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53-751: Piotrków Governorate was an administrative-territorial unit ( guberniya ) of Congress Poland of the Russian Empire , established in 1867 by splitting some areas of Radom and Warsaw Governorates . Its capital was in Petrokov ( Piotrków Trybunalski ). It was created in 1867, split off from parts of Radom and Warsaw Governorates . It consisted of the uzeyds of Będzin , Częstochowa , Radomsko and Łódź . 51°24′18″N 19°41′36″E  /  51.405033°N 19.693289°E  / 51.405033; 19.693289 Guberniya Selected governorates were united under an assigned governor-general such as

106-701: A Commune (Town Council) on the basis of the most democratic voting, without limitations for the bourgeoisie. These elections, being boycotted by the bourgeoisie parties, gave us a crushing majority. The democratically elected Council voluntarily submitted to the Petrograd Soviet... the Soviet Government placed no obstacle in the way of the bourgeois parties; and if the Cadets, the SRs and the Mensheviks, who had their press which

159-448: A governor of an oblast or a krai . The Russian Empire had nine governorates in modern-day Ukrainian territories: Chernigov , Kharkov , Kherson , Kiev , Podolia , Poltava , Volhynia , Yekaterinoslav , and Taurida . Additional lands annexed from Poland in 1815 were organized into the Kholm governorate in 1912. After the events of 1917, which led to the declaration of independence of

212-588: A military commission regarding those involved in the short-lived soviet state. This work might have been what ensured his future employment with the Reichswehr in Munich as an "educational officer" whose task was combating "dangerous" ideas like communism, pacifism, and democracy among the army's ranks (many soldiers had taken part in the German Revolution ; in fact it was sparked by mutinous German sailors ). After

265-417: A program called "soviet government". The soviet system was described as "a higher type of state" and "a higher form of democracy" which would "arouse the masses of the exploited toilers to the task of making new history". Furthermore, it offered "to the oppressed toiling masses the opportunity to participate actively in the free construction of a new society". According to Lenin, soviet rule "is nothing else than

318-517: A republic. He was assassinated three months after, whereupon a short-lived soviet republic was established by the Bavarian workers. On 1 May 1919, the German Army , along with local Bavarian Freikorps , overthrew the nascent republic, massacring several hundred persons in the process, including many non-Communist. A Social Democratic government was thereupon restored, however, political power passed to

371-663: A short-lived soviet in Bama County . The term soon came to be used outside the former Russian Empire following 1917. The Limerick Soviet was formed in Ireland in 1919 at the beginning of the Irish War of Independence . A soviet republic was established in Bavaria on 7 April 1919. In 1920, the Workers' Dreadnought published "A Constitution for British Soviets" in preparation for the launch of

424-732: Is a workers' council that follows a socialist ideology, particularly in the context of the Russian Revolution . Soviets were the main form of government in the Russian SFSR and the Makhnovshchina . The first soviets were established during the 1905 Revolution in the late Russian Empire . In 1917, following the February Revolution , a state of dual power emerged between the Russian Provisional Government and

477-711: The Grand Duchy of Finland , Congress Poland , Russian Turkestan and others. There were also military governors such as Kronstadt , Vladivostok and others. Aside from governorates, other types of divisions were oblasts (region) and okrugs (district). This subdivision type was created by the edict ( ukase ) of Peter the Great on December 18, 1708 "On the establishment of the gubernias and cities assigned to them", which divided Russia into eight governorates . In 1719, governorates were further subdivided into provinces ( Russian : провинции , romanized :  provintsii ). Later

530-709: The Nanchang uprising , the term was also used by the Chinese Communists in the 1920s taking control in some parts of the country , which were later declared as the Chinese Soviet Republic in 1931. The CSR was China's first communist government in a structure that would later evolve into the People's Republic of China, but was ultimately wiped out by the Chinese Nationalist forces. In 1929, Deng Xiaoping led

583-691: The Socialist Revolutionary Party , and even the Mensheviks had a larger share of the elected representatives than the Bolsheviks . As World War I continued and the Russians met defeat after defeat, and the provisional government proved inadequate at establishing industrial peace, the Bolsheviks began to grow in support. By degrees, the Bolsheviks dominated with a leadership which demanded "all power to

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636-780: The Ukrainian People's Republic , these governorates became subdivisions, which also annexed Ukrainian-inhabited parts of Mogilev , Kursk , Voronezh and Minsk governorates in 1918. By the end of the Soviet–Ukrainian War in 1920, the Bolsheviks had made them part of the Ukrainian SSR . Soviet Ukraine was reorganized into 12 governorates, which were reduced to nine in 1922 upon the Soviet Union 's founding, and then replaced with okruhas in 1925. The West Ukrainian People's Republic in former Austro-Hungarian Empire territory

689-716: The official historiography of the Soviet Union , the first workers' council (soviet) formed in May 1905 in Ivanovo (north-east of Moscow ) during the 1905 Russian Revolution ( Ivanovsky Soviet ). However, in his memoirs, the Russian anarchist Volin claims that he witnessed the beginnings of the St Petersburg Soviet in January 1905. The Russian workers were largely organized at the turn of

742-562: The rady managed to form self-defence units, the councils were dismantled by July 1919 – mostly due to suppression by the Polish government and withdrawal of support from the reformist Polish Socialist Party . The rady robotnicze also appeared in the aftermath of World War II 1944–1947, in the Polish People's Republic during the Poznań protests of 1956 and Polish October , in 1970, as well as

795-659: The " Soviet of People's Commissaries " – the Ministry. Beginning with a minimum of three and maximum of 50 members for smaller communities, the maximum for town soviets was fixed at 1,000 members. The soviet system was seen as an alternative to parliamentary systems for administering republican governments. As outlined in the Treaty on the Creation of the USSR and the Declaration of

848-463: The 1905 of revolution. In 1918, soviets began popping up all around Poland, which was regaining independence after 123 years of colonial rule . Over 100 workers' councils operated there in the years 1918–1919, assembling around 500,000 workers and peasants. The most numerous and radical councils were located in Kraśnik , Lublin , Płock , Warsaw , Zamość , and Zagłębie Dąbrowskie . Although some of

901-499: The 20th century, leading to a government-sponsored trade-union leadership . In 1905, as the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) increased the strain on Russian industrial production, the workers began to strike and rebel. The soviets represented an autonomous workers' movement, one that broke free from the government's oversight of workers' unions and played a major role in the 1905 Russian Revolution. Soviets sprang up throughout

954-583: The 20th century. The first known examples occurred during the Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907) , part of the 1905 Russian Revolution , wherein workers in Congress Poland took control of factories and sometimes even entire towns until tsarist authorities quelled the rebellion using police and military forces; alongside Central Russia and Latvia , Congress Poland was one of the most active centres of

1007-536: The Bavarian right. The political turmoil of post-war Bavaria was also the political springboard of Hitler's political career. Hitler, having returned to Munich in late November 1918, detested the soviet state (he elaborated on his aversion to it in his autobiographical work, Mein Kampf , where he also claimed he once narrowly avoided arrest by the state). After the fall of the soviet administration in Bavaria, Hitler began his "first more or less political activity", informing

1060-402: The Bolsheviks, who long before October put forward the slogan of proletarian dictatorship, did not say anything in advance about disenfranchising the exploiters. This aspect of the dictatorship did not make its appearance 'according to the plan' of any particular party; it emerged of itself in the course of the struggle ... even when the Mensheviks (who compromised with the bourgeoisie) still ruled

1113-701: The Council in good time, as at a certain moment did the bourgeois members of the Paris Commune ." Vladimir Lenin wrote that the soviets were originally politically open and inclusive entities, writing in The Proletarian Revolution and the Renegade Kautsky (1918) that, "the disenfranchisement of the bourgeoisie is not a necessary and indispensable feature of the dictatorship of the proletariat. And in Russia,

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1166-484: The Creation of the USSR , and successively the 1924 Constitution of the Soviet Union and 1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union , the Soviets were the basis of government in the USSR. Factory and village Soviets would send delegates to town Soviets, and in turn the town Soviet would send delegates to the regional Soviet, town and regional Soviets elected delegates to the provincial Soviet, provincial Soviets sent delegates to

1219-620: The Russian word "soviet" plus the Russian suffix -ник denoting an occupation. A number of organizations in Russian were called "council" ( Russian : сове́т ). For example, in Imperial Russia , the State Council , which functioned from 1810 to 1917, was referred to as a Council of Ministers. The Polish and Ukrainian word is respectively rada and рада , 'council, advice', from Middle High German rāt . See Rada . According to

1272-630: The Soviet Union into particular territorial units was subject to numerous changes, especially during the 1918–1929 period. Because of the Soviet Union's electrification program under the GOELRO plan , Ivan Alexandrov directed the Regionalisation Commission of Gosplan to divide the Soviet union into thirteen European and eight Asiatic oblasts , using rational economic planning rather than "the vestiges of lost sovereign rights". Eventually, in 1929,

1325-572: The Soviet of the constituent republic, and the Soviets of the Union Republics sent delegates to the Congress of Soviets of the U.S.S.R. As of 1936, the election of delegates up the pyramid became direct with the creation of the Supreme Soviets . Elections of delegates were made by a show of hands in open factory and village meetings, or in meetings of the rank and file of the army. Any candidate

1378-467: The administrative level, customarily abbreviated: gorsoviet ( gorodskoy sovyet : city council), raysoviet / raisoviet' ( rayonny sovyet : raion council), selsoviet ( sel'sky sovyet : rural council), possoviet ( poselkovy sovyet : settlement council). In practice deputies in a soviet often worked in standing committees and carried out functions with the help of unpaid volunteers (the aktiv - Russian : актив ). Although English speakers perceive

1431-657: The bourgeoisie organised and demanded representation in the Soviets, they would have been given it. For example, during the regime of the Provisional Government there was bourgeois representation in the Petrograd Soviet – a delegate of the Union of Professional Men which comprised doctors, lawyers, teachers, etc." Similarly, Leon Trotsky wrote in Terrorism and Communism (1920) that "In Petrograd, in November 1917, we also elected

1484-465: The day-to-day running of the government. In the 1940s, it was estimated that at any given time there were over a million people participating in the running of the Soviets. Each Soviet has a variety of committees, parallel to the government departments in the USSR as a whole- public employees aided, advised and ran their relevant committees- for example, teachers would be on education sections, and doctors on healthcare sections: One major factor making

1537-605: The delegate; and it was equally easy for him to report back to his electors. Local constituents within the factory and village soviet would compile a list of what they want the government to do, and the role of the elected delegates was to carry out the given tasks. Unsatisfactory delegates are liable to recall by majority decision of the electorate: in the 30s, fifteen delegates were so recalled within four years in Moscow alone. There were very few full time administrative workers or state functionaries; instead, many citizens would take part in

1590-607: The ideology of the Soviet Union. "Soviet" is derived from a Russian word meaning council, assembly, advice, harmony, or concord, and all ultimately deriving from the Proto-Slavic verbal stem of *vět-iti "to inform", related to the Slavic "věst" ("news"), English "wise", the root in "ad-vis-or" (which came to English through French), or the Dutch "weten" ('to know'; cf. "wetenschap" 'science'). The word "sovietnik" means "councillor", from

1643-413: The industrial centers of Russia , usually organizing meetings at the factory level. These soviets disappeared after the revolution of 1905, but re-emerged under socialist leadership during the revolutions of 1917 . Soviets emerged as inclusive bodies to lead workers, and to organize strikes and to politically and militarily fight the government of Russian empire mainly through direct action , with

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1696-592: The instruments through which the Party governed the country. Thus the organs of the Communist Party (the highest being the Central Committee ) made decisions on state policy, while the soviets acted as a system for public approval of implementing the Party's programme. Later, in the USSR, republics were also called soviets and local-government bodies were named soviet ( sovyet : council) with an adjective indicating

1749-612: The national policy. More than half of the Union Republic's income went towards local grants, and local Soviets were largely allowed to determine how their budget was spent. Based on the Bolshevik view of the state, the word soviet extended its meaning to any overarching body that obtained the authority of a group of soviets. In this sense, individual soviets became part of a federal structure - Communist government bodies at local level and republic level were called "soviets", and at

1802-615: The number of governorates was increased to 23 . By the reform of 1775, subdivision into governorates and further into uezds ( Russian : уезды ), was based on population size, and the term guberniya was replaced by the synonym of Russian origin: namestnichestvo ( наместничество ), sometimes translated as "viceroyalty", other times as " vicegerency ". The term guberniya , however, still remained in use. These viceroyalties were governed by namestniki ( наместник ) (literal translation: "deputy") or " governors general " ( генерал-губернатор , general-gubernator ). Correspondingly,

1855-472: The old police services and members of the Romanov dynasty ; lunatics and criminals." With village and factory soviets as a base, there arose a vast pyramid of district, cantonal, county and regional soviets, each with its executive soviet. Over and above these stood the " All-Russian Soviet Congress ", which appointed an " All-Russian Central Executive Committee " of not more than 200 members, which in turn chooses

1908-578: The oppressed; the fight, the unscrupulous, self-seeking and sordid fight, the bourgeoisie waged against the soviets; and, lastly, the overt participation of the bourgeoisie (from the Cadets to the Right Socialist-Revolutionaries, from Pavel Milyukov to Alexander Kerensky ) in the Kornilov mutiny  – all this paved the way for the formal exclusion of the bourgeoisie from the Soviets." The Bolsheviks and their allies came out with

1961-510: The organized form of the dictatorship of the proletariat". A code of rules governing elections to the soviets was framed in March 1918, but the following classes were disqualified to vote: "Those who employ others for profit; those who live on incomes not derived from their own work – interest on capital, industrial enterprises or landed property; private business men, agents, middlemen; monks and priests of all denominations; ex-employees of

2014-460: The primary actors being socialist revolutionaries and anarchists , as Lenin 's party was a minority. During this time they established minor worker cooperatives , though the operations were minor due to Russian crackdown on leftist organizations. The popular organizations which came into existence during the February Revolution were called "Councils of Workmen's and Soldiers' Deputies". These bodies were supposed to hold things together under

2067-460: The provisional government until the election of a constituent assembly could take place; in a sense, they were vigilance committees designed to guard against counter-revolution . The Petrograd Soviet of 4,000 members was the most important of these, on account of its position in the capital and its influence over the garrison. At the beginning of the Revolution, these soviets were under control of

2120-421: The soviets, the bourgeoisie cut themselves off from the soviets of their own accord, boycotted them, put themselves up in opposition to them and intrigued against them. The soviets arose without any constitution and existed without one for more than a year (from the spring of 1917 to the summer of 1918). The fury of the bourgeoisie against this independent and omnipotent (because it was all-embracing) organisation of

2173-618: The soviets. This ended later that year with the October Revolution , during which the Second Congress of Soviets proclaimed itself as the supreme governing body of the country. Because soviets gave the name to the later Soviet Union , they are frequently associated with the state's establishment. However, the term may also refer to any workers' council that is socialist, such as the Irish soviets . Soviets do not inherently need to adhere to

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2226-482: The soviets." The Bolsheviks promised the workers a government run by workers' councils to overthrow the bourgeoisie's main government body - the Provisional Government . In October 1917, the provisional government was overthrown, giving all power to the Soviets. John Reed , an American eyewitness to the October Revolution , wrote, "Until February 1918 anybody could vote for delegates to the Soviets. Even had

2279-636: The standing committees a more likely arena for deputy participation in the work of the soviet is their smaller size [...] in 1985 nearly 2 million deputies were members of one or another standing committee - about 80 percent of all deputies. In addition, deputies are assisted in their work by unpaid volunteers ( aktiv ) with a particular interest or expertise in the issues before the committee. The Union Republics , Provinces and Town Soviets had jurisdiction to run their own industry, take censuses, employ more doctors, teachers, and nurses, build schools, libraries and hospitals so long as it did not directly conflict with

2332-646: The strike committees and councils of 1980–1981 . In the wake of World War I, the Social Democrats took power in Bavaria , setting up the People's State of Bavaria under the leadership of Kurt Eisner , a popular Jewish writer. Eisner, an eccentric and well known figure in Munich , succeeded in carrying out a bloodless coup with a few hundred men on 7 November 1918, occupying the seat of parliament and government, and proclaiming

2385-403: The subdivision was replaced by the notions of oblast, okrug , and raion . Oblast as a unit was used even before the revolution, although unlike governorates it designated remote areas that usually incorporated huge swaths of land. In post-Soviet states such as Russia and Ukraine, the term Guberniya is considered obsolete, yet the word gubernator was reinstated and is used when referring to

2438-429: The term governorate general ( генерал-губернаторство , general-gubernatorstvo ) was in use to refer to the actual territory being governed. The office of governor general had more administrative power and was in a higher position than the previous office of governor. Sometimes a governor general ruled several governorates. By the ukase of the Russian Senate of December 31, 1796, the office of governorate general

2491-419: The term as connoting the defunct Soviet Union , the same word is used in Russian for the Federation Council of the post-communist Russian Federal Assembly . Its untranslated name is Сове́т Федера́ции (Sovyet Federatsii). Workers' councils, known as rady delegatów robotniczych (councils of workers' delegates) or simply rady robotnicze (workers' councils), were formed in Poland at various times throughout

2544-439: The top of the hierarchy, the Congress of Soviets became the nominal core of the Union government of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), officially formed in December 1922. Successive Soviet Constitutions recognised the leading role of the Communist Party in politics, - the 1936 Constitution deemed it the "leading nucleus of all organisations of workers, whether public or state". The soviets were structured as

2597-405: Was also applied to subdivisions of the Kingdom of Poland ("Russian Poland") and the Grand Duchy of Finland . After the February Revolution , the Russian Provisional Government renamed governors into governorate commissars . The October Revolution left the subdivision in place, but the governing apparatus was replaced by governorate soviets ( губернский совет ). Actual subdivisions of

2650-418: Was demoted to the previous level of governorate, and Russia was again divided into governorates, which were subdivided into uezds, further subdivided into volosts ( волость ); nevertheless several governorates general made from several governorates existed until the Russian Revolution of 1917 . The governorate ( Russian : губе́рния , Polish : gubernia , Swedish : län , Finnish : lääni ) system

2703-410: Was not subdivided into governorates, and would be annexed by the Second Polish Republic from 1920 until the Soviet invasion of 1939 . There is another meaning of the word as it denoted a type of estate in Lithuania of the until 1917. Soviet (council) A soviet ( Russian : совет , romanized :  sovet , IPA: [sɐˈvʲet] , lit.   ' council ' )

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2756-492: Was openly calling for the overthrow of the Soviet Government, boycotted the elections, it was only because at that time they still hoped soon to make an end of us with the help of armed force... If the Petrograd bourgeoisie had not boycotted the municipal elections, its representatives would have entered the Petrograd Council. They would have remained there up to the first Social Revolutionary and Cadet rising, after which ... they would probably have been arrested if they did not leave

2809-468: Was personally known to the electors, and his qualifications could be argued about immediately in front of his face. Delegates once elected were liable to 'recall' should they cease to represent the views of their electorate. Since this electorate was a real entity, always in existence and discussing politics from day to day, it had a live and changing public opinion. Thus the will of his 'constituency' could easily, unmistakably and effectively be brought home to

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