Mongol victory
123-706: Mongol Empire Merkit and Naimans Kuchlug [REDACTED] Mongol campaigns in Central Asia occurred after the unification of the Mongol and Turkic tribes on the Mongolian plateau in 1206. Smaller military operations of the Mongol Empire in Central Asia included the destruction of surviving Merkit and Naimans (which involved forays into Cumania ) and the conquest of Qara Khitai . These were followed by
246-666: A Tungusic people , the Jurchen , allied with the Southern Song , ending the domination of the Khitans . The Khitan exiles, headed by Yelü Dashi , a member of the Khitan royal family, migrated westwards. The Khitans settled in the Tarbagatai Mountains east of Jetisu , and their number grew to 40,000 tents. Around 1130 the local Karakhanid ruler of Balasagun asked for their aid against
369-608: A Mongol expedition commanded by Genghis Khan's oldest son, Jochi , met the Merkits and Naimans at a branch of the Irtysh. The Merkit commander Toqto'a was killed in action, and many of his soldiers drowned in the river attempting to flee. The Merkits and Naimans who survived the battle regrouped at the Chu but were again defeated. The surviving Merkit fled first to the Uyghurs approaching Turpan . After
492-412: A Parisian goldsmith. Although he had a strong Chinese contingent, Möngke relied heavily on Muslim and Mongol administrators and launched a series of economic reforms to make government expenses more predictable. His court limited government spending and prohibited nobles and troops from abusing civilians or issuing edicts without authorization. He commuted the contribution system to a fixed poll tax which
615-652: A coherent ethnic group (with autonomous status within the Göktürk khaganate and an independent one in their subsequent states of the Karluk yabghu , Karakhanids and Qarlughids ) before being absorbed in the Chagatai Khanate of the Mongol Empire . Karluks are close descendants of the Ashina clan . Karluks are also people of the Altaics. Karluks are mainly Uzbeks and Uyghurs who are also
738-673: A council proclaimed as the ruler of all Mongols in 1206. The empire grew rapidly under his rule and that of his descendants, who sent out invading armies in every direction. The vast transcontinental empire connected the East with the West , and the Pacific to the Mediterranean , in an enforced Pax Mongolica , allowing the exchange of trade, technologies, commodities, and ideologies across Eurasia . The empire began to split due to wars over succession, as
861-475: A far more important role in their conversion than Muslim arms. The merchants were followed by missionaries of various creeds, including Nestorian Christians . Many Turkestan towns had Christian churches. The Turks held sacred the Qastek pass mountains, believing to be an abode of the deity. Each creed carried its script, resulting in a variety of used scripts, including Türkic runiform , Sogdian , Syriac , and later
984-512: A firm treaty of friendship and peace." or he said, "I am Khan of the lands of the rising sun while you are sultan those of the setting sun: Let us conclude a firm agreement of friendship and peace." However, the Governor of Otrar refused to receive the mission and had all 450 of them killed, with permission from the Sultan. Upon hearing of this atrocity months later, Genghis Khan flew into a rage and used
1107-570: A major campaign against Khwarazm . Expansion into Central Asia began in 1209 as Genghis Khan sent an expedition to pursue rivals who had fled to the region and threatened his new empire. The Uyghur kingdom Qocho and leaders of the Karluks submitted voluntarily to the Mongol Empire and married into the imperial family . By 1218 the Mongols controlled all of Xinjiang and by 1221 all the territories of
1230-461: A millennium. It is thought that this resulted in a rapid increase in the number of war horses and other livestock, which significantly enhanced Mongol military strength. Known during his childhood as Temüjin, Genghis Khan was a son of a Mongol chieftain and rose very rapidly as a young man by working with Toghrul Khan of the Kerait. After Temujin went to war against Kurtait (also known as Wang Khan; given
1353-442: A new code of law of the empire, Ikh Zasag or Yassa ; later he expanded it to cover much of the everyday life and political affairs of the nomads. He forbade the selling of women, theft, fighting among the Mongols, and the hunting of animals during the breeding season. He appointed his stepbrother Shikhikhutug as supreme judge (jarughachi), ordering him to keep records of the empire. In addition to laws regarding family, food, and
SECTION 10
#17328515740861476-457: A new great khan, Batu called a kurultai on his own territory in 1250. As it was far from the Mongol heartland , members of the Ögedeid and Chagataid families refused to attend. The kurultai offered the throne to Batu, but he rejected it, claiming he had no interest in the position. Batu instead nominated Möngke , a grandson of Genghis from his son Tolui's lineage. Möngke was leading a Mongol army in Rus,
1599-495: A number of Mongol campaigns into Goryeo Korea , but Ögedei's attempt to annex the Korean Peninsula met with little success. Gojong , the king of Goryeo , surrendered but later revolted and massacred Mongol darughachis (overseers); he then moved his imperial court from Gaeseong to Ganghwa Island . In 1235, the Mongols established Karakorum as their capital lasting until 1260. During that period, Ogedei Khan ordered
1722-472: A peace treaty with the Mongols and withdrawing from a score of forts. The Mongols then resumed attacks on the Tatars to avenge the death of their late khan, opening a long period of active hostilities. The Jin and Tatar armies defeated the Mongols in 1161. During the rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, the usually cold, parched steppes of Central Asia enjoyed their mildest, wettest conditions in more than
1845-626: A prominent nomadic Turkic tribal confederacy residing in the regions of Kara-Irtysh (Black Irtysh ) and the Tarbagatai Mountains west of the Altay Mountains in Central Asia . Karluks gave their name to the distinct Karluk group of the Turkic languages , which also includes the Uzbek , Uyghur and Ili Turki languages . The descendants of Karluks today include the Uzbeks and Uyghurs. Karluks were known as
1968-621: A state religion in 960. The empire occupied modern northern Iran and parts of Central Asia . This region remained under the Karakhanids, but for varying periods it was an autonomous vassal of Seljuks and Kara-Khitans . The Karakhanid Khanate ended when the last ruler of its western khanate was killed by the Khwarezmids in 1212. Both the Kara-Khitans and the Khwarezmids were later destroyed by
2091-634: A western campaign in 1235. In 1236, the westward expansion of Batu Khan , the son of Jochi, smashed into the Kipchaks, beginning an invasion of Europe , and incorporated the Kipchak lands in Central Asia, Eastern Europe , and Western Siberia into his appanage , which became known as the Golden Horde . The Qara Khitai (Black Khitan) were Khitans of the Liao Dynasty (907–1125) who were driven out of China by
2214-599: Is a division of nomadic Turks. They are separate from Oghuz , but they are Turkmens like Oghuz." Ilkhanate's Rashid al-Din Hamadani in his Jami' al-tawarikh mentions Karluks as one of the Oghuz ( Turkmen ) tribes. I. Kafesoğlu (1958) proposes that Türkmen might be the Karluks' equivalent of the Göktürks ' political term Kök Türk . Nikolai Aristov noted that a tributary of
2337-567: Is likely to be an exonym, formed as an -(O)k derivate from the verb kar-ıl- ‘to mingle (intr.)’ discussed in Erdal (1991: 662); it would thus have signified ‘the mingled ones’, presumably because the tribe evolved from the mingling of discrete groups," as already suggested by Doerfer . The first Chinese reference to the Karluks (644) labels them with a Manichaean attribute: Lion Karluks ( "Shi-Geluolu" , "shi" stands for Sogdian "lion"). The "lion" ( Turkish : arslan ) Karluks persisted up to
2460-503: Is now northern Kazakhstan. Jebe and Subutai pursued and defeated them. At this juncture, Jebe and Subutai did not attempt to incorporate the Qangli into the empire. Having completed their destruction of the Merkit, they returned home. The independent nomadic tribes that the Mongols had encountered in Central Asia and Eastern Europe may have been at least part of the impetus for Ögedei Khan to launch
2583-679: Is their present home. Karluk independence ended around 840. They fell from dominating the tribal association to a subordinate position. The Kyrgyz remained a power in Jetisu until their destruction by the Kara-Khitans in 1124, when most of them evacuated from their center in Tuva back to the Minusinsk Depression , leaving the Karluks to predominate again in Jetisu. The position of the Karluk state, based on
SECTION 20
#17328515740862706-575: The Altai language , belongs to a separate Kyrgyz group of the Turkic language family . At that time they had an estimated population of 250,000 and an army of 50,000. Kyrgyz victory in the war brought them to the Karluk door. They captured Tuva , Altai , a part of Dzungaria , and reached Kashgar . Allied with the Karluks against the Uyghurs, in the 840s the Kyrgyz started the occupation of that part of Jetisu which
2829-715: The Arctic ; eastward and southward into parts of the Indian subcontinent , mounted invasions of Southeast Asia , and conquered the Iranian Plateau ; and reached westward as far as the Levant and the Carpathian Mountains . The Mongol Empire emerged from the unification of several nomadic tribes in the Mongol heartland under the leadership of Temüjin, known by the more famous title of Genghis Khan ( c. 1162 – 1227), whom
2952-659: The Chagatayid and Ögedeid families. By the time of Kublai's death in 1294, the Mongol Empire had fractured into four separate khanates or empires , each pursuing its own interests and objectives: the Golden Horde khanate in the northwest, the Chagatai Khanate in Central Asia, the Ilkhanate in Iran, and the Yuan dynasty in China, based in modern-day Beijing . In 1304, during the reign of Temür ,
3075-487: The Charysh River was Kerlyk and proposed that the tribal name originated from the toponym with a Turkic meaning of "wild Siberian millet". Peter Golden , citing Németh , suggests that qarluğ/qarluq possibly means "snowy" (from Proto-Turkic *qar "snow" ). However, Marcel Erdal critiques this as a folk etymology, as "[i]n Old Turkic the suffix + lXk , which is implied in this account, had fourfold vowel harmony, and
3198-946: The Christians and Muslims . The Karluks converted to Nestorian Christianity at the end of the 8th century CE, about 15 years after they established themselves in the Jetisu region. This was the first time the Church of the East received such major sponsorship by an eastern power. Particularly, the Chigils were Christians of the Nestorian denomination. The majority of the Toquz Oghuz , with their khan, were Manicheans , but there were also Christians , Buddhists , and Muslims among them. The peaceful penetration of Muslim culture through commercial relations played
3321-601: The Chu river in the Türgesh land, was a brother of one of the Göktürk khans, but bore the Persian title Yalan-shah, i.e. "King of Heroes". Muslim authors describe in detail the trade route from Western Asia to China across Jetisu , mentioning many cities. Some bore double names, both Turkic and Sogdian . They wrote about the capital cities of Balasagun , Suyab , and Kayalik, in which William of Rubruck saw three Buddhist temples in
3444-642: The Eastern Xia regime and the Water Tatars . In 1230, the great Khan personally led his army in the campaign against the Jin dynasty of China. Ögedei's general Subutai captured the capital of Emperor Wanyan Shouxu in the siege of Kaifeng in 1232. The Jin dynasty collapsed in 1234 when the Mongols captured Caizhou , the town to which Wanyan Shouxu had fled. In 1234, three armies commanded by Ögedei's sons Kochu and Koten and
3567-420: The Golden Horde , refused to come to the kurultai, claiming that he was ill and that the climate was too harsh for him. The resulting stalemate lasted more than four years and further destabilized the unity of the empire. When Genghis Khan's youngest brother Temüge threatened to seize the throne, Güyük came to Karakorum to try to secure his position. Batu eventually agreed to send his brothers and generals to
3690-804: The Grand Principality of Vladimir at the Battle of the Sit River . The Mongols captured the Alania capital Maghas in 1238. By 1240, all Kievan Rus' had fallen to the Asian invaders except for a few northern cities. Mongol troops under Chormaqan in Persia connecting his invasion of Transcaucasia with the invasion of Batu and Subutai, forced the Georgian and Armenian nobles to surrender as well. Giovanni de Plano Carpini ,
3813-676: The Jurchens of the Jin dynasty . In 1124 some Khitans moved westward under Yeh-lü Ta-shih ’s leadership and created the Qara Khitai Khanate (Western Liao) between in the Semirechye and the Chu River . They dominated Central Asia in the 12th century after they defeated the Great Seljuk leader Ahmed Sanjar at the Battle of Qatwan in 1141. However, their power was shattered in 1211 through
Mongol campaigns in Central Asia - Misplaced Pages Continue
3936-605: The Khwarazmians (then also a vassal of the Seljuks) to conquer the lands of the Seljuks as well as in response to an appeal to intervene by the Karluks who were involved in a conflict with the Karakhanids, then advanced to Samarkand . In 1141, the Seljuks under Ahmad Sanjar also arrived in Samarkand with his army, but was defeated by the Kara-Khitans in the Battle of Qatwan , after which
4059-420: The Mongol invasion. The name Khāqāniyya was given to the Karluks who inhabited Kashgar and Balasagun , whose inhabitants were not Uyghur however their language has been retroactively labelled as Uyghur by scholars . At the beginning of the 10th century, a tribe related to the Mongols , the Khitans , with an admixture of Mongols, founded a vast empire, stretching from the Pacific to Lake Baikal and
4182-431: The Mongolian Plateau . The regime is thereafter known as the Northern Yuan dynasty in historiography, surviving as a rump state until the conquest by the Qing dynasty in the 1630s. The Golden Horde had broken into competing khanates by the end of the 15th century and its rule on Eastern Europe is traditionally considered to have ended in 1480 with the Great Stand on the Ugra River by the Grand Duchy of Moscow , while
4305-430: The Muslim town for the first time. The geographers also mentioned Taraz (Talas, Auliya-ata), Navekat (now Karabulak ), Atbash (now Koshoy-Kurgan ruins), Issyk-kul , Barskhan , Panjikat , Akhsikat , Beglilig, Almalik , Jul, Yar, Ton, Panchul, and others. Prior to the Kyrgyz - Uyghur war of 829–840, the Kyrgyz lived in the upper basin of the Yenisei River . Linguistically their language , together with
4428-474: The Tangut general Chagan invaded southern China. With the assistance of the Song dynasty the Mongols finished off the Jin in 1234. Many Han Chinese and Khitan defected to the Mongols to fight against the Jin. Two Han Chinese leaders, Shi Tianze , Liu Heima (劉黑馬, Liu Ni), and the Khitan Xiao Zhala defected and commanded the 3 Tumens in the Mongol army. Liu Heima and Shi Tianze served Ogödei Khan. Liu Heima and Shi Tianxiang led armies against Western Xia for
4551-415: The Tian Shan , displacing the Turkic population . The Khitan language has been classified as para-Mongolic : distantly related to the Mongolic languages of the Mongols . Reportedly, the first Gurkhan was a Manichaean . Owing to its long sway over China, the ruling dynasty, which the Twenty-Four Histories call the Liao dynasty (916–1125), was strongly influenced by Chinese culture . In 1125,
4674-423: The Toquz Oghuz tribal confederation, led by the Uyghur Yaglakar clan . They remained in the Chinese sphere of influence and an active participant in fighting the Muslim expansion into the area, up until their split from the Tang in 751. Chinese intervention in the affairs of Western Turkestan ceased after their defeat at the Battle of Talas in 751 by the Arab general Ziyad ibn Salih. The Arabs dislodged
4797-415: The Uygur . The Karluks had adopted and developed the Turkic literary language of Khwarazm , established in Bukhara and Samarkand , which after the Mongol conquest became known as the Chagatai language . Of all Turkic peoples, the Karluks were most open to the influence of Muslim culture. Yaqubi reported the conversion of the Karluk-yabghu to Islam under Caliph Mahdi (775–785), and by
4920-425: The Western Turkic Khaganate . After the Göktürks' downfall, the Karluk confederation would later incorporate other Turkic tribes like the Chigils , Tuhsi , Azkishi , Türgesh , Khalajes , Čaruk , Barsqan , as well as Iranian Sogdians and West Asian and Central Asian migrants. In 630, Ashina Helu , the Ishbara Qaghan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate , was captured by the Chinese . His heir apparent ,
5043-402: The Yuan dynasty . Some sources give the full Mongol name as Dai Ön Yehe Monggul Ulus . The area around Mongolia , Manchuria , and parts of North China had been controlled by the Khitan -led Liao dynasty since the 10th century. In 1125, the Jin dynasty founded by the Jurchens overthrew the Liao dynasty and attempted to gain control over former Liao territory in Mongolia. In the 1130s
Mongol campaigns in Central Asia - Misplaced Pages Continue
5166-426: The imperial guard , was founded and divided into day ( khorchin torghuds ) and night ( khevtuul ) guards. Genghis rewarded those who had been loyal to him and placed them in high positions, as heads of army units and households, even though many of them came from very low-ranking clans. Compared to the units he gave to his loyal companions, those assigned to his own family members were relatively few. He proclaimed
5289-518: The khagan (Emperor) of the Yekhe Mongol Ulus (Great Mongol State) at a Kurultai (general assembly/council). It was there that he assumed the title of Genghis Khan (universal leader) instead of one of the old tribal titles such as Gur Khan or Tayang Khan, marking the start of the Mongol Empire. Genghis Khan introduced many innovative ways of organizing his army: for example dividing it into decimal subsections of arbans (10 soldiers), zuuns (100), Mingghans (1000), and tumens (10,000). The Kheshig ,
5412-411: The "lesser Khan" Hubo, escaped to Altai with a major part of the people and 30,000 soldiers. He conquered the Karluks in the west, the Kyrgyz in the north, and took the title Yizhuchebi Khagan . The Karluks allied with the Tiele and their leaders the Uyghurs against the Turkic Khaganate, and participated in enthroning the victorious head of the Uyghurs ( Toquz Oghuz ). After that, a smaller part of
5535-444: The + lXk derivate from kar would in Old Turkic be * karlık and not karluk ". Having noted that the majority of Chinese transcriptions 歌邏祿, 歌羅祿, 葛邏祿, 葛羅祿 and 哥邏祿 (all romanized as Geluolu ) are trisyllabic, while only one form 葛祿 ( Gelu ) is disyllabic, Erdal contends that although the latter one transcribed Qarluq , the former four transcribed * Qaraluq , which should be the preferred reading. Thus, Erdal concluded that "the name
5658-401: The 10th century, several places to the east of Talas had mosques. Muslim culture had affected the general way of life of the Karluks. During the next three centuries, the Karluk Yabgu state (later Kara-Khanid Khanate ) occupied a key position on the international trade route, fighting off mostly Turkic competitors to retain their prime position. Their biggest adversaries were Kangly in
5781-399: The 1260 to 1264 succession war between Kublai Khan and his brother Ariq Böke , Kublai's power became limited to the eastern part of the empire, centered on China. Kublai officially issued an imperial edict on 18 December 1271 to give the empire the Han -style dynastic name of "Great Yuan" ( Dai Yuan , or Dai Ön Ulus' ; Chinese : 大 元 ; pinyin : Dà Yuán ) and to establish
5904-466: The 8th century reached the banks of the Amu Darya . They were considered a vassal state by the Tang dynasty after the final conquest of the Transoxania regions by the Chinese in 739. The Karluk rose in rebellion against the Göktürks, then the dominant tribal confederation in the region, in about 745, and established a new tribal confederation with the Uygur and Basmyl tribes. However, Karluks and Basmyls were defeated and forcibly incorporated into
6027-425: The Chagatai Khanate lasted in one form or another until 1687. The Mongol Empire is also referred to as the "Mongolian Empire" or the "Mongol World Empire" in some English sources. The empire referred to itself as ᠶᠡᠬᠡ ᠮᠣᠩᠭᠣᠯ ᠤᠯᠤᠰ yeke mongɣol ulus ( lit. 'nation of the great Mongols' or the 'great Mongol nation') in Mongol or kür uluγ ulus ( lit. the 'whole great nation') in Turkic. After
6150-405: The Chinese Taoist master Qiu Chuji to visit him in Afghanistan, and also gave his subjects the right to religious freedom, despite his own shamanistic beliefs. Genghis Khan died on 18 August 1227, by which time the Mongol Empire ruled from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea , an empire twice the size of the Roman Empire or the Muslim Caliphate at their height. Genghis named his third son,
6273-473: The Chinese title "Wang" for its meaning of King ), who was the most powerful Mongol leader at the time, he gave himself the name Genghis Khan. He then enlarged his Mongol state under himself and his kin, with the term Mongol coming to be used in reference to all Mongolic speaking tribes under the control of Genghis Khan. His most powerful allies were his father's friend, Khereid chieftain Toghrul , and Temujin's childhood anda (i.e. blood brother ) Jamukha of
SECTION 50
#17328515740866396-433: The Jadran clan. With their help, Temujin defeated the Merkit tribe, rescued his wife Börte , and went on to defeat the Naimans and the Tatars. Temujin forbade the looting of his enemies without permission, and he implemented a policy of sharing spoils with his warriors and their families instead of giving them all to the aristocrats. These policies brought him into conflict with his uncles, who were also legitimate heirs to
6519-422: The Jin dynasty of the Jurchens and the Western Xia of the Tanguts in northern China. He also had to deal with two other powers, Tibet and Qara Khitai . Before his death, Genghis Khan divided his empire among his sons and immediate family, making the Mongol Empire the joint property of the entire imperial family who, along with the Mongol aristocracy, constituted the ruling class. Genghis Khan arranged for
6642-424: The Jin dynasty rulers, known as the Golden Kings, successfully resisted the Khamag Mongol confederation, ruled at the time by Khabul Khan , great-grandfather of Genghis Khan. The Mongolian plateau was occupied mainly by five powerful tribal confederations ( khanlig ): Keraites , Khamag Mongol , Naiman , Mergid , and Tatar . The Jin emperors, following a policy of divide and rule , encouraged disputes among
6765-499: The Kara-Khitans became dominant in Transoxania . The western Khitan state became known under its Turkic name, the Kara-Khitan Khanate and their ruler bore the Turkic title Gurkhan "Khan’s son-in law". The original Uch-Karluk confederation became split between the Karakhanid state in the west and the Karakhitay state in the east, lasting until the Mongol invasion. Both in the west and east, Karluk principalities retained their autonomous status and indigenous rulers, though in Karakhitay
6888-468: The Karluk khan, like the ruler of Samarkand, was forced to accept the presence of a permanent representative of the Gurkhan. The Gurkhans administered limited territories, populated in 1170 by 84,500 families under direct rule. The Gurkhan's headquarters was called Khosun-ordu (lit. "Strong Ordu"), or Khoto ("House"). The Karluk capital was Kayalik. The Karakhanids continued to rule over Transoxania and western Xinjiang. The Kara-khitans did not interfere with
7011-447: The Karluk rulers of Tocharistan was called Yabbu-Hakan (Yabghu-Khagan). The fall of the Western Turkic Kaganate left Jetisu in the possession of Turkic peoples, independent of either Arabs or Chinese. In 822, the Uyghurs sent four Karluks as tribute to Tang dynasty of China. The Karluks were hunters, nomadic herdsmen, and agriculturists. They settled in the countryside and in the cities, which were centered on trading posts along
7134-422: The Karluks from Fergana . In 766, after they overran the Türgesh in Jetisu , the Karluk tribes formed a Khanate under the rule of a Yabghu , occupied Suyab and transferred their capital there. By that time the bulk of the tribe had left the Altai , and the supremacy in Jetisu passed to the Karluks. Their ruler with the title Yabghu is often mentioned in the Orkhon inscriptions. In Pahlavi texts one of
7257-499: The Karluks joined the Uyghurs and settled in the Bogdo-Ola mountains in Mongolia , the larger part settled in the area between Altai and the eastern Tian Shan . In 650, at the time of their submission to the Chinese, the Karluks had three tribes: Mouluo 謀落/ Moula 謀剌 (* Bulaq ), Chisi 熾俟 or Suofu 娑匐 (* Sebeg ), and Tashili 踏實力 (* Taşlïq ). On paper, the Karluk divisions received Chinese names as Chinese provinces, and their leaders received Chinese state titles. Later,
7380-408: The Karluks spread from the valley of the river Kerlyk along the Irtysh River in the western part of the Altai to beyond the Black Irtysh , Tarbagatai , and towards the Tian Shan . By the year 665 the Karluk union was led by a former Uch-Karluk bey with the title Kül-Erkin, now titled " Yabgu " (prince), who had a powerful army. The Karluk vanguard left the Altai region and at the beginning of
7503-409: The Koreans through both diplomacy and military force. The advance into Europe continued with Mongol invasions of Poland and Hungary. When the western flank of the Mongols plundered Polish cities, a European alliance among the Poles , the Moravians , and the Christian military orders of the Hospitallers , Teutonic Knights and the Templars assembled sufficient forces to halt, although briefly,
SECTION 60
#17328515740867626-464: The Mongol Empire. This marked a major shift in the leadership of the empire, transferring power from the descendants of Genghis's son Ögedei to the descendants of Genghis's son Tolui. The decision was acknowledged by a few of the Ögedeid and Chagataid princes, such as Möngke's cousin Kadan and the deposed khan Qara Hülëgü, but one of the other legitimate heirs, Ögedei's grandson Shiremun, sought to topple Möngke. Shiremun moved with his own forces toward
7749-420: The Mongol advance at Legnica . The Hungarian army, their Croatian allies and the Knights Templar were beaten by the Mongols at the banks of the Sajo River on 11 April 1241. Before Batu's forces could continue on to Vienna and northern Albania , news of Ögedei's death in December 1241 brought a halt to the invasion. As was customary in Mongol military tradition, all princes of Genghis's line had to attend
7872-410: The Mongol generals in Persia. Güyük appointed his best friend's father Eljigidei as chief commander of the troops in Persia and gave them the task of both reducing the strongholds of the Nizari Ismailis and conquering the Abbasids at the center of the Islamic world, Iran and Iraq . In 1248, Güyük raised more troops and suddenly marched westward from the Mongol capital of Karakorum. The reasoning
7995-420: The Mongols a reputation for bloodthirsty ferocity that would mark the remainder of their campaigns. Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous empire in history . Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia , the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe , extending northward into parts of
8118-499: The Mongols and helped them conquer the rest of Yunnan . Möngke's general Qoridai stabilized his control over Tibet, inducing leading monasteries to submit to Mongol rule. Subutai's son Uryankhadai reduced the neighboring peoples of Yunnan to submission and went to war with the kingdom of Đại Việt under the Trần dynasty in northern Vietnam in 1258, but they had to draw back. The Mongol Empire tried to invade Đại Việt again in 1285 and 1287 but were defeated both times. After stabilizing
8241-414: The Mongols voluntarily. After their defeat at the Battle of the Irtysh , the surviving Merkit, led by Qudu, fled to the territory of the Uyghur kingdom of Qocho . However, the ruler, Barchuq Art Tegin , was chafing at the increasing demands from Qara Khitai and killed both the Merkit envoys sent to him as well as the viceroy of the Qara Khitai. In 1209, Barchuq voluntarily joined the Mongol Empire, making
8364-476: The Mongols' decision to withdraw. Following the Great Khan Ögedei's death in 1241, and before the next kurultai, Ögedei's widow Töregene took over the empire. She persecuted her husband's Khitan and Muslim officials and gave high positions to her own allies. She built palaces, cathedrals, and social structures on an imperial scale, supporting religion and education. She was able to win over most Mongol aristocrats to support Ögedei's son Güyük . But Batu, ruler of
8487-465: The Mongols. There were four Han Tumens and three Khitan Tumens, with each Tumen consisting of 10,000 troops. The Yuan dynasty created a Han army 漢軍 from Jin defectors, and another of ex-Song troops called the Newly Submitted Army 新附軍. In the West Ögedei's general Chormaqan destroyed Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu , the last shah of the Khwarizmian Empire . The small kingdoms in southern Persia voluntarily accepted Mongol supremacy. In East Asia, there were
8610-413: The Mongols. The ruler Arslan Khan married a junior daughter of Genghis Khan, who possibly went by the name Töre or Tolai. Arslan commanded six thousand men. Another Karluk leader, Ozar of Almaliq , married a daughter of Jochi. He commanded an unknown number of soldiers. Because the Karluks submitted voluntarily like the Uyghur, their military was allowed to operate as an auxiliary without integrating into
8733-401: The Qara Khitai at Balasaghun , Kuchlug fled, but was killed in 1218 after his capture in Badakhshan in Afghanistan . According to Juvaini , Genghis Khan had originally sent the ruler of the Khwarezmid Empire, Sultan Muhammad Aladdin , a message seeking trade and greeted him as his neighbor: "I am master of the lands of the rising sun while you rule those of the setting sun. Let us conclude
8856-491: The Tokmak and Pishpek cemeteries go back to the epoch of Karakhitay domination. Ata-Malik Juvayni however stressed the oppression of Muslims by Kuchlug , a son of the last Nayman khan who was ousted (towards 1204) by Mongolia by Genghis Khan . The Nayman Nestorian Christian Küchlük usurped the throne of the Kara-Khitans. In 1211, a Mongol detachment under the command of Khubilai Noyon , one of Genghis Khan's generals, appeared in
8979-565: The Uyghurs allied with the Mongols, they fled west, past Qara Khitai to the Qangli Kipchaks of Cumania . The Naiman leader Kuchlug fled south to Qara Khitai. The Merkit might have accompanied him briefly, but soon made their way further west. The initial contact with, and legacy of, the Mongol Empire with Central Asia was peaceful and not destructive, as the empire's nearest neighbors in Eastern Turkestan tenured their submission to
9102-600: The Uyghurs one of the first Turkic groups to do so. To solidify the alliance, Al Altun, the youngest daughter of Genghis Khan and his chief consort Börte , was married to Barchuq. Their submission was perhaps unexpected, as the presence of the Mongol armies in the region might have had such submission as a goal in addition to pursuing Genghis's rivals. The Uyghur contributed administrative and linguistic expertise to Mongols, in exchange for their military protection. Because they submitted voluntarily, they were granted vassal status. Barchuq
9225-456: The alliance, and the surviving Merkit and Naimans fled into Western Siberia , where they eventually gathered at the Irtysh . Temujin's victory against the alliance consolidated his control of the Mongol and Turkic tribes in the region. In 1206, he was elected the khan of the new Mongol Empire and given the name Genghis Khan. In either late 1208 or early 1209, as part of the conquest of Siberia ,
9348-537: The army, Genghis also decreed religious freedom and supported domestic and international trade. He exempted the poor and the clergy from taxation. He also encouraged literacy and the adaptation of the Uyghur script into what would become the Mongolian script of the empire, ordering the Uyghur Tata-tonga , who had previously served the khan of Naimans , to instruct his sons. Genghis quickly came into conflict with
9471-416: The building of foreign merchants' quarters, Buddhist monasteries , mosques , and Christian churches in the Mongol capital. As construction projects continued, Karakorum was adorned with Chinese, European, and Persian architecture . One famous example was a large silver tree with cleverly designed pipes that dispensed various drinks. The tree, topped by a triumphant angel, was crafted by Guillaume Boucher ,
9594-613: The caravan roads. The Karluks inherited a vast multi-ethnic region, whose diverse population was not much different from its rulers. Jetisu was populated by several tribes: the Azes (mentioned in the Orkhon inscriptions ) and the Tuhsi , remnants of the Türgesh ; as well as the Shatuo Turks (沙陀突厥) (lit. "Sandy Slope Turks", i.e. "Desert Turks") of Western Turkic, specifically of Chigil origins, and
9717-628: The charismatic Ögedei , as his heir. According to Mongol tradition, Genghis Khan was buried in a secret location . The regency was originally held by Ögedei's younger brother Tolui until Ögedei's formal election at the kurultai in 1229. Among his first actions Ögedei sent troops to subjugate the Bashkirs , Bulgars , and other nations in the Kipchak-controlled steppes. In the east, Ögedei's armies re-established Mongol authority in Manchuria, crushing
9840-576: The clan that inherited the Khagan title, but never again his unifying authority. Several Muslim historians state that after the loss by the Uyghurs of their power (840), the supreme authority among the Turkic tribes passed to the Karluk leaders. Connection with the Ashina clan, the ruling clan of the Turkic Khaganate , allowed the Karluk dynasty to dress their authority with legitimate attire, and, abandoning
9963-604: The combined actions of the Khwārezm-Shah ʿAlāʾ ad-Dīn Muḥammad (1200–20), and Küchlüg , a fugitive Naiman prince in flight from Genghis Khan ’s Mongols . Kuchlug was given shelter by the Qara Khiitai, but he usurped the Gurkhan 's throne in 1211. Kuchlug attacked the Karluk city of Almaliq , and the Karluks appealed to Genghis Khan for help. In 1216, Genghis dispatched his general Jebe to pursue Kuchlug. The Mongols defeated
10086-733: The construction of a palace within the surrounding of its walls. Meanwhile, in an offensive action against the Song dynasty , Mongol armies captured Siyang-yang, the Yangtze and Sichuan , but did not secure their control over the conquered areas. The Song generals were able to recapture Siyang-yang from the Mongols in 1239. After the sudden death of Ögedei's son Kochu in Chinese territory the Mongols withdrew from southern China, although Kochu's brother Prince Koten invaded Tibet immediately after their withdrawal. Batu Khan , another grandson of Genghis Khan, overran
10209-428: The emperor's nomadic palace with a plan for an armed attack, but Möngke was alerted by his falconer of the plan. Möngke ordered an investigation of the plot, which led to a series of major trials all across the empire. Many members of the Mongol elite were found guilty and put to death, with estimates ranging from 77 to 300, though princes of Genghis's royal line were often exiled rather than executed. Möngke confiscated
10332-876: The empire's finances, Möngke once again sought to expand its borders. At kurultais in Karakorum in 1253 and 1258 he approved new invasions of the Middle East and south China . Möngke put Hulagu in overall charge of military and civil affairs in Persia, and appointed Chagataids and Jochids to join Hulagu's army. The Muslims from Qazvin denounced the menace of the Nizari Ismailis , a well-known sect of Shiites . The Mongol Naiman commander Kitbuqa began to assault several Ismaili fortresses in 1253, before Hulagu advanced in 1256. Ismaili Grand Master Rukn al-Din Khurshah surrendered in 1257 and
10455-514: The estates of the Ögedeid and the Chagatai families and shared the western part of the empire with his ally Batu Khan. After the bloody purge, Möngke ordered a general amnesty for prisoners and captives, but thereafter the power of the great khan's throne remained firmly with the descendants of Tolui. Möngke was a serious man who followed the laws of his ancestors and avoided alcoholism. He was tolerant of outside religions and artistic styles, leading to
10578-532: The former Khwarazmian Empire. In 1236, the Mongols defeated the eastern portions of Cumania and swept into Eastern Europe. The Merkit had a long-standing feud with the Borjigin clan to which Temujin, the future Genghis Khan , belonged. They and the Naimans opposed the rise of Genghis Khan . They joined with the forces of Jamukha and Toghrul to oppose Temujin in the Battle of Chakirmaut in 1204. Temujin defeated
10701-466: The grandchildren of Genghis Khan disputed whether the royal line should follow from his son and initial heir Ögedei or from one of his other sons, such as Tolui , Chagatai , or Jochi . The Toluids prevailed after a bloody purge of Ögedeid and Chagatayid factions, but disputes continued among the descendants of Tolui. The conflict over whether the Mongol Empire would adopt a sedentary, cosmopolitan lifestyle or continue its nomadic, steppe-based way of life
10824-596: The ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery. Despite the military successes, strife continued within the Mongol ranks. Batu's relations with Güyük , Ögedei's eldest son, and Büri , the beloved grandson of Chagatai Khan , remained tense and worsened during Batu's victory banquet in southern Kievan Rus'. Nevertheless, Güyük and Buri could not do anything to harm Batu's position as long as his uncle Ögedei
10947-642: The hostile Kankalis and Karluks. The Khitans occupied Balasagun, expelled the weak Karakhanid ruler, and founded their own state, which stretched from the Yenisei to Taraz . They then conquered the Kankalis and subdued Xinjiang . In 1137 near Khujand they defeated the Transoxanian Karakhanid ruler Mahmud Khan, who then appealed to their suzerain the Seljuks for help. The Kara-Khitans, who were also invited by
11070-543: The incident as a pretext for invasion. The Mongol invasion of Central Asia however would entail the utter destruction of the Khwarezmid Empire along with the massacre of much of the civilian population of the region. According to Juvaini, the Mongols ordered only one round of slaughter in Khwarezm and Transoxiana, but systematically exterminated a particularly large portion of the people of the cities of Khorasan . This earned
11193-637: The interspersing Sogdian colonies. The southern part of Jetisu was occupied by the Yagma people, who also held Kashgar . In the north and west lived the Kangly . Chigils, who had joined and been a significant division of the Three-Karluks, then detached and resided around Issyk Kul . The diverse population adhered to a spectrum of religious beliefs. The Karluks and the majority of the Turkic population professed Tengrianism , considered as shamanism and heathen by
11316-529: The kurultai convened by Töregene in 1246. Güyük by this time was ill and alcoholic, but his campaigns in Manchuria and Europe gave him the kind of stature necessary for a great khan. He was duly elected at a ceremony attended by Mongols and foreign dignitaries from both within and without the empire — leaders of vassal nations, representatives from Rome, and other entities who came to the kurultai to show their respects and conduct diplomacy. Güyük took steps to reduce corruption, announcing that he would continue
11439-403: The kurultai to elect a successor. Batu and his western Mongol army withdrew from Central Europe the next year. Today researchers doubt that Ögedei's death was the sole reason for the Mongols withdrawal. Batu did not return to Mongolia, so a new khan was not elected until 1246. Climatic and environmental factors, as well as the strong fortifications and castles of Europe, played an important role in
11562-461: The last khagan with its capital in Ötüken , which dominated for three centuries, created a completely new geopolitical situation in all Central Asia . For the first time in three hundred years, the powerful center of authority that created opportunities for expansion or even existence of any state in Turkestan had finally disappeared. Henceforth, the Turkic tribes recognized only the high status of
11685-530: The main, atomized army. By 1218, the Mongol Empire controlled all of what is present-day Xinjiang. At some point likely between 1209 and 1219, most likely 1217 or 1218, General Subutai was dispatched to deal with the Merkit survivors and he, Jebe , and Tuqachar , likely joined in force with a Uyghur army, met the Merkit at the Chem River, in what is present-day western Kazakhstan , and destroyed them. The Merkit and Qangli Kipchak allies who survived fled to what
11808-620: The minor descendants of the Hans otherwise known as the Han peoples (Han Chinese). Karluks are also closely related to the Rouran Khaganate (柔然; Róurán ), also known as Ruanruan or Juan-juan (蠕蠕; Ruǎnruǎn ) (or variously Jou-jan , Ruruan , Ju-juan , Ruru , Ruirui , Rouru , Rouruan or Tantan ). They were also called Uch-Oghuz meaning "Three Oghuz". Despite the similarity of names, Mahmud al-Kashgari 's Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk wrote: "Karluks
11931-431: The northern Caucasus and Hungary. The pro-Tolui faction supported Batu's choice, and Möngke was elected; though given the kurultai's limited attendance and location, it was of questionable validity. Batu sent Möngke, under the protection of his brothers, Berke and Tukhtemur, and his son Sartaq to assemble a more formal kurultai at Kodoe Aral in the heartland. The supporters of Möngke repeatedly invited Oghul Qaimish and
12054-469: The northern part of Zhetysu. Arslan-khan Karluk killed the Karakhitay governor of Kayalik and proclaimed his loyalty to Genghis Khan. The Zhetysu, together with Eastern Turkestan, voluntarily surrendered to the Mongols. Kuchlug was killed by the invading Mongols in 1218 . In 1211 a Mongol detachment under the command of Qubilai Noyon appeared in the northern part of Jetisu . Karluk Arslan Khan, probably
12177-581: The northwest and Toquz Oghuz in the southeast, with a period of Samanid raids to Jetisu in 840–894. But even in the heyday of the Karluk Yabgu state, parts of its domains were in the hands of the Toquz Oghuz, and later under Kyrgyz and Khitan control, increasing the ethnical, religious, and political diversity. The state of Karluk Yabghu was an association of semi-independent districts and cities, each equipped with its own militia . The biggest
12300-406: The old title Yabghu , to take on the new title of Khagan . Towards 940 the " heathen ” Yagma from the southern border seized the Chu river valley and the Karluk capital Balasagun . The Yagma ruler bore the title Bogra Khan (Camel Khan), very common among Karakhanids . The Yagma quickly proceeded to take control of all Karluk lands. In the 10th and 12th centuries, the lands on both sides of
12423-479: The other major Ögedeid and Chagataid princes to attend the kurultai, but they refused each time. The Ögedeid and Chagataid princes refused to accept a descendant of Genghis's son Tolui as leader, demanding that only descendants of Genghis's son Ögedei could be great khan. When Möngke's mother Sorghaghtani and their cousin Berke organized a second kurultai on 1 July 1251, the assembled throng proclaimed Möngke great khan of
12546-718: The policies of his father Ögedei, not those of Töregene. He punished Töregene's supporters, except for governor Arghun the Elder . He also replaced young Qara Hülëgü , the khan of the Chagatai Khanate , with his favorite cousin Yesü Möngke , to assert his newly conferred powers. He restored his father's officials to their former positions and was surrounded by Uyghur, Naiman and Central Asian officials, favoring Han Chinese commanders who had helped his father conquer Northern China. He continued military operations in Korea, advanced into Song China in
12669-578: The pope's envoy to the Mongol great khan, travelled through Kiev in February 1246 and wrote: They [the Mongols] attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on
12792-632: The principal chain of the Tian Shan were united under the rule of the Karakhanid Ilek-khans (Khans of the Land) or simply Karakhanids (Great Khans). The Karakhanid state was divided into fiefs which soon became independent. The Kara-Khanid Khanate was founded in the 9th century from a confederation of Karluks , Chigils , Yagmas , and other tribes. Later in the 10th century a Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam. His son Musa made Islam
12915-489: The religion of the people, but Islam became less dominant as the other religions took advantage of the new freedom to increase the number of their adherents. The Nestorian Patriarch Elias III (1176–1190) founded a religious metropole in Kashgar . The Karakhitay metropolitan bore the title Metropolitan of Kashghar and Navakat, showing that the see of Kashghar also controlled the southern part of Zhetysu. The oldest Nestorian tombs in
13038-595: The rich Jetisu cities, remained strong, despite the failures in wars in the beginning of the 9th century. Yabghu was enriched by profitable trade in slaves on the Syr Darya slave markets, selling guards for the Abbasid Caliphs , and exercizing control over the transit road to China in the sector from Taraz to Issyk-Kul . The Karluk position in Fergana , despite Arab attempts to expel them, became stronger. The fall of
13161-545: The son of Arslan khan and brother of Mamdu khan, killed the Khitan governor of Kayalik and proclaimed his loyalty to Genghis Khan . The Collection of Annals records that Genghis Khan removed his title from Karluk Arslan Khan: "Let your name be Sartaktai", i.e. Sart , said the sovereign. After the absorption of the Kara-Khanid Khanate by the Chagatai Khanate , the ethnonym Karluk became rarely used. The Karluk language
13284-624: The south, and into Iraq in the west, and ordered an empire-wide census. Güyük also divided the Sultanate of Rum between Izz-ad-Din Kaykawus and Rukn ad-Din Kilij Arslan , though Kaykawus disagreed with this decision. Not all parts of the empire respected Güyük's election. The Hashshashins , former Mongol allies whose Grand Master Hasan Jalalud-Din had offered his submission to Genghis Khan in 1221, angered Güyük by refusing to submit. Instead he murdered
13407-571: The southern part of the empire he continued his predecessors' struggle against the Song dynasty. In order to outflank the Song from three directions, Möngke dispatched Mongol armies under his brother Kublai to Yunnan , and under his uncle Iyeku to subdue Korea and pressure the Song from that direction as well. Kublai conquered the Dali Kingdom in 1253 after the Dali King Duan Xingzhi defected to
13530-553: The territories of the Bulgars , the Alans , the Kypchaks, Bashkirs, Mordvins , Chuvash , and other nations of the southern Russian steppe. By 1237 the Mongols were encroaching upon Ryazan , the first Kievan Rus' principality they were to attack. After a three-day siege involving fierce fighting, the Mongols captured the city and massacred its inhabitants. They then proceeded to destroy the army of
13653-602: The three western khanates accepted the suzerainty of the Yuan dynasty. The part of the empire that fell first was the Ilkhanate, which disintegrated in the period of 1335–1353. Next, the Yuan dynasty lost control of the Tibetan Plateau and China proper in 1354 and 1368, respectively, and collapsed after its capital of Dadu was taken over by Ming forces . The Genghisid rulers of the Yuan then retreated north and continued to rule
13776-410: The throne; they regarded Temujin not as a leader but as an insolent usurper. This dissatisfaction spread to his generals and other associates, and some Mongols who had previously been allies broke their allegiance. War ensued, and Temujin and the forces still loyal to him prevailed, defeating the remaining rival tribes between 1203 and 1205 and bringing them under his sway. In 1206, Temujin was crowned as
13899-728: The time of the Mongols . In the Early Middle Ages , three member tribes of the Göktürk Khaganate formed the Uch-Karluk (Three Karluks) union; initially, the union's leader bore the title Elteber , later elevated to Yabgu . After the split of the khaganate around 600 into the Western and Eastern khaganates, the Uch-Karluks (三姓葛邏祿), along with Chuyue (處月; later as Shatuo 沙陀), Chumi (處蜜), Gusu (姑蘇), and Beishi (卑失) became subordinate to
14022-519: The time, possibly to pay homage, or perhaps with other plans in mind. Before the forces of Batu and Güyük met, Güyük, sick and worn out by travel, died en route at Qum-Senggir (Hong-siang-yi-eulh) in Xinjiang , possibly a victim of poison. Güyük's widow Oghul Qaimish stepped forward to take control of the empire, but she lacked the skills of her mother-in-law Töregene, and her young sons Khoja and Naku and other princes challenged her authority. To decide on
14145-528: The tribes, especially between the Tatars and the Mongols, in order to keep the nomadic tribes distracted by their own battles and thereby away from the Jin. Khabul's successor was Ambaghai Khan , who was betrayed by the Tatars, handed over to the Jurchen, and executed. The Mongols retaliated by raiding the frontier, resulting in a failed Jurchen counter-attack in 1143. In 1147, the Jin somewhat changed their policy, signing
14268-478: Was a major factor in the breakup. After Möngke Khan died (1259), rival kurultai councils simultaneously elected different successors, the brothers Ariq Böke and Kublai Khan , who fought each other in the Toluid Civil War (1260–1264) and also dealt with challenges from the descendants of other sons of Genghis. Kublai successfully took power, but war ensued as he sought unsuccessfully to regain control of
14391-516: Was allowed to operate independently, and his kingdom contributed 18,000 troops to the Western campaigns, including the conquest of Qara Khitai, Khwarazm, and Western Xia, and possibly participating in the Battle of the Chem against surviving Merkit. In 1211, the Karluks , a Turkic confederation the area of the southern Ili , in the Tarbagatai Mountains and northern Xinjiang , also voluntarily submitted to
14514-557: Was collected by imperial agents and forwarded to units in need. His court also tried to lighten the tax burden on commoners by reducing tax rates. He also centralized control of monetary affairs and reinforced the guards at the postal relays. Möngke ordered an empire-wide census in 1252 that took several years to complete and was not finished until Novgorod in the far northwest was counted in 1258. In another move to consolidate his power, Möngke assigned his brothers Hulagu and Kublai to rule Persia and Mongol-held China respectively. In
14637-516: Was executed. All of the Ismaili strongholds in Persia were destroyed by Hulagu's army in 1257, except for Girdkuh which held out until 1271. Karluks The Karluks (also Qarluqs , Qarluks , Karluqs , Old Turkic : 𐰴𐰺𐰞𐰸 , Qarluq, Para-Mongol : Harluut, simplified Chinese : 葛逻禄 ; traditional Chinese : 葛邏祿 Géluólù ; customary phonetic: Gelu, Khololo, Khorlo , Persian : خَلُّخ , Khallokh , Arabic : قارلوق Qarluq ) were
14760-627: Was still alive. Ögedei continued with offensives into the Indian subcontinent , temporarily investing Uchch , Lahore , and Multan of the Delhi Sultanate and stationing a Mongol overseer in Kashmir , though the invasions into India eventually failed and were forced to retreat. In northeastern Asia, Ögedei agreed to end the conflict with Goryeo by making it a client state and sent Mongol princesses to wed Goryeo princes. He then reinforced his kheshig with
14883-745: Was the capital Suyab , which could turn out 20,000 warriors, and among other districts, the town of Beglilig (known as "Samakna" before Karluk rule ) had 10,000 warriors, Panjikat could turn out 8,000 warriors, Barskhan 6,000 warriors, and Yar 3,000 warriors. The titles of the petty rulers were Qutegin of the Karluk Laban clan in Karminkat, Taksin in Jil, Tabin-Barskhan in Barskhan, Turkic Yindl-Tegin and Sogdian Badan-Sangu in Beglilig. The prince of Suyab , situated north of
15006-650: Was the primary basis for the later lingua franca of the Chagatai Khanate and Central Asia under the Timurid dynasty . It is therefore designated by linguists and historians as the Chagatai language , but its contemporaries, such as Timur and Babur , simply called it Turki . A genetic study published in Nature in May 2018 examined the remains of two Karluk males buried at Butakty in
15129-480: Was unclear. Some sources wrote that he sought to recuperate at his personal estate, Emyl; others suggested that he might have been moving to join Eljigidei to conduct a full-scale conquest of the Middle East, or possibly to make a surprise attack on his rival cousin Batu Khan in Kievan Rus . Suspicious of Güyük's motives, Sorghaghtani Beki , the widow of Genghis's son Tolui, secretly warned her nephew Batu of Güyük's approach. Batu had himself been traveling eastward at
#85914