a nationwide organisation, and became a propaganda center for pro-Saddam literature. The propaganda campaign (at least in the beginning) created a common sense of nationhood for many Iraqis. The Shia protests were not quelled by these propaganda campaigns, and the establishment of an Islamic Republic in Iran influenced many Shia Islamists to stand up against the Sunni-dominated government. At first relations between Iran and Iraq were fairly good, but ideological differences could not remain concealed forever. The new Iranian leadership
25137-432: Was a popular revolutionary movement and the people rejected petit bourgeois politics. Saddam claimed that the Arab nation did not have the class structure of other nations, and class division was more along national lines (between Arabs and non-Arabs) than within the Arab community. However, he spoke fondly of Vladimir Lenin and commended Lenin for giving Russian Marxism a uniquely Russian specificity which Marx alone
25308-479: Was a private company. In March 1970, the IPC was forced to concede 20 percent of the company's share to the government. The full nationalisation of the IPC occurred after the company cut its oil production by half in March 1972; the decision would, in the short term, hamper Iraq's economic growth. The company was nationalised in June 1972. The nationalisation removed the last remaining element of foreign control over Iraq, and
25479-400: Was also an avid reader of topics on moral and material forces in international politics . His government was critical of orthodox Marxism , opposing the orthodox Marxist concepts of class conflict , the dictatorship of the proletariat and atheism ; it opposed Marxism–Leninism 's claim that non-Marxist–Leninist parties are automatically bourgeois in nature, claiming that the Ba'ath Party
25650-550: Was appointed defence minister. This appointment underscored the clannish character of the Ba'ath Party and the government. In contrast to Saddam's fortunes, those of al-Bakr's were on the wane. Rumours of al-Bakr's bad health began to circulate in the country. By the end of 1977, al-Bakr had little control over the country through his office as president. The reason Saddam did not become president until 1979 may be explained by Saddam's own insecurity. Before making himself de jure head of state, Saddam initiated an anti-communist campaign;
25821-458: Was based on the ideology of Ba'athism , a Syrian ideology conceived by Zaki al-Arsuzi , Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar , but evolved into neo-Ba'athism . Clause six of the Ba'ath Party's "Permanent Principles" stated "The Ba'ath is a revolutionary party. It believes that its principal aims in [the process of] realising an Arab national renaissance and of building socialism will not be attained except by revolution and struggle". Revolution
25992-472: Was because of improvement in the regime's record, although former U.S. Assistant Defense Secretary Noel Koch later stated, "No one had any doubts about [the Iraqis'] continued involvement in terrorism . ... The real reason was to help them succeed in the war against Iran." Since it did not have an economic policy of its own, the Ba'ath Party, when it took power in 1968, allowed the Five-Year Plan set up by
26163-564: Was composed of Shia Khomeinists , while the Iraqi Ba'athists were secular . Iran had become concerned about the Iraqi government's continued repression against the Iraqi Islamist Shias . At the beginning of 1980, several border clashes took place between the two countries. Iraq considered the newly established Iran to be "weak"; the country was in a state of continued civil unrest , and the Iranian leaders had purged thousands of officers and soldiers because of their political views. It
26334-440: Was followed shortly afterwards by several preemptive strikes on Iran and by the invasion of Iran. Saddam believed that the Iranian government would have "to disengage in order to survive". Not only was this view faulty, but it overestimated the strength of the Iraqi military ; the Iranian government saw the invasion as a test of the revolution itself and all its achievements. The military plan proved to be elusive; Iraq believed that
26505-476: Was home to the Dilmun civilization . Dilmun included Al-Shadadiya, Akkaz , Umm an Namil , and Failaka . At its peak in 2000 BC, Dilmun controlled the Persian Gulf trading routes. During the Dilmun era (from ca. 3000 BC), Failaka was known as " Agarum ", the land of Enzak , a great god in the Dilmun civilization according to Sumerian cuneiform texts found on the island. As part of Dilmun, Failaka became
26676-461: Was incapable of doing. He also expressed admiration for other communist leaders (such as Fidel Castro , Ho Chi Minh and Josip Broz Tito ) for their spirit of asserting national independence, rather than for their communism. In 1993, the Iraqi regime embarked on the Return to Faith Campaign (al-Hamlah al-Imaniyyah), under the supervision of Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri . The ultimate aim of this new policy
26847-507: Was initiated by a United States-led coalition , which succeeded in winning the war in less than a year. On 13 January 1991, the Iraqi flag was modified, adopting its handscript the takbīr (the phrase Allahu akbar, meaning "God is the greatest" in Arabic), at the instigation of President Saddam Hussein. On the evening of 24 February, several days before the Gulf War ceasefire was signed in Safwan ,
27018-419: Was initiated under Saddam's command. Several spy plots were created by the government; spies who were "caught" were accused of being a part of a Zionist plot against the state. The Iraqi Communist Party (ICP) was skeptical of the new Ba'athist government, as many of its members remembered the anti-communist campaign launched against them by the Ba'athist government of 1963. After taking power, al-Bakr offered
27189-531: Was known as Meshan , which was an alternative name of the kingdom of Characene. Akkaz was a Partho - Sassanian site; the Sassanid religion 's tower of silence was discovered in northern Akkaz. Late Sassanian settlements were discovered in Failaka. In Bubiyan , there is archaeological evidence of Sassanian to early Islamic periods of human presence as evidenced by the recent discovery of torpedo-jar pottery shards on several prominent beach ridges. In 636 AD,
27360-433: Was not the key aspect of Ba'ath Party ideology; it was its clear ideological platform. Ba'athism was by nature secular , even if its ideological founders had borrowed elements from Islam . The Ba'ath Party first began to talk openly of Islam during the 1990s. Considering that the term "ba'ath" comes from Islamic scriptures, the Ba'ath Party claimed that all Muslims were Ba'athists even if they were not party members. As with
27531-482: Was not the only member criticising Kuwait and the UAE; several other members also criticised their oil-production policy. Kuwait would not budge, continuing its oil-production strategy even when threatened by Iraq. This, coupled with foreign loans Iraq owed to Kuwait, was the main reason for the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait . Following Iraq's defeat in the Gulf War , the United Nations Security Council introduced Resolution 661 , which imposed sanctions against Iraq . At
27702-419: Was officially neutral. Shortly after, on 26 December 1991, the Soviet Union was officially dissolved . Throughout the Cold War , Iraq had been an ally of the Soviet Union , and there was a history of friction between Iraq and the United States. According to historian Charles R. H. Tripp , the Iraqi–Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Co-operation upset "the U.S.-sponsored security system established as part of
27873-415: Was part of ancient Mesopotamia . During the Ubaid period (6500 BC), Kuwait was the central site of interaction between the peoples of Mesopotamia and Neolithic Eastern Arabia , including Bahra 1 and site H3 in Subiya . The Neolithic inhabitants of Kuwait were among the world's earliest maritime traders. One of the world's earliest reed boats was discovered at site H3 dating back to
28044-478: Was planning to utilize and exploit "every inch of Iraqi arable land". While official statistics cannot be trusted entirely, they showed massive growth in arable land: from 16,446 donums in 1980 to 45,046 in 1990. The increase in agricultural output does not mean that hunger was not widespread; prices of foodstuffs increased dramatically during this period. However, overall the sanctions failed and (indirectly) led to an unprecedented improvement in agriculture. While
28215-403: Was popular with the Iraqi people. The government anticipated a loss of revenue, and therefore sent Saddam Hussein to the Soviet Union to negotiate a treaty. The visit was a success, and ended with the signing of the Iraqi–Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Co-operation and the establishment of a trade agreement. The trade agreement stated that the Soviet Union would buy some of Iraq's oil to soften
28386-407: Was presumed that the Iran–Iraq War would result in a quick Iraqi victory. Saddam's plan was to strengthen Iraq's position in the Persian Gulf and on the Arab-world stage. A quick victory would restore Iraq's control over all of Shatt al-Arab , an area which Iraq had lost to Iran in 1975. Saddam abrogated the treaty of 1975 in a meeting of the National Assembly on 17 September 1980. This abrogation
28557-447: Was that many Ba'ath Party members openly sympathised with communists or other socialist forces. However, at this stage, neither al-Bakr nor Saddam had enough support within the party to initiate a policy unpopular within it; at the Seventh Regional Congress of the Ba'ath Party, both al-Bakr and other leading Ba'athists expressed their support for "radical socialism". During the 1970s, military officers unsuccessfully attempted to overthrow
28728-437: Was to appoint over 100 new officers to the Republican Guard. Saddam Hussein worked, in the meantime, to establish the party's security and intelligence organisation to combat its enemies. On 29 July, Daud left for a tour to Jordan to inspect the Iraqi troops located there following the Six-Day War with Israel. The following day, Naif was invited to eat lunch at the Presidential Palace with al-Bakr, during which Saddam burst into
28899-440: Was to encourage popular devotion to Islam within Iraqi society. Up until the invasion of Kuwait in 1991, the Iraqi regime had espoused the secular ideology of Ba'athism. This started to change when Saddam, who wished to bolster the Iraqi government's Islamic credentials, implemented a variety of reforms. The Iraqi flag had the takbīr added on to it. The Ministry of Endowments and Religious Affairs appointed clergy, approved
29070-466: Was under the control of the Achaemenid Empire as evidenced by the archaeological discovery of Achaemenid strata. There are Aramaic inscriptions that testify Achaemenid presence. In fourth century BC, the ancient Greeks colonized the bay of Kuwait under Alexander the Great . The ancient Greeks named mainland Kuwait Larissa and Failaka was named Ikaros . The bay of Kuwait was named Hieros Kolpos . According to Strabo and Arrian , Alexander
29241-617: Was very vulnerable to sanctions during this time. Thirty percent of its GNP before the Gulf War was used to import food, and 95 percent of Iraq's export earnings came from oil; oil production was 40 percent of GNP. The country was also reliant on foreign trade (35–50 percent of GNP for exported and imported goods). Iraq was also an easy country to blockade economically; its oil exports could be blockaded by closing its pipelines (which ran through Turkey, Jordan and Syria). While sanctions were successful from an economic point of view, politically they failed; Saddam would rule Iraq until 2003. Throughout
#390609