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61-637: The Yagmas appear to be of Toquz Oghuz origin or are closely associated with them. According to Hudud al-'alam "their king is from the family of the Toquz-Oghuz kings." According to the Persian work Mujmal al-Tawarikh wa-'l-Qisas , the Yağma "padšâh" bore the title of Bogra Khan. The Yagma title of Bogra Khan allowed V.Bartold to suggest that Karakhanid Il-khans were from the Yagma tribe. Mahmud al-Kashgari mentioned

122-428: A few birds, e.g. the sandgrouse, lark, stonechat, sparrow, crane, Mongolian ground jay ( Podoces hendersoni ), horned lark ( Eremophila alpestris ), and crested lark ( Galerida cristata ). The structure here is that of the mighty T'ien Shan , or Heavenly Mountains, running from west to east. It divides the northern one-third of Sinkiang from the southern two-thirds. On the northern side, rivers formed from

183-528: A high proportion of woody, fragrant plants. Gobi mutton is the most aromatic in the world. The Yulduz valley or valley of the Haidag-gol ( 43°N 83°E  /  43°N 83°E  / 43; 83 – 43°N 86°E  /  43°N 86°E  / 43; 86 ) is a mini desert enclosed by two prominent members of the Shanashen Trahen Osh mountain range, namely the chucis and

244-582: A separate and independent desert, called the Taklamakan Desert . Much of the Gobi is not sandy, instead resembling exposed bare rock. The Gobi is overall a cold desert, with frost and occasionally snow occurring on its dunes . Besides being quite far north, it is also located on a plateau roughly 910–1,520 m (2,990–4,990 ft) above sea level, which contributes to its low temperatures. An average of about 194 mm (7.6 in) of rain falls annually in

305-457: A source of cashmere wool . Large copper deposits are being mined by Rio Tinto Group . The mine was and remains controversial. There was significant opposition in Mongolia's parliament to the terms under which the mine will proceed, and some are calling for the terms to be renegotiated. Specifically, the contention revolves primarily around the question of whether negotiations were fair (Rio Tinto

366-801: A sub-tribal group within the Sijie and the Gulunwugu(si) as a combination of two other tribes. Latter Gōktürk Khagan Bilge considered the Toquz Oghuz "[his] own people". It is also mentioned in Kul Tigin inscriptions that the Göktürks and Toquz Oghuz were fighting five times in a year. 𐱃𐰸𐰆𐰕:𐰆𐰍𐰕:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣:𐰚𐰤𐱅𐰃:𐰉𐰆𐰑𐰣𐰢:𐰼𐱅𐰃:𐱅𐰭𐰼𐰃:𐰘𐰃𐰼:𐰉𐰆𐰞𐰍𐰴𐰃𐰤:𐰇𐰲𐰇𐰤:𐰖𐰍𐰃:𐰉𐰆𐰡𐰃 Toquz Oγuz budun kentü budunïm erti teŋіri jer bolγaqïn üčün yaγï boltï. "Nine Oguz people were my own people. Because of

427-473: Is Gesa , etc.). Gobi Desert The Gobi Desert ( Mongolian : Говь , ᠭᠣᠪᠢ , / ˈ ɡ oʊ b i / ; Chinese : 戈壁 ; pinyin : gēbì ) is a large, cold desert and grassland region located in northern China and southern Mongolia . It is the sixth largest desert in the world . The name of the desert comes from the Mongolian word gobi , used to refer to all of the waterless regions in

488-538: Is og -, meaning "clan, tribe"; which in turn, according to Kononov, descends from the ancient Turkic word ög meaning "mother" (however, Golden considered such a further derivation impossible). Initially the oguz designated "tribes" or "tribal union", and eventually became an ethnonym. The Toquz Oghuz were perhaps first mentioned in the Orkhon inscriptions written in the 730s. The nine tribes were named in Chinese histories as

549-437: Is a Chinese government tree-planting project begun in 1978 and set to continue through 2050. The goal of the program is to reverse desertification by planting aspen and other fast-growing trees on some 36.5 million hectares across some 551 counties in 12 provinces of northern China. The Gobi, broadly defined, can be divided into five distinct dry ecoregions , based on variations in climate and topography: The surface

610-607: Is absolutely sterile, and its northern foot rests upon a narrow belt of barren sand, which leads down to the depressions mentioned above. The Kuruk-tagh is the greatly disintegrated, denuded and wasted relic of a mountain range which used to be of incomparably greater magnitude. In the west, between Lake Bosten and the Tarim , it consists of two, possibly of three, principal ranges, which, although broken in continuity, run generally parallel to one another, and embrace between them numerous minor chains of heights. These minor ranges, together with

671-409: Is attributed to Siberian-Mongolian high pressure cells. Hence, the icy dust and snowstorms of spring and early summer plus early January (winter). The Gobi Desert is the source of many important fossil finds, including the first dinosaur eggs , twenty-six of which, averaging 23 centimetres (9 in) in length, were uncovered in 1923. Archeologists and paleontologists have done excavations in

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732-408: Is confined to these same areas, is of the scantiest and is mainly confined to bushes of saxaul (Haloxylon) , anabasis , reeds (kamish), tamarisks , poplars , and Ephedra . There is little information about early habitation of the Gobi desert. Lisa Janz has proposed a system of nomenclature for early Gobi desert habitation. They are Oasis I, Oasis II, Oasis III. Oasis I is equivalent to

793-577: Is crisscrossed by several trade routes, some of which have been in use for thousands of years. Among the most important are those from Kalgan (at the Great Wall) to Ulaanbaatar (960 km (597 mi)); from Jiuquan (in Gansu ) to Hami 670 km (416 mi); from Hami to Beijing (2,000 km (1,243 mi)); from Hohhot to Hami and Barkul; and from Lanzhou (in Gansu) to Hami. The southwestern portion of

854-627: Is extremely diversified, although there are no great differences in vertical elevation. Between Ulaanbaatar ( 48°00′N 107°00′E  /  48.000°N 107.000°E  / 48.000; 107.000 ) and the small lake of Iren-dubasu-nor ( 43°45′N 111°50′E  /  43.750°N 111.833°E  / 43.750; 111.833 ), the surface is greatly eroded. Broad flat depressions and basins are separated by groups of flat-topped mountains of relatively low elevation 150 to 180 m (490 to 590 ft), through which archaic rocks crop out as crags and isolated rugged masses. The floors of

915-670: Is far better resourced) and whether Rio Tinto will pay adequate taxes on the revenues it derives from the mine (an agreement was reached whereby the operation will be exempt from windfall tax ). The Gobi Desert is expanding through desertification , most rapidly on the southern edge into China, which is seeing 3,600 km (1,390 sq mi) of grassland overtaken every year. Dust storms increased in frequency between 1996 and 2016, causing further damage to China's agriculture economy. However, in some areas desertification has been slowed or reversed. The northern and eastern boundaries between desert and grassland are constantly changing. This

976-666: Is fringed by a string of deep depressions, ranging from Lukchun (130 m (427 ft) below sea level) to Hami (850 m (2,789 ft) above sea-level). To the south of the Kuruk-tagh lie the desert of Lop Nur , the Kum-tagh desert, and the valley of the Bulunzir-gol . To this great swelling, which arches up between the two border-ranges of the Chol-tagh and Kuruk-tagh, the Mongols give

1037-501: Is mostly due to the climate conditions before the growing season, which influence the rate of evapotranspiration and subsequent plant growth. The expansion of the Gobi is attributed mostly to human activities, locally driven by deforestation , overgrazing , and depletion of water resources, as well as to climate change . China has tried various plans to slow the expansion of the desert, which have met with some success. The Three-North Shelter Forest Program (or "Green Great Wall")

1098-547: The Huihe /Uyghur (回纥), Pugu (仆骨), Hun (浑), Bayegu/ (拔野古), Tongluo (同罗), Sijie (思结), Qibi (契苾), A-Busi (阿布思) and Gulunwugusi (骨仑屋骨思). The first seven named – who lived north of the Gobi Desert – were dominant, whereas the A-Busi and Gulunwugu(si) emerged later and were accepted on an equal footing with the others some time after 743. The A-Busi apparently originated as

1159-739: The Bökli-Çöligil (OTrk. 𐰋𐰇𐰚𐰲𐰃:𐰲𐰇𐰠𐰏𐰠), who appeared on Kül-tegin inscription and were proposed to have originated from Tungusic Mohe , Koreans , or ethnic Turkic peoples . Kenzheakhmet (2014:297-299) links the Sijie' s splinter-tribe Abusi (< OTrk. * Abïz ) to the Fuli (< OTrk. * Bükeli < büke "snake, dragon" + coordinating conjunctive suffix -li , possibly). Another list of nine names - Yaoluoge (藥羅葛) (< OTrk. 𐰖𐰍𐰞𐰴𐰺‎ Yaglaqar ), Huduoge (胡咄葛), Guluowu (啒羅勿), Mogexiqi (貊歌息訖), A-Wudi (阿勿嘀), Gesa (葛薩), Huwasu (斛嗢素), Yaowuge (藥勿葛), & Xiyawu (奚牙勿)- appeared in

1220-658: The Eastern Turkic tribes who dwelt south the Gobi Desert, Tang Huiyao listed the Sijie (erroneously rendered as Enjie 恩結), who dwelt in the Lushan military governorate 盧山都督府, and Fuli , who dwelt in the same jimi province of Dailin as the Sijie's splinter tribe A-Busi. The Fuli(-yu) (匐利[羽]), or Fuli(-ju) (伏利[具]), were identifiable as the Fuluo (覆羅) in other Chinese sources and

1281-586: The Mesolithic from 13500 cal BP to 8000 cal BP. During this time people began using oases . It is characterized by: Oasis II is equivalent to the Neolithic from 8000 cal BP to 5000 cal BP. People used the oases extensively. It was characterized by: Starting around 8000 cal BP there was a warm wet phase in the Gobi desert. By 7500 cal BP lake levels in the Western Gobi reached their peak. Around this time there

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1342-636: The Mongolian Plateau ; in Chinese, gobi is used to refer to rocky, semi-deserts such as the Gobi itself rather than sandy deserts. The Gobi measures 1,600 km (1,000 mi) from southwest to northeast and 800 km (500 mi) from north to south. The desert is widest in the west, along the line joining the Lake Bosten and the Lop Nor (87°–89° east). Its area is approximately 1,295,000 square kilometres (500,000 sq mi). Gobi includes

1403-691: The Nemegt Basin in the northwestern part of the Gobi Desert (in Mongolia), which is noted for its fossil treasures, including early mammals , dinosaur eggs , and prehistoric stone implements , some 100,000 years old. Despite the harsh conditions, these deserts and the surrounding regions sustain many animal species. Some are even unique, including black-tailed gazelles , marbled polecats , wild Bactrian camels , Mongolian wild ass and sandplovers . They are occasionally visited by snow leopards , Gobi bears , and wolves . Lizards are especially well-adapted to

1464-707: The Old Book of Tang and New Book of Tang . According to Haneda (1957), Toquz Oğuz were the Yaglaqar-led group of nine clans included in the Uighur tribe. In contrast, Golden (1992) proposed that Toquz Oğuz were the Tang Huiyao's nine-tribe group led by the Uyghur, which in turn comprised the nine subtribes led by Yaglaqar. The Shine Usu inscription mentioned that the Yağlaqar ruled over

1525-520: The On-Uyğur "Ten[-Tribes] Uyghur" and Toquz Oğuz "Nine[-Tribes] Oghuz". Meanwhile, Hashimoto, Katayama, and Senga propose that the Tang Huiyao's list (led by Uyghur) contained the names of the Toquz Oghuz tribes proper, while each name in the two lists (led by Yağlaqar) in the Books of Tang recorded each surname of each of nine subtribal chiefs (e.g. Uyghur chief's surname is Yağlaqar ; Sijie chief's surname

1586-597: The early Middle Ages . The Toquz Oghuz was consolidated and subordinated within the First Turkic Khaganate (552–603) and remained as a nine-tribe alliance after the Khaganate fragmented. ( Tokhara Yabghus , Turk Shahis ) Oghuz is a Turkic word meaning "community" and toquz means "nine". Similarly the Karluks were possibly known as the Üç-Oğuz – üç meaning "three". The root of the generalized ethnic term "oghuz"

1647-529: The Ghashiun-Gobi and the Kuruk-tagh is determined by the aforementioned arrangements of the latitudinal valleys. Most of the principal streams, instead of flowing straight down these valleys, cross them diagonally and only turn west after they have cut their way through one or more of the transverse barrier ranges. To the highest range on the great swelling Grigory Grum-Grshimailo gives the name of Tuge-tau , its altitude being 2,700 m (8,858 ft) above

1708-679: The Gobi (known also as the Xitao or the "Little Gobi") encompasses the distance between the great northern loop of the Yellow River to the east, the Ejin River to the west, and the Qilian Mountains and narrow rocky chain of Longshou, 3,200 to 3,500 m (10,500 to 11,500 ft) in altitude, to the southwest. The Ordos Desert , which covers the northeastern portion of the Ordos Plateau (also near

1769-408: The Gobi, including Gobi Gurvansaikhan National Park , Great Gobi A and Great Gobi B Strictly Protected Area . The area is vulnerable to trampling by livestock and off-road vehicles (effects from human intervention are greater in the eastern Gobi Desert, where rainfall is heavier and may sustain livestock). In Mongolia, grasslands have been degraded by goats, which are raised by nomadic herders as

1830-462: The Gobi, the area throughout this region is generally characterized by extreme dryness, especially during the winter, when the Siberian anticyclone is at its strongest. The southern and central parts of the Gobi Desert have variable plant growth due to this monsoon activity. The more northern areas of the Gobi are very cold and dry, making it unable to support much plant growth; this cold and dry weather

1891-476: The Gobi. Additional moisture reaches parts of the Gobi in winter as snow is blown by the wind from the Siberian Steppes. These winds may cause the Gobi to reach −40 °C (−40 °F) in winter to 45 °C (113 °F) in summer. However, the climate of the Gobi is one of great extremes, with rapid changes of temperature of as much as 35 °C (63 °F) in 24-hour spans. In southern Mongolia,

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1952-521: The Han-gai ( Obruchev 's Gobi formation) which are characteristic of the southern parts of eastern Mongolia, are absent here or occur only in one locality, near the Shara-muren river. They are greatly intersected by gullies or dry watercourses. Water is scarce, with no streams, no lakes, no wells, and precipitation falls seldom. The prevailing winds blow from the west and northwest, and the pall of dust overhangs

2013-516: The Lake Bosten, though parted from it by the drift-sand desert of Ak-bel-kum (White Pass Sands), has at first a west-northwest to east-southeast strike, but it gradually curves round like a scimitar towards the east-northeast and at the same time gradually decreases in elevation. At 91° east, where the principal range of the Kuruk-tagh system wheels to the east-northeast, four of its subsidiary ranges terminate, or rather die away somewhat suddenly, on

2074-448: The Qarluq borders. In this country there is little agriculture, (yet) it produces many furs and in it much game is found. Their wealth is in horses and sheep. The people are hardy, strong, and warlike, and have plenty of arms. Their king is from the family of the Toquz-Oghuz kings. These Yaghma have numerous tribes; some say that among them 1,700 known tribes are counted. Both the low and

2135-654: The Yagma a "rich people with large herds of horses" in a country of "one month of travel". The Yagma constantly clashed with the Karluks and the Kimaks , and were a dependent of the Western Turkic Kagans until their demise. According to Yury Zuev , a semantic meaning of the word yağma in the ancient Common Turkic language, is "attack, onslaught." However, according to Peter Golden , the word may have derived from Turkic verbal root yağ- "to pour down, rain", but noting that

2196-560: The Yagma and Tukhsi tribes, with a clan of Chigils , along the Ili River . In the tenth century the Yagma tribe lived in the Kashgar area and further northwest. Al Gardezi , who used sources composed in the eighth century, wrote that the Yagma united numerous tribes between the Uyghurs and Karluks in the larger part of the eastern Tian Shan , including Kashgar City and District. Gardezi called

2257-549: The brink of a long narrow depression (in which Sven Hedin sees a northeast bay of the former great Central Asian lake of Lop-nor), having over against them the écheloned terminals of similar subordinate ranges of the Pe-shan (Boy-san) system (see below). The Kuruk-tagh is throughout a relatively low, but almost completely barren range, being entirely destitute of animal life, save for hares, antelopes and wild camels, which frequent its few small, widely scattered oases. The vegetation, which

2318-428: The central parts, until the bordering mountains are reached, trees and shrubs are utterly absent. Clay and sand are the predominant formations; the watercourses, especially in the north, being frequently excavated 2 to 3 m (6 ft 7 in to 9 ft 10 in) deep. In many places in the flat, dry valleys or depressions farther south, beds of loess , 5 to 6 m (16 to 20 ft) thick, are exposed. West of

2379-468: The climate of the Gobi Desert, with approximately 30 species distributed across its southern Mongolian border. The most common vegetation in the Gobi desert is shrubs adapted to drought. These shrubs included gray sparrow's saltwort ( Salsola passerina ), gray sagebrush , and low grasses such as needle grass and bridlegrass . Due to livestock grazing, the amount of shrubs in the desert has decreased. Several large nature reserves have been established in

2440-535: The country as in the Taklamakan and the desert of Lop . Characteristic of the flora are wild garlic, Kalidium gracile , wormwood , saxaul , Nitraria schoberi , Caragana , Ephedra , saltwort and the grass Lasiagrostis splendens . The taana wild onion Allium polyrrhizum is the main browse eaten by many herd animals, and Mongolians claim that this is essential in producing the proper, hazelnut-like notes of camel airag (fermented milk). The vast desert

2501-437: The depressions lie mostly between 900 and 1,000 m (3,000 and 3,300 ft) above sea-level. Further south, between Iren-dutiasu-nor and the Yellow River , comes a region of broad tablelands alternating with flat plains, the latter ranging at altitudes of 1000–1100 m and the former at 1,070 to 1,200 m (3,510 to 3,940 ft). The slopes of the plateaus are more or less steep and are sometimes penetrated by "bays" of

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2562-655: The east side of the Greater Khingan range, between the upper waters of the Songhua (Sungari) and the upper waters of the Liao-ho, is reckoned to belong to the Gobi by conventional usage. Some geographers and ecologists prefer to regard the western area of the Gobi region (as defined above): the basin of the Tarim in Xinjiang and the desert basin of Lop Nor and Hami ( Kumul ), as forming

2623-829: The foot of the mountains, with barren shingle. Although on the whole a level country with a general altitude of 1,000 to 1,500 m (3,300 to 4,900 ft), this section, like most other parts of the Gobi, is crowned by a network of hills and broken ranges of at least 300 m in elevation. The vegetation is confined to a few varieties of bushes and a dozen kinds of grasses and herbs, the most conspicuous being saxaul ( Haloxylon ammondendron ) and Agriophyllum gobicum . The others include prickly convolvulus , field wormwood ( Artemisia campestris ), acacia , Inula ammophila , Sophora flavescens , Convolvulus ammanii , Peganum and Astragalus species, but all dwarfed, deformed and starved. The fauna consists of little but antelope, wolf, fox, hare, hedgehog, marten, numerous lizards and

2684-457: The form with -ma is unusual. He also noted the Persian word yaġmâ meaning "prey, plunder, booty, spoils", and that it is unclear if it has any relationship with Yağma. The following account of the country of Yaghma and its towns is given in the tenth century text Hudud al-'alam : East of the Toquz-Oghuz country; south of it, the river Khuland-ghun which flows into the Kucha river, west of it are

2745-464: The great northern loop of the Yellow River) is part of this ecoregion within the middle basin of three great depressions into which Potanin divides the Gobi. "Topographically," says Nikolai Przhevalsky , "it is a perfectly level plain, which in all probability once formed the bed of a huge lake or inland sea." He concludes this based on the level area of the region as a whole, the hard saline clay and

2806-468: The increasing aridity between 3500 cal BP and 3000 cal BP there was a decline in human habitation in the Gobi desert. Prehistoric petroglyphs have been found in Southern Mongolia in 1997. The Gobi had a long history of human habitation, mostly by nomadic peoples. The name of Gobi means desert in Mongolian. The region was inhabited mostly by Mongols , Uyghurs , and Kazakhs . The Gobi Desert as

2867-426: The kracenard pine rallies, running perpendicular and far from one another. As they proceed south, they transcend and transpose, sweeping back on east and west respectively, with Lake Bosten in between. These two ranges mark the northern and the southern edges respectively of a great swelling, which extends eastward for nearly twenty degrees of longitude. On its northern side, the Chol-tagh descends steeply, and its foot

2928-509: The level of the sea and some 1,200 m (3,937 ft) above the crown of the swelling itself. This range he considers to belong to the Choltagh system, whereas Sven Hedin would assign it to the Kuruk-tagh. This last, which is pretty certainly identical with the range of Kharateken-ula (also known as the Kyzyl-sanghir , Sinir , and Singher Mountains ), that overlooks the southern shore of

2989-678: The long stretch of desert extending from the foot of the Pamirs (77° east) to the Greater Khingan Mountains, 116–118° east, on the border of Manchuria ; and from the foothills of the Altay, Sayan , and Yablonoi mountain ranges on the north to the Kunlun , Altyn-Tagh , and Qilian mountain ranges, which form the northern edges of the Tibetan Plateau , on the south. A relatively large area on

3050-467: The lowlands. As the border-range of the Hyangan is approached, the country steadily rises up to 1,370 m (4,490 ft) and then to 1,630 m (5,350 ft). Here small lakes frequently fill the depressions, though the water in them is generally salty or brackish. Both here and for 320 km (199 mi) south of Ulaanbaatar, streams are frequent and grass grows more or less abundantly. Through all

3111-439: The name of Ghashuun-Gobi or "Salt Desert". It is some 130 to 160 km (81 to 99 mi) across from north to south, and is traversed by a number of minor parallel ranges, ridges and chains of hills. Down its middle runs a broad stony valley, 40 to 80 km (25 to 50 mi) wide, at an elevation of 900 to 1,370 m (2,950 to 4,490 ft). The Chol-tagh, which reaches an average altitude of 1,800 m (5,900 ft),

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3172-576: The nobles among them venerate their king ...and in their region there are a few villages. 1. Kashghar belongs to Chinistan but is situated on the frontier between the Yaghma, Tibet, the Qïrghïz , and China. The chiefs of Kashghar in the days of old were from the Qarluq, or from the Yaghma... Toquz Oghuz The Toquz Oghuz was a political alliance of nine Turkic Tiele tribes in Inner Asia , during

3233-410: The principal ranges, divide the region into a series of long; narrow valleys, mostly parallel to one another and to the enclosing mountain chains, which descend like terraced steps, on the one side towards the depression of Lukchun and on the other towards the desert of Lop. In many cases these latitudinal valleys are barred transversely by ridges or spurs, generally elevations en masse of the bottom of

3294-399: The ranges from 200 to 500 m (660 to 1,640 ft) higher, though in a few cases they reach altitudes of 2,400 m (7,900 ft). The elevations do not form continuous chains, but make up a congeries of short ridges and groups rising from a common base and intersected by a labyrinth of ravines, gullies, glens, and basins. But the tablelands , built up of the horizontal red deposits of

3355-432: The route from Ulaanbaatar to Kalgan , the country presents approximately the same general features, except that the mountains are not so irregularly scattered in groups but have more strongly defined strikes, mostly east to west, west-north-west to east-south-east, and west-south-west to east-north-east. The altitudes are higher, those of the lowlands ranging from 1,000 to 1,700 m (3,300 to 5,600 ft), and those of

3416-474: The sand-strewn surface and, lastly, the salt lakes which occupy its lowest parts. For hundreds of kilometers, nothing can be seen but bare sands; in some places, they continue so far without a break that the Mongols call them Tengger (i.e. sky). These vast expanses are absolutely waterless, nor do any oases relieve the unbroken stretches of yellow sand, which alternate with equally vast areas of saline clay or, nearer

3477-649: The sky being jumbled up with the earth, they became an enemy." Likewise, foreign sources suggested the political association of some Toquz Oghuz tribes to Göktürks. A Khotanese Saka text about Turks in Ganzhou mentioned saikairä ttūrkä chārä (< OTrk. * sïqïr türk çor ). The Sïqïr Türks were identified with the Sikāri in Sogdian documents as well as the Sijie , who were mentioned as Tujue Sijie 突厥思結 in Zizhi Tongjian . Among

3538-588: The snow and glaciers of the high mountains break through barren foothill ranges and flow out into an immense, hollow plain. Here the rivers begin to straggle and fan out, and form great marshes with dense reed-beds. Westerners call this terrain the Dzungarian desert. The Chinese also call it a desert, but the Mongols call it a 'gobi'—that is, a land of thin herbage, more suitable for camels than for cows, but capable also, if herds are kept small and moved frequently, of sustaining horses, sheep, and goats. The herbage comprises

3599-413: The temperature has been recorded as low as −32.8 °C (−27.0 °F). In contrast, in Alxa , Inner Mongolia, it rises as high as 37 °C (99 °F) in July. Average winter minimums are a frigid −21 °C (−6 °F), while summertime maximums are a warm 27 °C (81 °F). Most of the precipitation falls during the summer. Although the southeast monsoons reach the southeast parts of

3660-399: The valley. Where such elevations exist, there is generally found, on the east side of the transverse ridge, a cauldron-shaped depression, which some time or other has been the bottom of a former lake, but is now nearly a dry salt-basin. The surface configuration is in fact markedly similar to that which occurs in the inter-mount latitudinal valleys of the Kunlun Mountains . The hydrography of

3721-439: Was meadow steppe vegetation around lakes. In Ulaan Nuur there may have been shrubby riparian woodlands. Oasis III is equivalent to the Bronze Age from 5000 cal BP to 3000 cal BP. It is characterized by: Bronze Age herder burials have been found in the Gobi desert, as well as Karasuk bronze knives, and Mongolian deer stones . Between 5000 cal BP and 4500 cal BP there was a period of desertification . Due to

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