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108-706: Failaka Island is located 50 km southeast of the spot where the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers empty into the Persian Gulf. For thousands of years, the island has been a strategic prize to control the lucrative trade that passed up and down the Persian Gulf. Failaka Island has been a strategic location since the rise of the Sumerian city-state of Ur . Up until the Gulf War , it was the longest continuously inhabited place in Kuwait. Failaka

216-405: A "large" light oil and associated gas discovery at an offshore field east of Failaka Island. The preliminary estimates of the hydrocarbon reserves were around 2.1 billion barrels of light oil, and 5.1 trillion standard cubic feet of gas, which brings into play about 3.2 billion barrels of oil equivalent (boe). Failaka is a principal center of archaeology in Kuwait. Since the fieldwork conducted by

324-665: A Greek transcription of the Indian name "Kalyana") accompanied Alexander to Persepolis , where he committed suicide on a public funeral pyre: he was probably a Jain or an Ajivika monk. There is no reference to Buddhism in the Greek accounts. Other than their mention of the Brahmanas, the Greek narratives about Alexander's invasion do not directly mention the caste system . Some Brahmanas acted as advisors to local princes: Alexander had groups of Brahmanas hanged in present-day Sindh for instigating

432-407: A deep ravine. To bring the siege engines within reach, an earthwork mound was constructed to bridge the ravine. A low hill connected to the nearest tip of Pir-Sar was soon within reach and taken. Alexander's troops were at first repelled by boulders rolled down from above. Three days of drumbeats marked the defenders' celebration of the initial repulse, followed by a surprise retreat. Hauling himself up

540-559: A fleet to explore the Persian Gulf shore under his admiral Nearchus while he led the rest of his forces back to Persia by the southern route through the Gedrosian Desert (now part of southern Iran ) and Makran (now part of Pakistan ). In crossing the desert, Alexander's army took enormous casualties from hunger and thirst, but fought no human enemy. They encountered the "Fish Eaters", or Ichthyophagi , primitive people who lived on

648-524: A large river system in Western Asia that flows into the Persian Gulf . Its primary rivers are the Tigris and Euphrates , along with smaller tributaries . From their sources and upper courses in the Armenian Highlands of eastern Turkey , the rivers descend through valleys and gorges to the uplands of Syria and northern Iraq and then to the alluvial plain of central Iraq. Other tributaries join

756-559: A nation which possesses a vast force of the largest-sized elephants. Owing to this, their country has never been conquered by any foreign king: for all other nations dread the overwhelming number and strength of these animals. Thus Alexander the Macedonian, after conquering all Asia, did not make war upon the Gangaridai, as he did on all others; for when he had arrived with all his troops at the river Ganges, he abandoned as hopeless an invasion of

864-525: A negative trend in water storage capabilities in the river basin. The combination of diminishing water levels in the Tigris-Euphrates river system and rising sea levels indicates the potential for rapid seawater intrusion in the river basin. This is especially concerning as the demand for clean water increases while the water supply decreases. Currently, the Middle East and North Africa are acknowledged as

972-640: A particular language with the Indians. This does not mean that the Indians spoke a single language: the language that Nearchus associated with India might have been a lingua franca used for official and commercial purposes. This lingua franca was most probably the Gandhari Prakrit , as the Greek names (e.g. "Taxila" and " Sandrokottus ") for Indian people and places seem to be derived from this language (e.g. "Takhasila" and "Chandagutta") rather than Sanskrit (e.g. "Takshashila" and "Chandragupta"). Nearchus attests

1080-666: A position he would hold for the next ten years until 316 BC, and in the Punjab he left Eudemus in charge of the army, at the side of the satrap Porus and Taxiles . Eudemus became ruler of a part of the Punjab after their death. Both rulers returned to the West in 316 BC with their armies. In c.  322 BC   BC, Chandragupta Maurya of Magadha founded the Maurya Empire in India and conquered

1188-571: A so great animal deserved a great name. The elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in Greek: "Alexander the son of Zeus dedicates Ajax to Helios" (ΑΛΕΞΑΝΔΡΟΣ Ο ΔΙΟΣ ΤΟΝ ΑΙΑΝΤΑ ΤΩΙ ΗΛΙΩΙ). Alexander did not continue, thus leaving all the headwaters of the Indus River unconquered. He later founded Alexandria Nikaia (Victory), located at the battle site, to commemorate his triumph. He also founded Alexandria Bucephalus on

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1296-567: Is preserved in Arrian 's Anabasis ( c.  150 AD ). Arrian provides a detailed account of Alexander's campaigns, based on the writings of Alexander's companions and courtiers. Arrian's account is supplemented by the writings of other authors, whose works are also based on the accounts of Alexander's companions: these authors include Diodorus ( c.  21 BC ), Strabo ( c.  23 AD ), and Plutarch ( c.  119 AD ). Alexander's incursion into India took place primarily in

1404-531: Is that the name Ikaros was influenced by the local É-kara temple, dedicated to the Babylonian sun-god Shamash . That both Failaka and the Aegean Icarus housed bull cults would have made the identification tempting all the more. During Hellenistic times , there was a temple of Artemis on the island. The wild animals on the island were dedicated to the goddess and no one should harm them. Strabo wrote that on

1512-719: The Fertile Crescent region , where Mesopotamian civilization first emerged. The Tigris–Euphrates Basin is shared between Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran. Many tributaries of the Tigris river originate in Iran, and the Shatt al-Arab, formed by the confluence of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, makes up a portion of the Iran–Iraq border , with Kuwait's Bubiyan Island being part of its delta. Since

1620-606: The Huwala in the GCC states. They are predominantly Sunni Muslims and speak Arabic fluently, although prior to the discovery of oil they also spoke Persian fluently. The most important Huwala settlement in Failaka Island pertained to 40 families who migrated from the Iranian island Kharg to Failaka in the years 1841–1842. The most recent settlement occurred in the early 1930s after the imposition of

1728-533: The Indo-Gangetic Plain —mutinied at the Hyphasis River , refusing to advance his push to the east. After a meeting with his army general Coenus , during which he was informed of his soldiers' laments, Alexander relented under the conviction that it was better to return. He subsequently turned southward, advancing through southern Punjab as well as Sindh, where he conquered more tribes along the lower areas of

1836-568: The Indus River basin area, which was divided among several small states. These states appear to have been based on dominance of particular tribes, as the Greek writers mention tribes such as the Malloi as well as kings whose names seem to be tribal designations. The Achaemenid Empire of Persia had held suzerainty over the Indus valley in the previous decades, but there was no trace of Achaemenid rule beyond

1944-429: The Indus River , before finally turning westward to reach Macedon. Of those who accompanied Alexander to India, Aristobulus , Onesicritus , and Nearchus wrote about the Indian campaign. The only surviving contemporary account of Alexander's Indian campaign is a report of the voyage of the naval commander Nearchus, who was tasked with exploring the coast between the Indus River and the Persian Gulf . This report

2052-584: The Iran cave barb ( Iranocypris typhlops ) and the Zagros blind loach ( Eidinemacheilus smithi ), are endemic to cave systems in Iran's upper Karun River watershed. The Batman River loach ( Paraschistura chrysicristinae ) is a Critically Endangered fish species endemic to the Batman and Ambar rivers, Turkish tributaries of the Tigris. The species is endangered by drought, habitat destruction , and habitat fragmentation from

2160-805: The Joint Trilateral Committee on water for the three nations for better water resources management. Turkey, Iraq and Syria signed a memorandum of understanding on September 3, 2009, in order to strengthen communication within the Tigris–Euphrates Basin and to develop joint water-flow-monitoring stations. On September 19, 2009, Turkey formally agreed to increase the flow of the Euphrates River to 450 to 500 m /s , but only until October 20, 2009. In exchange, Iraq agreed to trade petroleum with Turkey and help curb Kurdish militant activity in their border region. One of Turkey's last large GAP dams on

2268-752: The Magian practice of Tower of Silence , was also prevalent in Taxila. Nearchus mentions that Indians wrote letters on closely woven cloth; it is possible that this is a reference to a precursor of the Kharoshthi script, which may have developed from the Aramaic alphabet during the Achaemenid rule. While describing a tribe on the coast of present-day Balochistan , Nearchus mentions that they were different from Indians in "their language and customs", which implies that he associated

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2376-556: The Makran coast of the Arabian Sea , who had matted hair, no fire, no metal, no clothes, lived in huts made of whale bones, and ate raw seafood obtained by beachcombing . During the crossing, Alexander refused as much water as possible, to share the sufferings of his men and to boost the morale of the army. In the territory of the Indus , Alexander nominated his officer Peithon as a satrap ,

2484-498: The Mangar fish has been harvested for food in the Tigris-Euphrates basin. Many species move seasonally between the river and the marshes for spawning, feeding, and overwintering. The Hilsa shad ( Tenualosa ilisha ) is an important food fish that lives in the coastal waters and spawns in the lower reaches of the basin. Other ocean species occasionally visit the lower reaches of the rivers; bull sharks ( Carcharhinus leucas ) used to swim up

2592-628: The Marsh Arabs , were almost completely drained . Although they had started to recover after the fall of Ba'athist Iraq in 2003, drought, intensive dam construction and irrigation schemes upstream have caused them to dry up once more. According to the United Nations Environmental Program and the AMAR Charitable Foundation , between 84% and 90% of the marshes have been destroyed since the 1970s. In 1994, 60 percent of

2700-737: The Neo-Babylonian Empire period, Nabonidus had a governor in Failaka and Nebuchadnezzar II had a palace and temple in Falaika. Failaka also contained temples dedicated to the worship of Shamash , the Mesopotamian sun god in the Babylonian pantheon. After an apparent abandonment of about seven centuries, the bay of Kuwait was repopulated during the Achaemenid period (c. 550‒330 BC). In 4th century BC,

2808-647: The Punjab region . The Battle of the Hydaspes River was fought by Alexander in July 326   BC against king Porus (possibly, Paurava ) on the Hydaspes River ( Jhelum River ) in the Punjab , near Bhera . The Hydaspes was the last major battle fought by Alexander. The main train went into what is now modern-day Pakistan through the Khyber Pass , but a smaller force under the personal command of Alexander went via

2916-528: The Uruk period . For this reason, it is often described as a " Cradle of Civilization ". There is a large floodplain in the lower basin where the Euphrates, Tigris, and Karun rivers converge to create the Mesopotamian Marshes , which include permanent lakes, marshes, and riparian forests . The hydrology of these vast marshes is extremely important to the ecology of the entire upper Persian Gulf . Some of

3024-503: The ancient Greeks colonized the bay of Kuwait under Alexander the Great , the ancient Greeks named mainland Kuwait Larissa and Failaka was named Ikaros . According to Strabo and Arrian , Alexander the Great named Failaka Ikaros because it resembled the Aegean island of that name in size and shape. Various elements of Greek mythology were mixed with the local cults in Failaka. "Ikaros"

3132-469: The 1960s and in the 1970s, when Turkey began the GAP project in earnest, water disputes have regularly occurred in addition to the associated dam's effects on the environment. In addition, Syrian and Iranian dam construction has also contributed to political tension within the basin, particularly during drought. The ecoregion is characterized by two large rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates . The high mountains in

3240-525: The 1960s when Turkey implemented a public-works project (the GAP project ) aimed at harvesting the water from the Tigris and Euphrates rivers through the construction of 22 dams, for irrigation and hydroelectric energy purposes. Although the water dispute between Turkey and Syria was more problematic, the GAP project was also perceived as a threat by Iraq. In 1983, the Joint Technical Committee (JTC)

3348-466: The 20th century AD. Many of the artifacts found in Falaika are linked to Mesopotamian civilizations and seem to show that Failaka was gradually drawn toward the civilization based in Antioch . Under Nebuchadnezzar II , Failaka was under Babylonian control. Cuneiform documents found in Failaka indicate the presence of Babylonians in the island's population. Babylonian Kings were present in Failaka during

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3456-538: The 5th century until the 9th century. Excavations have revealed several farms, villages and two large churches dating from the 5th and 6th century. Archaeologists are currently excavating nearby sites to understand the extent of the settlements that flourished in the eighth and ninth centuries A.D. An old island tradition is that a community grew up around a Christian mystic and hermit. The small farms and villages were eventually abandoned. Remains of Byzantine era Nestorian churches were found at Al-Qusur in Failaka. Pottery at

3564-575: The Aspasioi, in the course of which Alexander himself was wounded in the shoulder by a dart, but eventually the Aspasioi lost the fight; 40,000 of them were enslaved. The Assakenoi faced Alexander with an army of 30,000 cavalry, 38,000 infantry, and 30 elephants . They had fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to the invader in many of their strongholds such as the cities of Ora, Bazira , and Massaga. The fort of Massaga could only be reduced after several days of bloody fighting in which Alexander himself

3672-521: The Danish team under the supervision of Geoffrey Bibby in the 1950s, archaeologists from France, the United States, Slovakia, Italy, Greece, and, more recently, from Poland and Georgia have worked there. The majority of Kuwaitis from Failaka Island are of Iranian ancestry. They originally migrated to Failaka from the Iranian coast, mainly Kharg Island and Bandar Lengeh . These people are commonly known as

3780-524: The Dilmun era (from ca. 3000 BC), Failaka was known as " Agarum ", the land of Enzak , a great god in the Dilmun civilization according to Sumerian cuneiform texts found on the island. During the Neo-Babylonian Period , Enzak was identified with Nabu , the ancient Mesopotamian patron god of literacy, the rational arts, scribes and wisdom. As part of Dilmun, Failaka became a hub for the civilization from

3888-503: The Euphrates are very fertile. Marshy land is home to water birds, some stopping here while migrating, and some spending the winter in these marshes living off the lizards, snakes, frogs, and fish. Other animals found in these marshes are water buffalo , two endemic rodent species, antelopes and gazelles and small animals such as the jerboa and several other mammals. The wetland birds Basra reed warbler ( Acrocephalus griseldis ) and Iraq babbler ( Argya altirostris ) are endemic to

3996-460: The Gangaridai when he learned that they possessed four thousand elephants well trained and equipped for war. Alexander, using the incorrect maps of the Greeks, thought that the world ended a mere 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) away, at the edge of India. He therefore spoke to his army and tried to persuade them to march further into India, but Coenus pleaded with him to change his mind and return, saying

4104-644: The Great The Indian campaign of Alexander the Great began in 327   BC and lasted until 325   BC. After conquering the Achaemenid Persian Empire , the Macedonian army undertook an expedition into the northwestern Indian subcontinent . Within two years, Alexander expanded the Macedonian Empire to include present-day Punjab and Sindh in what is modern-day Pakistan , surpassing

4212-736: The Indian name Ganga ), was the powerful Nanda Empire of Magadha and the Gangaridai Empire of Bengal . Fearing the prospects of facing other powerful Indian armies and exhausted by years of campaigning, his army mutinied at the Hyphasis River (the modern Beas River ), refusing to march further east. As for the Macedonians, however, their struggle with Porus blunted their courage and stayed their further advance into India. For having had all they could do to repulse an enemy who mustered only twenty thousand infantry and two thousand horse, they violently opposed Alexander when he insisted on crossing

4320-584: The Indus river when Alexander's army arrived in the region. Strabo , sourcing his information from the earlier writer Eratosthenes , states that the Achaemenid king controlled the area to the west of the Indus. This area (including the Kapisa - Gandhara region) was probably the territory of the Indians, who according to the Greek accounts, fought alongside their overlord Darius III at the Battle of Gaugamela . Greek writings as well as archaeological excavations indicate

4428-625: The Mesopotamian Marshes. The Basra reed warbler is endangered. Another wetland endemic species, Bunn's short-tailed bandicoot rat ( Nesokia bunnii ), is possibly extinct. Their drainage began in the 1950s, to reclaim land for agriculture and oil exploration. Saddam Hussein extended this work in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as part of ecological warfare against the Marsh Arabs, a rebellious group of people in Baathist Iraq. However, with

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4536-450: The Porus's left cavalry wing, and then used his cavalry to destroy Porus's cavalry. Meanwhile, the Macedonian phalanxes had crossed the river to engage the charge of the war elephants. The Macedonians eventually surrounded Porus's force. Diodorus wrote about the battle tactics of war elephants: Upon this the elephants, applying to good use their prodigious size and strength, killed some of

4644-543: The Tigris as far as Baghdad. Endemic fish species in the lower basin include Glyptothorax steindachneri and Hemigrammocapoeta elegans , and as well as two cave fishes, Caecocypris basimi and the Iraq blind barb ( Typhlogarra widdowsoni ), from a cave habitat near Haditha on the Euphrates. One-third of the fish species in the upper watersheds are endemic, including species of Aphanius , Glyptothorax , Cobitis , Orthrias , and Schistura . Two blind fish species,

4752-588: The Tigris from sources in the Zagros Mountains to the east. The rivers flow in a south-easterly direction through the central plain and combine at Al-Qurnah to form the Shatt al-Arab and discharge into the Persian Gulf. The rivers and their tributaries drain an area of 879,790 square kilometres (339,690 sq mi), including almost the entire area of Iraq as well as portions of Turkey , Syria , and Iran . The region has historical importance as part of

4860-486: The Tigris – the Ilisu Dam – is strongly opposed by Iraq and is the source of political strife. The Southeastern Anatolia Project (Turkish acronym: GAP) continues to be a source of tension in the region. GAP is a massive hydroelectric project, consisting of 21 dams and 19 hydroelectric facilities. In 2020, Iraqi authorities complained that the Ilısu Dam had decreased the Tigris river inflows and caused water shortages in Iraqi plains. Indian campaign of Alexander

4968-413: The Tigris–Euphrates basin and once covered 15–20,000 square kilometers. In the 1980s, this ecoregion was put in grave danger during the Iran–Iraq War . After the 1991 Gulf War , Iraq's President Saddam Hussein initiated a drainage project on these marshes, leading to degradation of ecosystem services that caused economic and social issues for civilians. The Mesopotamian Marshes , which were inhabited by

5076-526: The Tomeros river ( Hingol ) subsisted on fishing, and used stone tools instead of iron ones. The Greek writers mention the priestly class of Brahmanas (as "Brachmanes"), who are described as teachers of Indian philosophy. They do not refer to the existence of any religious temples or idols in India, although such references commonly occur in their descriptions of Alexander's campaigns in Egypt, Mesopotamia and Iran. Greek accounts mention naked ascetics called gymnosophists . A philosopher named Calanus (probably

5184-437: The allied forces forced the Iraqi army forces occupying the island to surrender through bombing and psywar operations. The sewage system was destroyed and has yet to be fully repaired. Also, many old homes continue to sit empty and decaying. After the war, Failaka was cleared of mines, but it remains under military use to some extent. Nevertheless, Failaka Island is becoming a popular holiday destination from Kuwait City since

5292-424: The army while he crossed the river upstream with a strong contingent. Porus sent a small cavalry and chariot force under his son to the crossing. According to sources , Alexander had already encountered Porus's son, so the two men were not strangers. Porus's son killed Alexander's horse with one blow, and Alexander fell to the ground. Also writing about this encounter, Arrian adds, Other writers state that there

5400-629: The breaching of the dikes by local communities after the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the ending of a four-year drought that same year, the process has been reversed and the marshes have experienced a substantial rate of recovery. The permanent wetlands now cover more than 50% of pre-1970s levels, with a remarkable regrowth of the Hammar and Hawizeh Marshes and some recovery of the Central Marshes . Iraq suffers from desertification and soil salination due in large part to thousands of years of agricultural activity. Water and plant life are sparse. Saddam Hussein 's government water-control projects drained

5508-445: The chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara , to come to him and submit to his authority. Ambhi (Greek: Omphis), ruler of Taxila , whose kingdom extended from the Indus to the Jhelum (Greek: Hydaspes), complied. At the end of the spring of 327 BC, Alexander started on his Indian expedition leaving Amyntas behind with 3,500 horse and 10,000 foot soldiers to hold the land of the Bactrians . Alexander personally took command of

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5616-510: The citadel and unleashed their fury on the Malli who had taken refuge within it, perpetrating a massacre, sparing no man, woman or child. However, due to the efforts of his surgeon, Kritodemos of Kos, Alexander survived the injury. Following this, the surviving Malli surrendered to Alexander's forces, thereby his beleaguered army moved on and conquered more Indian tribes along the way. Alexander sent much of his army to Carmania (modern southern Iran ) with his general Craterus , and commissioned

5724-409: The construction of the Batman Dam . It had not been observed since 1974 and was feared extinct until a 2021 expedition netted 14 fish living above the Batman Dam. The Mesopotamian Marshes in southern Iraq were historically the largest wetland ecosystem of Western Eurasia . The aquatic vegetation includes reeds , rushes , and papyrus , which support numerous species. Areas around the Tigris and

5832-564: The drought affected Turkey, Syria and Iran as well, Iraq complained regularly about reduced water flows. Iraq particularly complained about the Euphrates River because of the large number of dams on the river. Turkey agreed to increase the flow several times, beyond its means in order to supply Iraq with extra water. Iraq has seen significant declines in water storage and crop yields because of the drought. To make matters worse, Iraq's water infrastructure has suffered from years of conflict and neglect. In 2008, Turkey, Iraq and Syria agreed to restart

5940-429: The earlier frontiers that had been established by the Persian conquest of the Indus Valley . Following Macedon's absorption of Gandhara (a former Persian satrapy ), including the city of Taxila , Alexander and his troops advanced into Punjab, where they were confronted by Porus , the regional Indian king. In 326 BC, Alexander defeated Porus and the Pauravas during the Battle of the Hydaspes , but that engagement

6048-450: The eighth hour of the day. Plutarch also wrote that the bitter fighting of the Hydaspes made Alexander's men hesitant to continue on with the conquest of India, considering that they would potentially face far larger armies than those of Porus if they were to cross the Ganges River. Porus was one of many local kings who impressed Alexander. Wounded in his shoulder, standing over 2 m (6 ft 7 in) tall, but still on his feet, he

6156-463: The end of the 3rd to the middle of the 1st millennium BC. From about 1650 BC there is a further inscription on a seal found at Failaka and preserving a king's name. The short text readsː [La]'ù-la Panipa, daughter of Sumu-lěl, the servant of Inzak of Akarum . Sumu-lěl was evidently a third king of Dilmun belonging to about this period. Servant of Inzak of Akarum was the king's title in Dilmun. The names of these later rulers are Amoritic . Despite

6264-516: The end of the day sent a few ambassadors to Porus: Alexander, anxious to save the life of this great and gallant soldier, sent Texile the Indian to him (to Porus). Texile rode up as near as he dared and requested him to stop his elephant and hear what message Alexander sent him, escape was no longer possible. But Texiles was an old enemy of the Indian King, and Porus turned his elephant and drove at him, to kill him with his lance; and he might indeed have killed him, if he had not spurred his horse out of

6372-423: The enemy by trampling under their feet, and crushing their armour and their bones, while upon other they inflicted a terrible death, for they first lifted them aloft with their trunks, which they twisted round their bodies and then dashed them down with great violence to the ground. Many others they deprived in a moment of life by goring them through and through with their tusks. The fighting style of Porus' soldiers

6480-506: The entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles". A similar slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi. In the aftermath of general slaughter and arson committed by Alexander at Massaga and Ora, numerous Assakenians fled to a high fortress called Aornos (not definitely identified but somewhere between Shangla, in Swat , and the Kohistan region, both in northern Pakistan ). Alexander followed close behind their heels and besieged

6588-411: The establishment of the "Wanasa Beach" resort including live music, horse-riding, canoeing, and kayaking activities. Failaka Island is located in the northern part of the Persian Gulf . Springtime on Failaka Island is regarded as particularly special by Kuwaitis. Failaka has quite a different ecosystem than mainland Kuwait and its budding flowers and changing temperatures are much appreciated. Although

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6696-502: The existence of medical science in India: he mentions that when the Greek physicians failed to provide remedies for snake-bites to Alexander , the king gathered Indian healers who were also able to cure other diseases and painful conditions. The Greek accounts do not mention any other sciences of contemporary India. After the death of Spitamenes and his marriage to Roxana (Raoxshna in Old Iranian ) in 326   BC to cement his relations with his new Central Asian satrapies, Alexander

6804-450: The existence of a crop called bosmoran (possibly the pearl millet ), and Nearchus wrote of "honey-yielding reeds" (presumably the sugarcane ). Nearchus also mentions that Indians wore clothes made of cotton . Rock salt was extracted from the Salt Range , and supplied to other parts of India. Some primitive communities existed in the forest, desert, and coastal regions of the subcontinent. For example, Nearchus mentions that people around

6912-571: The existence of an urban economy dependent on agriculture and trade in the Indus basin. The Greeks mention the existence of cities and fortified towns such as Taxila . Arrian mentions that after defeating Porus, Alexander marched eastwards towards the Chenab River , and captured 37 towns: the smallest of these towns had 5,000 or more inhabitants. In the Swat valley , Alexander is said to have seized 230,000 oxen (possibly Zebu ), intending to send them to Macedonia for ploughing land. Aristobulus saw rice being grown in paddy fields , Onesicritus reported

7020-460: The first civilizations emerged from the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. From ancient times empires arose and fell in the river basin, including Sumer , Akkad , Babylonia , Assyria , and the Abbasid Caliphate . Being part of the Fertile Crescent , the river system is recognized as the site of one of the world's first agricultural centers, with areological sites containing preserved grain dating up to 12,500 years ago. The river system

7128-415: The inhabited marsh areas east of An Nasiriyah by drying up or diverting streams and rivers. Shi'a Muslims were displaced under the Ba'athist regime. The destruction of the natural habitat poses serious threats to the area's wildlife populations. There are also inadequate supplies of potable water. The marshlands were an extensive natural wetland ecosystem , which developed over thousands of years in

7236-451: The island had over two thousand residents and several schools. The village of Al-Zawr or Zoor is situated near the middle of the northwest side of the island. It was the longest continuously inhabited location in Kuwait. During 1990 and 1991, the invading Iraqis depopulated the island, expelling all of its residents to the mainland. The Iraqi military mined the beaches and used the island's facilities and buildings for target practice. In 1991,

7344-418: The island there was a temple of Apollo and an oracle of Artemis (Tauropolus) (μαντεῖον Ταυροπόλου). The island is also mentioned by Stephanus of Byzantium and Ptolemaeus . Remains of the settlement include a large Hellenistic fort and two Greek temples . Failaka was also a trading post ( emporion ) of the kingdom of Characene . At the Hellenistic fortress in Failaka, pigs represented 20 percent of

7452-452: The island's infrastructure remains poor, Failaka is beginning to develop a local tourist industry based upon fishing, boating, swimming, sailing and other water sports. The few remaining local residents are mostly those Failakawans who lived with their families on the island prior to the Iraqi Invasion of 1990. Most Failakawans have their own boats; while some are involved in tourism, many others are reticent about letting tourism detract from

7560-431: The last rockface on a rope, Alexander cleared the summit, slaying some fugitives – inflated by Arrian to a massacre  – and erected altars to Athena Nike , Athena of Victory, traces of which were identified by Stein. Sisikottos , or Saśigupta , who had helped Alexander in this campaign, was made the governor of Aornos. After reducing Aornos, Alexander crossed the Indus to begin campaigning in

7668-412: The marshes led to the disappearance of the salt-tolerant vegetation ; the plankton rich waters that fertilized surrounding soils; 52 native fish species; the wild boar , red fox , buffalo and water birds of the marsh habitat. Climate change also affects the environmental and social well-being. Climate change and human interaction have directly impacted the Tigris-Euphrates river system, leading to

7776-464: The men "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". Alexander, seeing the unwillingness of his men, agreed and turned back. Along the way, his army conquered the Malli clans (in modern-day Multan ). During a siege, Alexander jumped into the fortified city with only two of his bodyguards and was wounded seriously by a Mallian arrow. His forces, believing their king dead, took

7884-432: The most water scarce region in the world, with 61% of the population living in areas with high or very high water stress. As climate change worsens and population grows, water scarcity in the region is expected to worsen with 100% of people living in the Middle East and North Africa living in areas with high water stress by 2050. The issue of water rights became a point of contention for Iraq, Turkey and Syria beginning in

7992-584: The northern route, resulting in the Siege of Aornos along the way. In early spring of the next year, he combined his forces and allied with Taxiles (also Ambhi), the King of Taxila , against his neighbor, the King of Hydaspes . Porus was a regional King in India. Arrian writes about Porus, in his own words: One of the Indian Kings called Porus, a man remarkable alike for his personal strength and noble courage, on hearing

8100-531: The opposite bank of the river in memory of his much-cherished horse, Bucephalus , who had carried Alexander through the campaign on the Indian subcontinent and had died heroically during that battle at Hydaspes . After crossing the River Chenab , Alexander joined by Porus with elephants and 5,000 local troops, laid siege to Sagala , where the Cathaeans (related to Kāṭhī) had entrenched themselves. The city

8208-415: The place Pir-Sar, which the Greeks called Aornis. The site lies north of Attock in what is now the Punjab , Pakistan , on a strongly reinforced mountain spur above the narrow gorges in a bend of the upper Indus . Neighboring tribesmen who surrendered to Alexander offered to lead him to the best point of access. At the vulnerable north side leading to the fort, Alexander and his catapults were stopped by

8316-499: The quiet island life. Some Failakawan families, although now living in mainland Kuwait, regularly go to the island on weekends. On the mainland, in Kuwait City , various schemes have been discussed to build a bridge to the island and develop Failaka into a vacation paradise. A new hotel resort has encouraged many of the improvements. On July 15, 2024, Kuwait’s state-owned E&P company Kuwait Petroleum Corporation (KPC) has revealed

8424-560: The region during Dilmun's decline. After 600 BC, the Babylonians added Dilmun to their empire. After the Dilmun civilization, Failaka was inhabited by the Kassites of Mesopotamia , and was formally under the control of the Kassite dynasty of Babylon . Studies indicate traces of human settlement can be found on Failaka dating back to as early as the end of the 3rd millennium BC, and extending until

8532-421: The report about Alexander, began to prepare for the inevitable. Accordingly, when hostilities broke out, he ordered his army to attack Macedonians from whom he demanded their king, as if he was his private enemy. Alexander lost no time in joining battle, but his horse being wounded in the first charge, he fell headlong to the ground, and was saved by his attendants who hastened up to his assistance. Porus drew up on

8640-493: The river Ganges also, the width of which, as they learned, was thirty-two furlongs, its depth a hundred fathoms, while its banks on the further side were covered with multitudes of men-at-arms and horsemen and elephants. For they were told that the kings of the Ganderites and Praesii were awaiting them with eighty thousand horsemen, two hundred thousand footmen, eight thousand chariots, and six thousand fighting elephants. Gangaridai,

8748-453: The rulers Musicanus and Sambus to revolt against him. The Greek writings attest the existence of slavery in at least two places: Onesicritus describes slavery in the territory ruled by Musicanus, and Aristobulus mentions poor people selling their daughters publicly in Taxila. Aristobulus also observed Sati , the practice of widows immolating themselves on their husbands' pyre, at Taxila. The practice of exposing dead bodies to vultures, similar to

8856-480: The scholarly consensus that ancient Dilmun encompasses three modern locations - the eastern littoral of Arabia from the vicinity of modern Kuwait to Bahrain; the island of Bahrain; the island of Failaka of Kuwait - few researchers have taken into account the radically different geography of the basin represented by the Persian Gulf before its reflooding as sea levels rose about 6000 BCE. Dilmun's commercial power began to decline after 1800 BC. Piracy flourished throughout

8964-769: The shield-bearing guards, foot-companions, archers, Agrianians, and horse-javelin-men and led them against the clans  – the Aspasioi of Kunar valleys , the Guraeans of the Guraeus ( Panjkora ) valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys. Alexander faced resistance from Hastin (or Astes), chief of the Ilastinayana (called the Astakenoi or Astanenoi) tribe, whose capital

9072-456: The site can be dated from as early as the first half of the 7th century through the 9th century. The Al-Awazem clan are considered to be the first to inhabit the island in modern times. In 1682, Sheikh Musaeed Al-Azmi, who was born on the island, published a copy of Muwatta Imam Malik , which is considered to be the oldest document in Kuwait’s modern history. Prior to the 1990 Iraqi Invasion ,

9180-467: The south bank of the Jhelum River, and was set to repel any crossings. The Jhelum River was deep and fast enough that any opposed crossing would probably doom the entire attacking force. Alexander knew that a direct crossing would fail, so he found a suitable crossing, about 27 km (17 mi) upstream of his camp. The name of the place is "Kadee". Alexander left his general Craterus behind with most of

9288-631: The strategic hill-fort. The Siege of Aornos was Alexander's last siege, "the climax to Alexander's career as the greatest besieger in history", according to Robin Lane Fox. The siege took place in April 326   BC. It presented the last threat to Alexander's supply line, which stretched, dangerously vulnerable, over the Hindu Kush back to Balkh , though Arrian credits Alexander's heroic desire to outdo his kinsman Heracles , who allegedly had proved unable to take

9396-514: The time of Alexander the Great, the mouth of the Euphrates River was located in northern Kuwait. The Euphrates river flowed directly into the Persian Gulf via Khor Subiya which was a river channel at the time. Failaka was located 15 kilometers from the mouth of the Euphrates river. By the first century BC, the Khor Subiya river channel dried out completely. In 127 BC, the kingdom of Characene

9504-415: The total population, but no pig remains were found in nearby Akkaz. Nearchos was likely the first Greek to have explored Failaka. The island was further visited and inspected by Archias , Androsthenes of Thasos , and Hiero during three exploration expeditions ordered by Alexander the Great during 324 BC. Failaka might have been fortified and settled during the days of Seleucus I or Antiochos I . At

9612-454: The unveiling law by Reza Shah . A minority of Failaka Island's Kuwaiti families are Shia Persians , they were noted as having their own hussainiyas and the older generations were frequent Arabic speakers, unlike the Kuwaiti Shia of Persian origin in mainland Kuwait City at the time. Hellenistic Failaka Tigris%E2%80%93Euphrates river system The Tigris–Euphrates river system is

9720-407: The upper watershed receive more rain and snow than the lower watershed, which has a hot and arid subtropical climate. Annual snow melt from the mountains brings spring floods, and sustains permanent and seasonal marshes in the lowlands. The plain between the two rivers is known as Mesopotamia . As part of the larger Fertile Crescent , it saw the earliest emergence of literate urban civilization in

9828-400: The way in the nick of the time. Alexander, however, far from resenting this treatment of his messenger, sent a number of others, last of whom was Indian named Meroes, a man he had been told had long been Porus' friend. According to Plutarch this was one of Alexander's hardest battles: The combat then was of a more mixed kind; but maintained with such obstinacy, that it was not decided till

9936-400: The wetlands were destroyed by Hussein's regime – drained to permit military access and greater political control of the native Marsh Arabs . Canals, dykes and dams were built routing the water of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers around the marshes, instead of allowing water to move slowly through the marshland. After part of the Euphrates was dried up due to re-routing its water to the sea, a dam

10044-414: Was Pushkalavati or Peukelaotis. He later defeated Asvayanas and Asvakayanas and captured their 40,000 men and 230,000 oxen. Asvakayanas of Massaga fought him under the command of their queen, Cleophis , with an army of 30,000 cavalry, 38,000 infantry, 30 elephants, and 7,000 mercenaries. Other regions that fought Alexander were Abhisara, Aornos , Bazira , and Ora or Dyrta. A fierce contest ensued with

10152-400: Was a fight at the actual landing between Alexander's cavalry and a force of Indians commanded by Porus's son, who was there ready to oppose them with superior numbers, and that in the course of fighting he (Porus's son) wounded Alexander with his own hand and struck the blow which killed his (Alexander's) beloved horse Buccaphalus. The force was easily routed, and according to Arrian, Porus' son

10260-503: Was also the name of a prominent city situated in Failaka. According to another account, having returned from his Indian campaign to Persia , Alexander the Great ordered the island to be called Icarus, after the Icarus island in the Aegean Sea . This was likely a Hellenization of the local name Akar ( Aramaic 'KR), derived from the ancient bronze-age toponym Agarum . Another suggestion

10368-591: Was asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated. "Treat me, Alexander, the way a King treats another King", Porus responded. Other historians question the accuracy of this entire event, noting that Porus would never have said those words. Philostratus the Elder in the Life of Apollonius of Tyana writes that in the army of Porus there was an elephant who had fought bravely against Alexander's army and Alexander dedicated it to Helios (Sun) and named it Ajax, because he thought that

10476-505: Was built so water could not back up from the Tigris and sustain the former marshland. Some marshlands were burned and pipes buried underground helped to carry away water for quicker drying. Riparian entities have constructed dams along the Tigris-Euphrates river system as a method of water management in response to droughts. Turkey, for example, is in control of an estimated 45% of the system's water sources due to its dam constructions for water quantity and hydroelectric power. The drying of

10584-503: Was described in detail by Arrian: The foot soldiers carry a bow made of equal length with the man who bears it. This they rest upon the ground, and pressing against it with their left foot thus discharges the arrow, having drawn the string far backwards for the shaft they use is little short for three yards long, and there is nothing can resist an Indian archer's shot, neither shield nor breast plate, nor any stronger defence if such there be. According to Curtius Quintus, Alexander towards

10692-579: Was established around Teredon in present-day Kuwait. Characene was centered in the region encompassing southern Mesopotamia, including Failaka island. A busy Parthian era Characene commercial station existed on Failaka island. Failaka was also under the influence of the Achaemenid Empire . There are Aramaic inscriptions that testify Achaemenid presence. There are also late Sassanian and early-to-late Islamic era settlements across Failaka. Christian Nestorian settlements flourished in Failaka from

10800-653: Was established to solve ongoing data controversies between Turkey, Syria, and Iraq but stopped meeting in the early 1990s after only passing two bilateral agreements. The tension between Turkey and Iraq about the issue was increased by the effect of Syria and Turkey's participation in the UN embargo against Iraq following the Gulf War . However, the issue had never become as significant as the water dispute between Turkey and Syria. The 2008 drought in Iraq sparked new negotiations between Iraq and Turkey over trans-boundary river flows. Although

10908-580: Was finally free to turn his attention to India . For Alexander, the invasion of India was a natural consequence of his subjugation of the Achaemenid Empire , as the areas of the Indus valley had long been under Achaemenid control, since the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley c.  515 BC . Alexander was only taking possession of territories which he had obtained from the Achaemenids, and now considered rightfully his own. Alexander invited all

11016-434: Was killed. Porus now saw that the crossing force was larger than he had expected, and decided to face it with the bulk of his army. Porus's army were poised with cavalry on both flanks, the war elephants in front, and infantry behind the elephants. These war elephants presented an especially difficult situation for Alexander, as they scared the Macedonian horses. Alexander started the battle by sending horse archers to shower

11124-569: Was needed for the reception of the army. Sambus was yet another ruler in lower Indus valley. According to Diodorus Siculus , Alexander invaded his kingdom, killing eighty thousand people and destroying cities. Most of population was taken into slavery, and Sambus himself ‘fled with thirty elephants into the country beyond the Indus’. East of Porus's kingdom, near the Ganges River (the Hellenic version of

11232-558: Was possibly the Macedonians' most costly battle. Alexander's continued eastward march was leading his army into a confrontation with the Nanda Empire , based in Magadha . According to Greek sources, the Nanda army was five times the size of the Macedonian army; Alexander's troops—increasingly exhausted, homesick, and anxious by the prospects of having to further face large Indian armies throughout

11340-484: Was razed to the ground, and many of its inhabitants killed: Musicanus ( Ancient Greek : Μουσικανὸς , Indian: Mûshika ) was an Indian king at the head of the Indus , who raised a rebellion against Alexander the Great c.  323 BC . Peithon , one of Alexander's generals, managed to put down the revolt: The King of Patala , Porticanus came to Alexander and surrendered. Alexander let him keep possession of his own dominions, with instructions to provide whatever

11448-559: Was settled following 2000 BC after a drop in sea level. Failaka has been a strategic location since the rise of the Sumerian city-state of Ur during the third millennium BC. Mesopotamians first settled in the Kuwaiti island of Failaka in 2000 BC. Traders from the Sumerian city of Ur inhabited Failaka and ran a mercantile business. The island had many Mesopotamian-style buildings typical of those found in Iraq dating from around 2000 BC. During

11556-520: Was used by major cities including Ur and Babylon to promote trade and the sharing of cultures. As a result of its invention of the qanat system thousands of years ago which uses gravity to transport water through subterranean tunnels, Iran has a history as an agricultural nation, despite its aridity. The most abundant fishes are species of barbs ( Barbus ), some of which can reach up to two meters in length. Some species have been important food sources for residents for thousands of years. Specifically,

11664-591: Was wounded seriously in the ankle. When the Chieftain of Massaga fell in the battle, the supreme command of the army went to his old mother, Cleophis , who also stood determined to defend her motherland to the last extremity. The example of Cleophis assuming the supreme command of the military also brought the entire population of women of the locality into the fighting. Alexander was only able to reduce Massaga by resorting to political stratagem and actions of betrayal. According to Curtius : "Not only did Alexander slaughter

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