152-399: Saddam Hussein (28 April 1937 – 30 December 2006) was an Iraqi politician and revolutionary who served as the fifth president of Iraq from 1979 to 2003. He also served as prime minister of Iraq from 1979 to 1991 and later from 1994 to 2003. He was a leading member of the revolutionary Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party and later its Iraqi regional branch . Ideologically, he espoused Ba'athism ,
304-950: A Kurdish Ba'athist), a close associate of Saddam, commanded the People's Army , which had responsibility for internal security. As the Ba'ath Party's paramilitary, the People's Army acted as a counterweight against any coup attempts by the regular armed forces. In addition to the People's Army, the Department of General Intelligence was the most notorious arm of the state-security system, feared for its use of torture and assassination. Barzan Ibrahim al-Tikriti , Saddam's younger half-brother , commanded Mukhabarat. Foreign observers believed that from 1982 this department operated both at home and abroad in its mission to seek out and eliminate Saddam's perceived opponents. President of Iraq [REDACTED] Member State of
456-637: A country rife with factionalism led Saddam to pursue both massive repression and the improvement of living standards. Following the end of the First Iraqi–Kurdish War in November 1970, Saddam signed a peace treaty with Mustafa Barzani, which agreement granted autonomy to the Kurds. However the failure of the agreement and Arabization program in oil-rich regions around Kirkuk and Khanaqin in Northern Iraq,
608-440: A democratic Iraqi government. Critics argue that the policy was not only undemocratic, but also a significant factor in the deteriorating security situation throughout Iraq. The policy became associated with anti-Sunni sectarian overtones due to its disproportionate targeting of Sunni civil servants and army officials. The goal of the policy is contained in the language of the preamble of Order No. 1: Additionally within
760-560: A good instinct for what the " Arab street " demanded, following the decline in Egyptian leadership brought about by the trauma of Israel's six-day victory in the 1967 war, the death of the pan-Arabist hero, Gamal Abdul Nasser, in 1970, and the "traitorous" drive by his successor, Anwar Sadat, to sue for peace with the Jewish state. Saddam's self-aggrandizing propaganda, with himself posing as the defender of Arabism against Zionist or Persian intruders,
912-516: A law degree at Cairo Law School (1962–1963). It is possible that Saddam visited the U.S. embassy in Cairo during his exile, and some evidence suggests that he was "in frequent contact with US officials and intelligence agents." A former high-ranking U.S. official told historians Marion Farouk–Sluglett and Peter Sluglett that Iraqi Ba'athists, including Saddam, "had made contact with the American authorities in
1064-495: A mix of Arab nationalism and Arab socialism , while the policies and political ideas he championed are collectively known as Saddamism . Saddam was born in the village of Al-Awja , near Tikrit in northern Iraq , to a Sunni Arab family. He joined the Ba'ath Party in 1957, and later in 1966 the Iraqi and Baghdad-based Ba'ath parties. He played a key role in the 17 July Revolution and
1216-578: A number of conditions that a candidate for the presidential office must: In the early days of the Iraqi Republic in 1958, neither the head of the Sovereign Council, Muhammad Najib al-Rubaie, nor the Prime Minister, Abdul Karim Qassem, took any palace to be an official republican palace for the state. Al-Rubaie stayed in his personal home before 14 July 1958. Qassem also remained in his home before
1368-491: A pivotal role in the negotiations leading up to the Algiers Agreement, representing Iraq's interests. Saddam Hussein's growing influence within the Iraqi government allowed him to shape Iraq's approach and stance during the negotiation process. Following the agreement, Iraq and Iran restored full diplomatic relations and exchanged ambassadors, representing a significant diplomatic breakthrough. The Algiers Agreement emphasized
1520-731: A policy of total removal of any influence related to Nazi or Imperial Japanese ideologies. These strategies are found in the Potsdam Agreement of 1945 , the German Instrument of Surrender , and the General Order No. 1 for post-war Japan. The most frequently compared strategy was the US de-Nazification policy in post-war Germany During the tenure of the CPA, the Administrator, Paul Bremer ,
1672-651: A policy undertaken in Iraq by the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) and subsequent Iraqi governments to remove the Ba'ath Party 's influence in the new Iraqi political system after the U.S.-led invasion in 2003. It was considered by the CPA to be Iraq's equivalent to Germany's denazification after World War II . It was first outlined in CPA Order 1 which entered into force on 16 May 2003. The order declared that all public sector employees affiliated with
SECTION 10
#17328479906391824-476: A post-war occupation strategy for dealing with the Ba'ath Party. According to Rajiv Chandrasekaran , Douglas Feith, one of the primary architects of the de-Ba'athification policy, was heavily influenced by the ideas promoted by Chalabi and the Iraqi National Congress. Other organizations and individuals involved in the process of challenging the implementation of the de-Ba'athification policy included
1976-561: A republican palace until 2003, at the beginning of the American occupation of Iraq. The American forces used it as a headquarters in the first days of the occupation, then made it into an American embassy until 1 January 2009, when the Iraqi government took over it, restored it and changed its name to the Government Palace. In 2012, the Arab summit postponed from the previous year was held in this palace. The current presidential palace in which
2128-642: A researcher from the Washington Institute for Near East Policy , a research institute in Washington, D.C., advocates a carefully calculated de-Ba'athification program, particularly in the political and security arenas as a way of laying the foundation for successful regime change. A briefing given by Ahmad Chalabi at the American Enterprise Institute also describes the necessity of removing Ba'athist elements from Iraqi society as part of creating
2280-638: A resolute leader who challenged Western imperialism , opposed the Israeli occupation of Palestine , and resisted foreign intervention in the region. Conversely, many Iraqis, particularly Shias and Kurds, perceive him negatively as a dictator responsible for severe authoritarianism , repression, and numerous injustices. Human Rights Watch estimated that Saddam's regime was responsible for the murder or disappearance of 250,000 to 290,000 Iraqis . Saddam's government has been described by several analysts as authoritarian and totalitarian , and by some as fascist , although
2432-414: A result of de-Ba'athification. The majority of sources are negative when discussing the policy's political impact. Most see the de-Ba'athification policy as undemocratic, and unnecessarily alienated Sunni Arabs from participating in the government. An al-Jazeera article dated 18 November 2003 discusses the future of the Ba'ath Party, but also questions the validity of likening the Ba'ath Party to
2584-570: A successful framework in which to build a new Iraqi political system. Finally, the Iraqi National Congress has two articles entitled "De-Ba'athification is the Cornerstone in Fighting Terrorism", and "Uprooting Fascism", in which both articles argue that removing the Ba'ath Party, and its influence is the most effective way to create a democratic Iraq. As a result of De-Ba'athification, many Sunni Arabs were excluded from public service, and
2736-444: Is affiliated or known to be a member, of any level, within the Ba'ath Party. Furthermore, Order No. 4 states that individuals who have received any sort of property compensation or bonuses as a result of affiliation are subjected to dispossession of property. The criteria for punishment were expansive, with the policy affecting any and all affiliated members. Only those who could clearly demonstrate that they were no longer members of
2888-610: Is eligible for an exception. If the individual was eligible, then the investigator was to prepare the case for the exception. Under the phase governed by the CPA, the ARCs were three-member military-civilian appeals panels under the authority of the Commander of Coalition Forces, who reported to the CPA Administrator. The purpose of the ARCs were to evaluate appeals by Iraqis who believed themselves to be wrongly deemed "Ba'athists". The ARC
3040-484: Is generally accepted that Egypt, in some capacity, was involved in the assassination attempt, and that "[t]he United States was working with Nasser on some level." Sale and Darwish's account has been disputed by historian Bryan R. Gibson who concludes that available U.S. declassified documents show that "while the United States was aware of several plots against Qasim, it had still adhered to [a] nonintervention policy." On
3192-737: Is not believed to have received any training outside of Iraq, as he was a late addition to the assassination team. Richard Sale of United Press International (UPI), citing former United States diplomat and intelligence officials, Adel Darwish , and other experts, reported that the unsuccessful assassination attempt on Qasim was a collaboration between the United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and Egyptian intelligence . Pertinent contemporary records relating to CIA operations in Iraq have remained classified or heavily redacted, thus "allow[ing] for plausible deniability." It
SECTION 20
#17328479906393344-588: The 1941 Iraqi coup d'état and Anglo-Iraqi War , and often mentored and told tales of his exploits to the young Saddam. In 1958, a year after Saddam had joined the Ba'ath party, army officers led by General Abd al-Karim Qasim overthrew Faisal II of Iraq in the 14 July Revolution . The Ba'ath Party was originally represented in Qasim's cabinet; however, Qasim—reluctant to join Nasser's newly formed union between Egypt and Syria —sided with various groups within Iraq (notably
3496-646: The Arab world , and end Iranian calls for the overthrow of the Sunni-dominated Ba'athist regime . The Iran–Iraq War ended in stalemate after nearly eight years in a ceasefire , after a million people were killed and Iran suffered economic losses of $ 561 billion. At the end of the war, Saddam ordered the Anfal campaign against Kurdish rebels who sided with Iran, recognized by Human Rights Watch as an act of genocide . Later, Saddam accused his ally Kuwait of slant-drilling
3648-503: The Faith Campaign , pursuing an Islamist agenda in Iraq. In 2003, the United States and its coalition of allies invaded Iraq , accusing Saddam of developing weapons of mass destruction and of having ties with al-Qaeda , accusations that turned out to be false. After the quick coalition victory in the war, the Ba'ath Party was banned and Saddam went into hiding. After his capture on 13 December 2003, his trial took place under
3800-542: The Iraqi Interim Government . On 5 November 2006, Saddam was convicted by the Iraqi High Tribunal of crimes against humanity related to the 1982 Dujail massacre and sentenced to death by hanging . He was executed on 30 December 2006. A highly polarizing and controversial figure, Saddam dominated Iraqi politics for 35 years and was the subject of a cult of personality . Many Arabs regard Saddam as
3952-646: The Iraqi oil reserves and invaded the country , initiating the Gulf War (1990–1991), which ended in Iraq's defeat by a multinational coalition led by the United States . The United Nations subsequently placed sanctions against Iraq . Saddam brutally suppressed the 1991 Iraqi uprisings of the Kurds and Shias , which sought to gain independence or overthrow the government. Saddam adopted an anti-American stance and established
4104-507: The Office of Special Plans in order to devise Department of Defense strategy for occupying Iraq. In addition to Wolfowitz and Feith, Walter Slocombe accepted the position of overseeing the implementation of the Department of Defense's occupation strategy. All of this occurred under the purview of the then Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld . According to Charles Ferguson's film interview with Gen. Jay Garner, Paul Bremer told Garner that "I
4256-553: The Second Iraqi–Kurdish War . In Iraq, especially compared to other middle-eastern countries such as Iran , Turkey , and Syria , Iraqi Kurds were treated well under the regime of Saddam when compared to the situation in neighbouring countries, with the Kurdish language being tolerated under Saddams regime in education, and media, and spoken as a official language. Saddam also had multiple Kurdish ministers and generals, with
4408-668: The US Department of State , the CIA , Gen. Jay Garner, Col. Paul Hughes (Director of Strategic Policy for the US Occupation, 2003), Robert Hutchings (Chairman, 2003–2005, National Intelligence Council ), Ambassador Barbara Bodine , and Col. Lawrence Wilkerson (Chief of Staff for Secretary of State Colin Powell, 2002–2005). In the previous post-war occupations of Germany and Japan, the United States, in partnership with other Allied Powers, pursued
4560-486: The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). At the center of this strategy was Iraq's oil. On 1 June 1972, Saddam oversaw the seizure of international oil interests, which, at the time, dominated the country's oil sector. A year later, world oil prices rose dramatically as a result of the 1973 energy crisis , and skyrocketing revenues enabled Saddam to expand his agenda. With
4712-420: The de facto head of Iraq for several years. Positions of power in the country were mostly filled with Sunni Arabs, a minority that made up about a fifth of the population . In 1979, upon taking office, Saddam purged the Ba'ath Party . He ordered the invasion of Iran in 1980 in a purported effort to capture Iran 's Arab-majority Khuzestan province , thwart Iranian attempts to export its 1979 revolution to
Saddam Hussein - Misplaced Pages Continue
4864-643: The social democrats and the Iraqi Communist Party ) that told him such an action would be dangerous. Instead, Qasim adopted a wataniyah policy of "Iraq First". To strengthen his own position within the government, Qasim also had an alliance with the Iraqi Communist Party, which was opposed to the notion of pan-Arabism. His policies angered several pan-Arab organisations, including the Ba'ath Party, which later began plotting to assassinate Qasim at Al-Rashid Street on 7 October 1959 and take power. Saddam
5016-426: The 90's Iraqi-healthcare decreased in its effectiveness with the sanctions restricting basic-medical equipment and supplies from getting into Iraq. Nationalization of oil was implemented, which aimed to achieve economic independence. By the late 1970s, Iraq experienced significant economic growth, with a budget reserve surpassing US$ 35 billion. The value of 1 Iraqi dinar was worth more than 3 dollars, making it one of
5168-507: The Administrator determined "that the responsibility for identifying Ba'ath Party members [could] effectively... be transferred to Iraqi citizens..." Once this had occurred, all investigative authority would be delegated to the IDC. However, throughout the initial phase, the IDC would be encouraged to nominate individuals for the ARCs, as well as participate in the data gathering phase to prepare themselves for full assumption of duties. However, despite
5320-610: The Arab League The president of the Republic of Iraq is the head of state of Iraq . Since the mid-2000s, the presidency is primarily a symbolic office, as the position does not possess significant power within the country according to the constitution adopted in October 2005. Due to the Muhasasah political system informally adopted since the creation of the new Iraqi federal state,
5472-454: The Ba'ath Party and determine which individuals were subject to the penalties under Order No. 1. The policy was carried out with rigor by the CPA and the Iraqi De-Ba'athification Council and subsequent bodies). In Bremer's own words, "It's the most important thing we've done here. And it's the most popular thing too," in reference to the de-Baathification policy. Per the opening section of
5624-457: The Ba'ath Party had a large following in Syria at the time, but in 1955 there were fewer than 300 Ba'ath Party members in Iraq, and it is believed that Saddam's primary reason for joining the party as opposed to the more established Iraqi nationalist parties was his familial connection to Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr and other leading Ba'athists through his uncle. Revolutionary sentiment was characteristic of
5776-577: The Ba'ath Party in response to the Marxist takeover of the Syrian Ba'ath earlier that year, resulting in the Party's formalized split into two separate factions . Saddam then created a Ba'athist security service, which he alone controlled. In July 1968, Saddam participated in a bloodless coup led by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr that overthrew Abdul Rahman Arif , Salam Arif's brother and successor. While Saddam's role in
5928-460: The Ba'ath Party were to be removed from their positions and to be banned from any future employment in the public sector. The policy was highly controversial among many American academics, institutions, government, military, and international media and debate outlets. The policy under the CPA was officially rescinded on 28 June 2004 as part of the transfer of sovereignty to the Iraqi Interim Government two days later. However, elements of
6080-486: The Ba'ath Party". An appeals committee was also created by the Order, and the CPA was given authority to administer and use all assets seized "for the use and benefit of the Iraqi people". Additionally, the Iraqi de-Ba'athification Council was permitted to provide information to the CPA regarding the location of Ba'ath Party assets. Finally, concomitant with Order No. 2, failing to provide information regarding Ba'ath Party assets
6232-401: The Ba'ath Party's civilian wing upon his return. Unlike during the Qasim years, Saddam remained in Iraq following Arif's anti-Ba'athist purge in November 1963, and became involved in planning to assassinate Arif. In marked contrast to Qasim, Saddam knew that he faced no death penalty from Arif's government and knowingly accepted the risk of being arrested rather than fleeing to Syria again. Saddam
Saddam Hussein - Misplaced Pages Continue
6384-467: The Ba'ath Party, prior to its dissolution by the CPA, and demonstrate that they were members for non-ideological reasons could hope to avoid the punishments of the policy. It is estimated that, before 2007, 50,000 civil government employees, as well as employees of other organizations listed in Annex A of Order No. 2 , were removed from their positions as a result of de-Ba'athification. Another estimate places
6536-474: The Ba'ath Party. The investigator was then to inform the individual of their right to appeal the "factual finding". Based on his information, unless an appeal was approved, the Senior Ministry Advisor [sic] would then take the appropriate actions to enforce CPA Order No. 1. Exceptions could be requested by ministries, but such requests must pass military investigators' judgment that such an individual
6688-473: The Ba'ath party. Relationships with fellow party members were carefully cultivated, and Saddam soon accumulated a powerful circle of support within the party. In 1979, al-Bakr started to make treaties with Syria, also under Ba'athist leadership, that would lead to unification between the two countries. Syrian President Hafiz al-Assad would become deputy leader in a union, and this would drive Saddam to obscurity. Saddam acted to secure his grip on power. He forced
6840-520: The Ba'athists in the rural areas. After nationalizing foreign oil interests, Saddam supervised the modernization of the countryside, mechanizing agriculture on a large scale, and distributing land to peasant farmers. The Ba'athists established farm cooperatives and the government also doubled expenditures for agricultural development in 1974–1975. Saddam's welfare programs were part of a combination of "carrot and stick" tactics to enhance support for Saddam. The state-owned banks were put under his thumb. Lending
6992-510: The Baghdad Metro project in 1980, though it did not ultimately come to fruition, due to troubles concerning the Iran-Iraq War . Throughout the 24 years of his presidency, Saddam built more than 100 palaces across the country. With a Muslim majority, Iraq consists of a multi-ethnic, multi-religious and multi-sectarian population. During his rule, numerous religious and ethnic groups existed in
7144-425: The CPA Administrator prior to implementation. The Governing Council and its affiliates were also held accountable by way of submitting monthly reports to the CPA regarding actions taken against Iraqi citizens, and the names of individuals hired to replace those removed under the criteria of Order No. 1. The final order issued by the CPA entered into force on 30 June 2004 (but was written and signed 28 June 2004), and
7296-686: The CPA cover all foreign personnel operating legally in Iraq. In other sections of the Order, previous Orders are "rescinded in [their] entirety". Finally, the Memorandum No. 7, which transferred CPA authority over the De-Ba'athification of Iraqi Society to the Supreme National De-Baathification Commission was rescinded by Order No. 100 only until such time that "the Iraqi Interim Government issues an order establishing
7448-453: The CPA was through the judgment of investigators and Senior Ministry Advisors executing the punishments associated with being a member of the Ba'ath Party. Additionally, decisions made by the ARCs regarding exceptions and appeals were vetted by the CPA Administrator. Finally, the enforcement of this policy occurred at a broad and deep level. All ministries, per Memorandum No. 1, were assigned investigators to determine employees affiliation with
7600-588: The Council may not be tendered in evidence against them in any criminal proceedings." Consistent with other Orders, a monetary fine and possible imprisonment were the possible punishments for those who failed to comply with requests from the Council. Finally, the Administrator had authority over the Council and its decisions, and the Council was required to comply with all of the CPA's regulations. Entering into force on 3 June 2003, an additional Memorandum entitled "Implementation of De-Ba'athification Order No. 1" describes
7752-525: The Department of Defense, the United States Department of State , and the CIA . The Department of Defense argued for an expansive policy targeting any and all members of the Ba'ath Party. This was in contrast to the State Department and CIA, who advocated a less comprehensive "de-Saddamification" policy which would only target those accused of crimes and upper echelon leadership. A compromise
SECTION 50
#17328479906397904-648: The Gulf War, Iraq was sanctioned by the UN , which caused economic decline. In 1995, then U.S. president Bill Clinton introduced Oil-for-Food Programme , in which Iraq sold oil on the world market in exchange for humanitarian needs. The program was accepted by the Ba'athist government in 1996. By 1995, GDP of Iraq dropped to US$ 9 billion from US$ 44.36 billion in 1990. Iraq had lost around US$ 170 billion of oil revenues. The economy of Iraq began improving in 2000, as its GDP increased to U$ 23.73 billion by 2000. Saddam pursued to beautify
8056-484: The Independent Iraqi De-Ba'athification Council." In addition to this rescission, Memorandum No. 1 was also "rescinded in its entirety". In effect, Order No. 100 removes the authority and language of the CPA de-Ba'athification policy, but allows for its continuity under subsequent Iraqi governments. The process of implementing de-Ba'athification was complicated by the chaos following the initial invasion, and
8208-504: The Iraqi De-Baathification Council once the Administrator deemed the body competent to carry out these duties. The primary actors within this phase were the military or other investigators responsible for gathering data on employees within government ministries. They were authorized to gather information in a variety of ways, and based on the relevant facts determine if an individual was deemed to have an affiliation with
8360-559: The Iraqi political sphere and comparing such a possibility to the Allied policy of De-Nazification articulated in the Potsdam Agreement of 1945 . During the 60 days allotted for post-war occupation, the more stringent Department of Defense version was drafted by the Office of Special Plans in spite of the 10 March National Security Council compromise. Prior to Paul Bremer 's arrival in Iraq on 12 May 2003, he met with Douglas Feith and
8512-721: The Iraqi president resides is the Peace Palace, which was built during the era of Saddam Hussein. Another complex used as a presidential palace during Saddam Hussein's rule was the Radwaniyah presidential palace complex. In addition, there are a scattered number of presidential palaces in Baghdad and the rest of the provinces, such as the Sujood Palace and Al-Faw Palace in Baghdad, and the presidential palaces in Mosul, Basra, Tikrit and Babylon. After
8664-399: The Kurds to an extent, with Kurds being allowed to speak Kurdish in schools, on television, and even in newspapers, with textbooks being translated for the Kurdish regions, and Kurds in Iraq being able to elect a Kurdish representative to go to Baghdad. Saddam had already signed a deal in 1970 to grant the Kurds autonomy , but Mustafa Barazani eventually disagreed with the deal, which incited
8816-530: The Memorandum, the initial entity tasked with de-Ba'athification of Iraqi Society (CPA Order No. 1) were Coalition Forces and military investigators. Further delegation relied on military investigators and tribunal-style Accreditation Review Committees (ARCs) (ibid). The power structure followed a clear hierarchy with the CPA Administrator overseeing the executive authority of the Coalition Forces and eventually
8968-650: The Middle East in the 1950s and 1960s, with the collapse of the monarchies of Iraq , Egypt , and Libya . Nasser inspired nationalists throughout the Middle East by fighting the British and the French during the Suez Crisis of 1956 , modernizing Egypt, and uniting the Arab world politically. Saddam's father-in-law, Khairallah Talfah , was reported to have served five years in prison for his role in fighting against Great Britain in
9120-429: The Nazi Party, as well as the dissolution of the Ba'ath Party and the possible impact on Iraqi society. Another al-Jazeera article interviews a Ba'ath Party member that suggests that attempting to remove all Ba'athists from the public sector because of the actions of Saddam and some of the leaders both goes against constitutional principles, but practically will not allow for the creation of a legitimate political system in
9272-412: The Office of Special Plans, where he received his first briefing regarding de-Ba'athification. Following the meeting, the final draft was written, and was sent via courier to Iraq after Bremer's arrival. Per National Security Presidential Directive 24, the U.S. Department of Defense was the principal organization in charge of the occupation. To this end, Paul Wolfowitz and Douglas Feith created
SECTION 60
#17328479906399424-471: The Shatt al-Arab, which had been under Iranian control. Saddam Hussein aimed to secure Iraq's territorial claims, particularly regarding the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which had been a longstanding source of contention between Iran and Iraq. Both parties recognized each other's sovereignty and territorial integrity, affirming the principle of non-aggression. The Algiers Agreement called for the restoration of full diplomatic relations between Iran and Iraq, including
9576-557: The Sunni Arabs are going to be drawn into the new government". The fact that Sunnis suffered the most from the de-Ba'athification, is presumed to also have contributed to the rise of several committed and deadly 'Sunni' insurgent groups, immediately following the U.S.-led 2003 occupation. As a result of many Sunni Arab political leaders being removed from participation in the future democracy of Iraq, many dissident domestic, and exiled Shi'a political leaders formed many political parties and organizations, and came to be seen as dominant in
9728-453: The Technical Head of state-owned enterprises under the Ministry of Industry , was a Jew. A Jewish chemist from Basra was also sent by him on a trade mission to China in 1988. Saddam helped in restoration of Meir Taweig Synagogue and construction a new cemetery for Jews in Baghdad. In 1998, on the day of Jewish festival of Sukkot , a Palestinian entered the Baghdad synagogue and shot four people to death, including two Jews. The preparator
9880-583: The ability to pass their citizenship down to their children even if they married a non-Iraqi, which Iraqi women no longer have the ability to do. Women's education no longer was a luxury, with women having the same opportunities as men in higher education. He also introduced social security programs, with the notable parts of the program consisting of disability benefits, with disabled people in Iraq becoming eligible for financial assistance. It also introduced healthcare coverage, ensuring Iraqi citizens had access to healthcare and medication when needed, Although during
10032-630: The age of 10, Saddam fled the family and returned to live in Baghdad with his uncle Khairallah Talfah , who became a fatherly figure to Saddam. Talfah, the father of Saddam's future wife, was a devout Sunni Muslim and a veteran of the 1941 Anglo-Iraqi War between Iraqi nationalists and the United Kingdom , which remained a major colonial power in the region. Talfah was appointed the mayor of Baghdad during Saddam's time in power, until his notorious corruption compelled Saddam to force him out of office. Later in his life, relatives from his native city became some of his closest advisors and supporters. Under
10184-437: The ailing al-Bakr to resign on 16 July 1979, and formally assumed the presidency. Saddam convened an assembly of Ba'ath party leaders on 22 July 1979. During the assembly, which he ordered videotaped, Saddam claimed to have found a fifth column within the Ba'ath Party and directed Muhyi Abdel-Hussein to read out a confession and the names of 68 alleged co-conspirators. These members were labelled "disloyal" and were removed from
10336-637: The applicability of those labels has been contested. Saddam Hussein was born on April 28, 1937, in al-Awja , a small village near Tikrit , to Hussein Abd Al-Majid and Subha Tulfah Al-Mussallat. They were both from the Al-Bu Nasir tribe, which was descended from Ahmed Bin Hussein 'Nasiruddin', a descendant of Husayn ibn Ali . The Al-Bu Nasir tribe had settled in Tikrit after migrating from Yemen . Saddam's name means "the fighter who stands steadfast". His father died before his birth. This made Saddam's mother, Subha, so depressed that she unsuccessfully attempted to abort her pregnancy and commit suicide . His mother
10488-435: The benefit, of the Iraqi people." It defines the assets of the Ba'ath Party as being any and all "movable and immovable property, records, data, cash, funds, realizable assets and liquid capital" that was either owned by the Ba'ath Party or by members of the Ba'ath Party as rewards, or such assets that they received without paying the full value. Other aspects of the Order include the suspension of "all financial obligations of
10640-425: The cities of Iraq. He launched various projects across the cities, beautifying it. Many monuments were constructed in Baghdad, such as the Al-Shaheed Monument and Monument to the Unknown Soldier , which helped in beautifying the city of Baghdad. Under his regime, Iraq engaged in rapid infrastructural development. Baghdad Airport was inaugurated in 1982, bearing his name "Saddam International Airport". He also proposed
10792-541: The country. Saddam, contrary to popular belief, was not inherently sectarian. While he did place his close relatives in key security and military positions, he also promoted individuals from other communities and minorities to the highest levels of power in Iraq. His primary criterion for these appointments was unwavering loyalty to him and his regime. Muhammad Saeed al-Sahhaf , a Shia Muslim, was Saddam's minister of foreign affairs from 1991 to 2001 and later information minister , until 2003 Taha Yassin Ramadan, Saddam's deputy
10944-643: The countryside and roughly two-thirds were peasants. This number would decrease quickly during the 1970s as global oil prices helped revenues to rise from less than a half billion dollars to tens of billions of dollars and the country invested into industrial expansion. He nationalised independent banks, eventually leaving the banking system insolvent due to inflation and bad loans. The oil revenue benefited Saddam politically. According to The Economist , "Much as Adolf Hitler won early praise for galvanizing German industry, ending mass unemployment and building autobahns, Saddam earned admiration abroad for his deeds. He had
11096-488: The coup was not hugely significant (except in the official account), Saddam planned and carried out the subsequent purge of the non-Ba'athist faction led by Prime Minister Abd ar-Razzaq an-Naif , whose support had been essential to the coup's success. According to a semi-official biography, Saddam personally led Naif at gunpoint to the plane that escorted him out of Iraq. Arif was given refuge in London and then Istanbul . Al-Bakr
11248-505: The coup. Ba'athist leaders were appointed to the cabinet and Abdul Salam Arif became president. Arif dismissed and arrested the Ba'athist leaders later that year in the November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état . Being exiled in Egypt at the time, Saddam played no role in the 1963 coup or the brutal anti-communist purge that followed; although he returned to Iraq after the coup, becoming a key organizer within
11400-461: The creation of a democratic government in the Middle East to help fight the Global War on Terror (GWOT) . Pursuant to these overarching goals, de-Ba'athification was seen as the logical way to ensure that a previously entrenched, undemocratic, and by all accounts unpopular regime and its influences on political culture were removed. De-Ba'athification, as a part of the overall occupation strategy,
11552-445: The de-Ba'athification policy to cover not just party members, but governmental institutions and apparatuses and their subordinate or affiliate institutions or apparatuses. It also lays out the penalties for affiliation with these particular organizations or apparatuses. The order states that all entities and their subsidiaries listed in the Annex (which reserves the right to be amended to include new group) are "dissolved". Additionally,
11704-400: The democratic process in general, because the vast majority of members of the Ba'ath Party during its rule were nominally Sunni Arabs. This created a significant gap in participation between Shi'a Arab and Kurdish and Sunni Arab organizations in what became the new public/political sphere. The overall alienation experienced by many Sunni Arabs reflected in their lack of representation in
11856-551: The development of an armed insurgency. An explicit figure regarding the dismissal of judges and prosecutors is available. Of 860 judges and prosecutors, 656 were reviewed and 176 were removed from their positions within the Ministry of Justice . In compensation, 185 new judges and prosecutors were hired. Furthermore, the general elimination of engineers, directors, and technocrats meant that Iraqi government ministries had difficulty in fulfilling their duties to Iraqi citizens. Within
12008-481: The discretion of the CPA Administrator or an Iraqi government. The Council was to be composed only of Iraqis, but selected by the Administrator and serving at his discretion. The Council was charged with the following duties provided the Administrator deemed the Council competent to fulfill these functions: Further duties of the Council included: Another important clause in this Order was the fact that "any live testimony or written statements provided by individuals to
12160-492: The diverse elements of Iraqi society and mobilizing mass support, he closely followed the administration of state welfare and development programs. Within just a few years, Iraq was providing unprecedented social services among Middle Eastern countries. Saddam established and controlled the "National Campaign for the Eradication of Illiteracy" and the campaign for "Compulsory Free Education in Iraq", and largely under his auspices,
12312-600: The education sector, the Historical Review of CPA Achievements states that 12,000 teachers, headmasters, and headmistresses were removed from the Ministry of Education and schools. The review also states that 32,000 were given training to replace removed employees, but other sources, such as Rajiv Chandrasekaran's book Imperial Life in the Emerald City: Inside Iraq's Green Zone , describes how Sunni dominated areas were left with only one or two schoolteachers as
12464-535: The electoral process, protesting what they felt was a policy which excluded and discriminated against Sunni Arabs as a minority group. The Sunnis hardly participated in the January 2005 Iraqi parliamentary elections , due to a boycott initiated by the major Sunni Arab parties . Juan Cole , a noted U.S. historian and commentator on the Middle East, has suggested in August 2005, that such boycott had (partly) been caused by
12616-408: The era in Iraq and throughout the Middle East. In Iraq, progressives and socialists assailed traditional political elites (colonial-era bureaucrats and landowners, wealthy merchants and tribal chiefs, and monarchists). Moreover, the pan-Arab nationalism of Gamal Abdel Nasser in Egypt profoundly influenced young Ba'athists like Saddam. The rise of Nasser foreshadowed a wave of revolutions throughout
12768-415: The exchange of ambassadors. The agreement emphasized the importance of economic cooperation between the two countries, particularly in areas such as trade, transport, and joint development projects. The signing of the Algiers Agreement occurred during a period of relative stability in Iraq, with Saddam Hussein gradually consolidating power within the ruling Ba'ath Party. As Vice President, Saddam Hussein played
12920-414: The eyes of many Iraqis. Finally, International Crisis Group issued a brief in 2003 to the effect that the de-Ba'athification policy created serious challenges to the legitimacy of any future government, unless all Iraqis, except those guilty of crimes, are allowed to participate in the government. There are however, sources that discuss the positive impact on Iraqi political culture. A report written by
13072-501: The financial assets of these entities were to be frozen, and placed under the purview of the CPA in order to finance the reconstruction effort. The order provides that pensions will continue to be paid to those dismissed under the Order, but such payments can be rescinded if it becomes apparent that the individual in whose name the pension was being paid committed crimes or was found to be a senior party member. Additionally, rewards would be paid to Iraqis who provided information "leading to
13224-418: The first section of Order No. 1: Pursuant to the goals of acting on behalf of Iraqi society and attempting to create "secure, stable environment that will sustain freedom and democracy for the Iraqi people," the goal of the policy was to further the establishment of a democratic political system in Iraq. The overarching goal of the invasion was the seizure and removal of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs) and
13376-625: The general confusion of authority between ORHA's role in post-war reconstruction and the eventual creation of the CPA headed by Paul Bremer . The implementation of the policy was to be as rigorous as possible following the advice of Ahmad Chalabi that such rigor was necessary to "demonstrate America's commitment to a new political order in Iraq." Furthermore, the depth of implementation was necessary to show what were, in Bremer's view, "...clear, public and decisive steps to reassure Iraqis that we are determined to eradicate Saddamism." According to one critic of
13528-415: The government established universal free schooling up to the highest education levels; hundreds of thousands learned to read in the years following the initiation of the program. The government also supported families of soldiers, granted free hospitalization to everyone, and gave subsidies to farmers. Iraq created one of the most modernized public health systems in the Middle East, earning Saddam an award from
13680-455: The government issued a decree inviting Jews back to Iraq, who were expelled. The Israeli government panned the decree by calling it political propaganda. Only a few Jewish families returned to Iraq. Thus the decree failed in attracting large swaths of Jews. In 1972, Saddam signed a 15-year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union . According to historian Charles R. H. Tripp ,
13832-460: The government. As the ailing, elderly al-Bakr became unable to execute his duties, Saddam took on an increasingly prominent role as the face of the government both internally and externally. He soon became the architect of Iraq's foreign policy and represented the nation in all diplomatic situations. He was the de facto leader of Iraq some years before he formally came to power in 1979. He slowly began to consolidate his power over Iraq's government and
13984-644: The grounds that the party should not have initiated the attempt on Qasim's life. At the same time, Aflaq secured seats in the Iraqi Ba'ath leadership for his supporters, one of them being Saddam. The assassins, including Saddam, all eventually escaped to Cairo , Egypt "where they enjoyed Nasser's protection for the remainder of Qasim's tenure in power." Saddam initially escaped to Syria and then to Egypt itself in February 1960, and he continued to live there until 1963, graduating from high school in 1961 and unsuccessfully pursuing
14136-461: The guidance of his uncle, he attended a nationalistic high school in Baghdad. After secondary school, Saddam studied at an Iraqi law school for three years, dropping out in 1957 at the age of 20 to join the revolutionary pan-Arab Ba'ath Party , of which his uncle was a supporter. During this time, Saddam apparently supported himself as a secondary school teacher. Ba'athist ideology originated in Syria and
14288-417: The help of increasing oil revenues, Saddam diversified the largely oil-based Iraqi economy . Saddam implemented a national infrastructure campaign that made great progress in building roads, promoting mining, and developing other industries. The campaign helped Iraq's energy industries. Electricity was brought to nearly every city in Iraq, and many outlying areas. Before the 1970s, most of Iraq's people lived in
14440-892: The highest ranking one being Taha Yassin Ramadan , an Iraqi Kurd —was appointed by Saddam, largely due to his loyalty, as one of Iraq's three Vice Presidents. He was also made Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party and commander of the People's Army. Saddam himself personally enjoyed Kurdish culture, often wearing traditional Kurdish clothing in state visits to northern Iraq. Under Saddam's regime , substantial reforms in education and literacy took place, with Saddam Hussein introducing mandatory reading groups for adults, with punishments for not attending consisting of heavy fines, and even jail time. UNESCO awarded Iraq for having "Most effective literacy campaign in
14592-417: The hit team at a hospital; the calculating shrewdness that helped him save himself minutes before the police broke in leaving his wounded comrades behind; and finally the long trek of a wounded man from house to house, city to town, across the desert to refuge in Syria . Michel Aflaq , the leader of the Ba'athist movement, organized the expulsion of leading Iraqi Ba'athist members, such as Fuad al-Rikabi , on
14744-453: The idea of a de-Ba'athification policy was articulated by Ahmad Chalabi and Iraqi National Congress , their comparisons to de-Nazification caught the attention of Douglas Feith , the head of the Office of Special Plans . The actual time-frame for the development of the policy was a matter of weeks. On 10 March 2003, a National Security Council meeting was held to determine the extent of de-Ba'athification because of disagreements between
14896-411: The importance of economic cooperation between Iraq and Iran, particularly in areas like trade and joint development projects. This agreement, while ultimately unable to prevent future hostilities, remained a notable diplomatic achievement for Iraq during Saddam Hussein's early political career. In 1976, Saddam rose to the position of general in the Iraqi armed forces, and rapidly became the strongman of
15048-459: The initial formations of governments because of high affiliation with the Ba'ath Party within the Sunni Arab population. Because the initial severity of the policy excluded so many from public life, few leaders within the Sunni Arab community were willing or capable of forming legal organizations that could participate in the public political sphere. As a consequence many Sunni Arabs chose to boycott
15200-555: The late 1950s and early 1960s." Army officers with ties to the Ba'ath Party overthrew Qasim in the Ramadan Revolution coup of February 1963; long suspected to be supported by the CIA, however, pertinent contemporary documents relating to the CIA's operations in Iraq have remained classified by the U.S. government, although the Ba'athists are documented to have maintained supportive relationships with U.S. officials before, during, and after
15352-403: The memorandum was to be quick and penetrating by initially assigning the policy's enforcement to Coalition Forces and posting military investigators in all government ministries. Additionally, the memo calls for the use of civilian, and "professional Iraqis" in order to establish a presence within the ministries and expedite the process. The primary methods of implementation under the control of
15504-406: The message for peace. During his rule, Iraq retained a substantial Jewish community , around 1,000. The Jews in Iraq were treated by Saddam. It is said that he had a soft spot for Jews because his mother was saved by Jewish neighbors. Saddam reportedly helped the estimated 150 remaining Iraqi Jews, allowing many to leave the country. There was a Jewish representative in the government. Shaul Sasson,
15656-426: The most notable economic expansions in the region. Saddam Hussein's regime aimed to diversify the Iraqi economy beyond oil. The government invested in various industries, including petrochemicals, fertilizer production, and textile manufacturing, to reduce dependence on oil revenues and promote economic self-sufficiency. By the 1970s, women employment rate also increased. Following the invasion of Kuwait which initiated
15808-433: The new government by aiding attempts to strengthen and unify the Ba'ath party and taking a leading role in addressing the country's major domestic problems and expanding the party's following. Saddam actively fostered the modernization of the Iraqi economy and created a strong security apparatus to prevent coups within the power structure and insurrections apart from it. Ever concerned with broadening his base of support among
15960-594: The number, also before 2007, at "100,000 civil servants, doctors, and teachers", were forcibly removed from the public sector due to low-level affiliation. The occupations affected by the de-Ba'athification policy include: Specifically, the Iraqi military was affected by Order No. 2. The Order called for the complete dissolution of the Iraqi military, and reportedly resulted in the unemployment and loss of pensions of approximately 500,000 individuals. The figures regarding this level of unemployment are approximately 27%. Many critics argue that this order specifically spurred
16112-442: The objectives of the de-Ba'athification policy developed by the Office of Special Plans . Specifically, the order states that all members of the Ba'ath Party, from senior leadership to 'Udw (Member) are "removed from their positions and banned from future employment in the public sector." It demonstrates its broad sweep of society by stating: Entering into force on 23 May 2003, Order 2 , entitled Dissolution of Entities, extended
16264-571: The office is expected to be held by a Kurd (all were from the PUK party). Although, it is not an official legal requirement. On the 2022 Iraqi presidential election held on 13 October 2022, the Iraqi parliament voted Abdul Latif Rashid as the new president of Iraq. According to Article 73 of the Iraqi Constitution, the powers of the president are: The Iraqi constitution, in Article 68, specifies
16416-453: The other hand, historian Kenneth Osgood writes that "the circumstantial evidence is such that the possibility of US–UAR collaboration with Ba'ath Party activists cannot be ruled out," concluding that "[w]hatever the validity of [Sale's] charges, at the very least currently declassified documents reveal that US officials were actively considering various plots against Qasim and that the CIA was building up assets for covert operations in Iraq." At
16568-471: The policy continued under the Iraqi Governing Council and later under the elected Iraqi Parliament . The De-Baathification order was drafted by relatively unknown mid-level Pentagon officials and emerged from Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld ’s office. Proponents of the policy contend that the policy effectively cleansed Iraqi society of Ba'athist influence, facilitating the creation of
16720-462: The policy, Ambassador Barbara Bodine stated that such a broad and deep attempt to remove and ostracize individuals from public life had never occurred in previous US occupations (i.e. Germany and Japan). Entering into force on 3 June 2003, the principal document regarding the implementation of de-Ba'athification was the CPA Memorandum Number 1 to Order Number 1 . The guiding principle behind
16872-513: The population. Following the Iranian Revolution of 1979, Iraq faced the prospect of régime change from two Shi'ite factions ( Dawa and SCIRI ) which aspired to model Iraq on its neighbour Iran as a Shia theocracy. A separate threat to Iraq came from parts of the ethnic Kurdish population of northern Iraq which opposed being part of an Iraqi state and favored independence (an ongoing ideology which had preceded Ba'ath Party rule). To alleviate
17024-473: The possibility of taking over the investigative and determinative roles, the ARCs were to remain in place "until the people of Iraq adopt a representative form of self-government." The criteria for punitive action articulated in Memorandum No. 1 is any affiliation with the party. This reflects the general criteria of affiliation expressed in Order No. 1, in which an individual is subject to punishment if he or she
17176-474: The powers and duties normally tasked to the CPA for the De-Ba'athification of Iraqi Society, were transferred to the Governing Council and its subsidiary entities, the CPA, within the memo, retained the authority to review actions by the Governing Council and its affiliates. Furthermore, any actions by the Governing Council and its affiliates deemed to cause a potential security risk were to be discussed with
17328-474: The preamble which states, "Observing that under the prior regime some Iraqis may have become affiliated with the Baath Party for reasons not primarily related to their ideological beliefs..." The memo, rescinding CPA Order No. 5, which created the Iraqi De-Ba'athification Council, instead defers the tasks of implementing Order No. 1 to the Governing Council's Supreme National De-Baathification Commission . While
17480-407: The process by which the objectives described in Order No. 1 and Order No. 5 are to be carried out. Entering into force on 4 November 2003, the Memorandum entitled "Delegation of Authority Under De-Baathification Order No. 1" reflects a changing position of the CPA regarding the implementation and force of the De-Ba'athification policy expressed in Order No. 1. This change in position is reflected in
17632-460: The protection they received. "There is a feeling that at least three million Iraqis are watching the eleven million others." —"A European diplomat", quoted in The New York Times , April 3, 1984. Iraqi society fissures along lines of language, religion and ethnicity. The Ba'ath Party, secular by nature, adopted Pan-Arab ideologies which in turn were problematic for significant parts of
17784-483: The punitive policies towards ex-Baathists, thus towards the Sunni Arabs, conducted by the then current Iraqi Transitional Government dominated by Shiite and Kurdish parties: former Baath Party members couldn't hold high government posts, yet generally hadn't been convicted of any crime as persons. And Cole warned, that the U.S. needed to combat this commitment to de-Ba'athification of the then-current Iraqi government, "if
17936-519: The recently appointed head of the Coalition Provisional Authority , Paul Bremer sent Gen. Jay Garner , administrator of the Office of Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance (ORHA), a draft copy of the order that was to be issued the following day. The drafting and planning of the policy began with a paper, which was issued by Ahmad Chalabi and the Iraqi National Council, describing the possibility of removing Ba'ath Party influence from
18088-483: The recovery of assets of Dissolved Entities". A full list of Dissolved Entities can be found in Annex A of the Order. Entering into force on 25 May 2003, Order No. 4, entitled "Management of Property and Assets of the Iraqi Baath Party", is viewed as a continuation of the financial penalties and rules contained in Order No. 2. Within the preamble, the Order also mentions it is being promulgated "on behalf, and for
18240-500: The revolution of 14 July 1958, elections were scheduled to be held to choose a President of the Republic, but they never took place. Therefore, the position of the president remained suspended, while Najib al-Rubaie was assigned to head the Sovereignty Council, which was considered as the president of the republic. Thus, Abd al-Salam Aref became the first to bear the title of President of the Iraqi Republic. The presidency council
18392-507: The revolution, while his office at the Ministry of Defense was taken as his official office in his capacity as prime minister. Sometimes he slept there. With Abd al-Salam's accession to power in 1963, he focused his attention on the palace that was being built during the reign of King Faisal II and in which he was to marry later. Abd al-Salam took care of the palace and completed it in 1965, the first republican palace of Iraq. And it continued as
18544-531: The room one by one and taken into custody. After the list was read, Saddam congratulated those still seated in the room for their past and future loyalty. The 68 people arrested at the meeting were subsequently tried together and found guilty of treason ; 22 were sentenced to execution. Other high-ranking members of the party formed the firing squad. By 1 August 1979, hundreds of high-ranking Ba'ath party members had been executed. Although his position on Kurdish politics has been debated, Saddam has allowed autonomy for
18696-414: The story ad nauseam—tells of his familiarity with guns from the age of ten; his fearlessness and loyalty to the party during the 1959 operation; his bravery in saving his comrades by commandeering a car at gunpoint; the bullet that was gouged out of his flesh under his direction in hiding; the iron discipline that led him to draw a gun on weaker comrades who would have dropped off a seriously wounded member of
18848-401: The threat of revolution, Saddam afforded certain benefits to the potentially hostile population. Membership in the Ba'ath Party remained open to all Iraqi citizens regardless of background, and repressive measures were taken against its opponents. The major instruments for accomplishing this control were the paramilitary and police organizations. Beginning in 1974, Taha Yassin Ramadan (himself
19000-448: The time of the attack, the Ba'ath Party had fewer than 1,000 members; however, the failed assassination attempt led to widespread exposure for Saddam and the Ba'ath within Iraq, where both had previously languished in obscurity, and later became a crucial part of Saddam's public image during his tenure as president of Iraq . Kanan Makiya recounts: The man and the myth merge in this episode. His biography—and Iraqi television, which stages
19152-579: The treaty upset "the US-sponsored security system established as part of the Cold War in the Middle East. It appeared that any enemy of the Baghdad regime was a potential ally of the United States." In response, the US covertly financed Kurdish rebels led by Mustafa Barzani during the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War ; the Kurds were defeated in 1975, leading to the forcible relocation of hundreds of thousands of Kurdish civilians. Saddam focused on fostering loyalty to
19304-812: The world.", with estimates being that in 1979 alone, over 2 million Iraqi adults were studying in more than 28,735 literacy schools, with over 75,000 teachers. Saddam Hussein's regime also mandated education for primary to high school, with Saddam's regime also mandating free tuition for university students. Saddam also took steps to promote women's rights within Iraq. By the late 1970s, women in Iraq held significant roles in society, representing 46% of all teachers, 29% of all doctors, 46% of all dentist and 70% of all pharmacists. These advancements signaled progress in women's participation in various professional fields. Women also saw drastic increase in rights in other-aspects of life, with women being given equal-rights in marriage, divorce, inheritance, and custody. Women in Iraq also had
19456-474: Was a critical policy decision, yet there was no NSC Principals meeting to debate the move." Another important actor in the creation of the policy of de-Ba'athification was exile leader of the Iraqi National Congress (INC) Ahmad Chalabi . Considered an unreliable informant by the CIA and the State Department, Chalabi was nonetheless influential within the Department of Defense's construction of
19608-479: Was a punishable offense, and under the terms of the Order, an individual could be fined $ 1000 USD or 1 year imprisonment. Both punishments were under the discretion of the Administrator. Entering into force on 25 May 2003, Order No. 5, entitled "Establishment of the Iraqi De-Baathification Council", established the title entity, the Iraqi De-Ba'athification Council . The Council was to enforce Orders Nos. 1 and 4 at
19760-479: Was a strong behind-the-scenes party politician. Al-Bakr was the older and more prestigious of the two, but by 1969 Saddam had become the moving force behind the party. In the late 1960s and early 1970s, as vice chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, formally al-Bakr's second-in-command, Saddam built a reputation as a progressive, effective politician. At this time, Saddam moved up the ranks in
19912-685: Was also appointed as a member of the Revolutionary Command Council and the Regional Command of the Iraqi Branch of the Ba'ath Party . Michel Aflaq , the founder of Ba'athism , was also a Christian . Cardinal Fernando Filoni , who was Vatican's ambassador to Iraq, stated that under his regime, Christians were free to practice their faith in the majority-Muslim country. In 2003, Pope John Paul II visited Saddam in March 2003 and addressed
20064-625: Was an entity that operated under the auspices of the "transitional provisions" of the Constitution. According to the Constitution, the Presidency Council functioned in the role of the president until one successive term after the Constitution was ratified and a government was seated. The presidency council had the additional power to send legislation back to the Council of Representatives for revision. De-Ba%27athification De-Ba'athification ( Arabic : اجتثاث حزب البعث ) refers to
20216-609: Was appointed vice president of Iraq by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr . During his time as vice president, Saddam nationalized the Iraq Petroleum Company , diversifying the Iraqi economy . He presided over the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War (1974–1975) and the Algiers Agreement which settled territorial disputes along the Iran–Iraq border . Following al-Bakr's resignation in 1979, Saddam formally took power, although he had already been
20368-553: Was arrested and executed in 1999. A cabinet meeting chaired by him condemned the attack. Saddam also said that: "Anyone who hurt the Jews in Baghdad would pay a heavy price". Saddam was also recognized for safeguarding the Mandaean minority in Iraq. Mandaeans were given state protection under his government. As a sign of respect, the Mandaean Book of John's first copy translation into Arabic
20520-468: Was arrested in October 1964 and served approximately two years in prison before escaping in 1966. In 1966, Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr appointed him Deputy Secretary of the Regional Command. Saddam, who would prove to be a skilled organizer, revitalized the party. He was elected to the Regional Command, as the story goes, with help from Michel Aflaq—the founder of Ba'athist thought. In September 1966, Saddam initiated an extraordinary challenge to Syrian domination of
20672-642: Was based on cronyism. A peace treaty, which aimed to address the Shatt al-Arab dispute, was signed in 1975. Under the accord, Iraq was granted sovereignty over the eastern bank of the waterway, while Iran retained control over the western bank. The agreement also allowed for joint navigation and other provisions. The 1975 Algiers Agreement, also known as the Algiers Accord, was a significant diplomatic agreement signed between Iran and Iraq on 6 March 1975, to settle border disputes and improve bilateral relations. The agreement
20824-408: Was based on the principles of territorial integrity, respect for sovereignty, non-interference in internal affairs, and the peaceful resolution of disputes. The agreement established a new border line along the Shatt al-Arab, dividing the waterway equally between Iran and Iraq up to the midpoint. Iran made significant concessions in the agreement, including relinquishing its claims on the eastern bank of
20976-587: Was charged with overseeing the US occupation and democratization process. As the highest authority in Iraq, orders issued from his office carried the force of law in Iraq. It was through CPA orders that Bremer and his administrative team enacted the policy of de-Ba'athification crafted in the Office of Special Plans at the Department of Defense. A total of 100 orders were issued by the CPA between May 2003 and June 2004. Entering into force on 16 May 2003, Order No. 1 , entitled "De-Ba'athification of Iraqi Society", describes
21128-513: Was delegated to the United States Department of Defense per National Security Presidential Directive 24 issued on 20 January 2003, only 60 days prior to the 20 March 2003 invasion. Compared to the nearly five years the Allied Powers spent in World War II planning the post-war occupation of Germany and Japan, this was a short amount of time to plan occupation strategy and operations. Although
21280-757: Was from the Shabak community —a small, quasi-Shiite sect. During the Iran–Iraq War, Saddam sought to gain support from Shia community. As 80% of the Iraqi Armed Forces were Shia Muslim personnel, who chose Iraq over Iran. Before 2003, more than 1.2 million Christians lived in Iraq . Tariq Aziz , an ethnic Iraqi Assyrian and member of the Chaldean Catholic minority , was selected by Saddam to serve as Iraq’s Deputy Prime Minister from 1979 to 2003 and Foreign Minister from 1983 to 1991. A close advisor to him, Aziz
21432-526: Was given my orders." This led Garner to believe that Bremer was not responsible for the content of the policy, but was executing Department of Defense policy. In a 2016 interview with PBS , Colin Powell described his surprise over the authorization to issue CPA 1 and 2 orders saying "Some have said in their memoirs, well, the NSC was told about it. But I can tell you, I wasn't told about it. Condi wasn't told about it. The president wasn't told about it. The CIA
21584-675: Was given to Saddam. After this he vowed to construct temples for the Mandaeans, with quoting, "Iraqis have religious freedom, whether they are Muslims, Christians or Sabaeans ". The Sabian–Mandaean Mandi in Baghdad was built on land donated by the Ministry of Finance. Mandaeans were some of the best goldsmiths and jewelers in Iraq, with Saddam's personal jeweler being of Mandaean background. However, after his downfall, Mandaeans faced severe persecution, and constant kidnappings. They often expressed that they were better under Saddam's rule, and praise him for
21736-559: Was heavy-handed, but consistent as a drumbeat. It helped, of course, that his mukhabarat (secret police) put dozens of Arab news editors, writers and artists on the payroll." After the Ba'athists took power in 1968, Saddam focused on attaining stability in a nation riddled with profound tensions. Long before him, Iraq had been split along social, ethnic, religious, and economic fault lines: Sunni versus Shi'ite , Arab versus Kurd , tribal chief versus urban merchant, nomad versus peasant and Jews versus anti-Semites. The desire for stable rule in
21888-419: Was mediated by the then-President of Algeria, Houari Boumediene . Prior to the Algiers Agreement, Iran and Iraq had been engaged in a long-standing territorial dispute over the Shatt al-Arab waterway, which serves as the border between the two countries. Algeria played a crucial role in mediating the negotiations between Iran and Iraq, with President Boumediene acting as the chief mediator. The Algiers Agreement
22040-413: Was named president and Saddam was named his deputy, and deputy chairman of the Ba'athist Revolutionary Command Council . According to biographers, Saddam never forgot the tensions within the first Ba'athist government, which formed the basis for his measures to promote Ba'ath party unity as well as his resolve to maintain power and programs to ensure social stability. Although Saddam was al-Bakr's deputy, he
22192-496: Was one of the triggers for the Second Iraqi–Kurdish War. On the other hands Feyil Kurds were also systamically persecuted . During the early years of the Ba'ath rule, Jews were oppressed under the government. Saddam was given the charge of publicly hanging 13 men , including many Jews. They were accused by the government of spying for Israel. Later government abolished its repressive policies on Jews. In November 1975,
22344-493: Was reached: the top leadership in the Ba'ath Party would be removed and a South African style " Truth and Reconciliation " council would be established to assess the culpability of lower level party members. According to Charles Ferguson 's interviews, the next time the policy was discussed outside of the National Security Council or the Department of Defense's Office of Special Plans was on 15 May 2003. On that day,
22496-463: Was recruited to the assassination conspiracy by its ring-leader, Abdul Karim al-Shaikhly, after one of the would-be assassins left. During the ambush, Saddam (who was only supposed to provide cover) began shooting prematurely, which disorganised the whole operation. Qasim's chauffeur was killed and Qasim was hit in the arm and shoulder. The assassins thought they had killed Qasim and quickly retreated to their headquarters, but Qasim survived. Saddam himself
22648-404: Was saved by a Jewish family. Subha "would have nothing to do with him", and Saddam would eventually be taken in by an uncle. His mother remarried, and Saddam gained three half-brothers through this marriage. His stepfather, Ibrahim al-Hassan, treated Saddam harshly after his return, and (according to a psychological profile created by the CIA ) beat him regularly, sometimes to wake him up. At around
22800-508: Was stunned, and the commanders in the field out there were stunned, because this was the solution to the security problem." Powell recalls phoning Rice who told him that Paul Bremer had made the decision and it would not be their place to overturn it. Then director of the Central Intelligence Agency George Tenet later wrote "We knew nothing about it until de-Baathification was a fait accompli ... Clearly, this
22952-502: Was titled "Transition of Laws, Regulations, Orders, and Directives Issued by the Coalition Provisional Authority". True to its title, the purpose of the order was to phase out the authority of the CPA and transfer power to the new "Interim Government of Iraq", which was to enter into force on the same day as the dissolution of the CPA, 30 June 2004. The first sections of the order ensure that any previous issuances from
23104-456: Was to review applications and approve or deny the exceptions or appeals presented to them. All decisions were also subject to the approval of the administrator. The burden of proof in these cases fell on the individual to demonstrate that he or she was not a Ba'ath Party member under the criteria laid out in the Memorandum. The phase under the De-Ba'athification Council (IDC) was only to occur when
#638361