139-535: The Mantyasih inscription (also known as Balitung charter and Kedu inscription ) is an important inscription found and kept by Li Djok Ban in Ngadireja Parakan Temanggung, then the inscription was brought by one of the princes of Surakarta to brought to Surakarta and is now stored in the Radyapustaka Museum, Central Java , Indonesia . It is dated to 907 and was created by King Balitung from
278-589: A 16-hour waking period, whereas other apes are generally awake from only sunup to sundown—and these additional hours were probably used for socializing. Because of this, fire usage is probably also linked to the origin of language . Artificial lighting may have also made sleeping on the ground instead of the trees possible by keeping terrestrial predators at bay. Migration into the frigid climate of Ice Age Europe may have only been possible because of fire, but evidence of fire usage in Europe until about 400–300,000 years ago
417-421: A 500,000-year timespan, and the sudden appearance of the typical human body plan. Cooking makes protein more easily digestible, speeds up nutrient absorption, and destroys food-borne pathogens, which would have increased the environment's natural carrying capacity, allowing group size to expand, causing selective pressure for sociality, requiring greater brain function. However, the fossil record does not associate
556-474: A brain volume of 310 cc (19 cu in) could have been safely delivered, which is 34–36% the mean adult size, compared to 40% in chimps and 28% in modern humans. This more aligns with the conclusions drawn from the Mojokerto child. A faster development rate could indicate a lower expected lifespan. Based on an average mass of 63 kg (139 lb) for males and 52.3 kg (115 lb) for females,
695-406: A consequence of a dietary shift to low-calcium meat. Kennedy could not explain why the calcium metabolism of H. erectus never adjusted. In 1985, American paleoanthropologist Mary Doria Russell and colleagues argued the supraorbital torus is a response to withstanding major bending moment which localizes in that region when significant force is applied through the front teeth, such as while using
834-423: A controversial claim. H. erectus males and females may have been roughly the same size as each other (i.e. exhibited reduced sexual dimorphism ), which could indicate monogamy in line with general trends exhibited in primates. Size, nonetheless, ranged widely from 146–185 cm (4 ft 9 in – 6 ft 1 in) in height and 40–68 kg (88–150 lb) in weight. It is unclear if H. erectus
973-417: A distinct genus of extinct ape. Homo erectus featured a flat face compared to earlier hominins; pronounced brow ridge; and a low, flat skull. The presence of sagittal , frontal , and coronal keels, which are small crests that run along these suture lines, has been proposed to be evidence of significant thickening of the skull, specifically the cranial vault . CT scan analyses reveal this to not be
1112-569: A group of at least 20 individuals. One of these trackways, based on the size of the footprints, may have been an entirely male group, which could indicate they were some specialised task group, such as a hunting or foraging party, or a border patrol. If correct, this would also indicate sexual division of labour, which distinguishes human societies from those of other great apes and social mammalian carnivores. In modern hunter gatherer societies who target large prey items, typically male parties are dispatched to bring down these high-risk animals, and, due to
1251-1071: A half a million years. Alternatively, a group of H. habilis may have been reproductively isolated , and only this group developed into H. erectus ( cladogenesis ). Because the earliest remains of H. erectus are found in both Africa and East Asia (in China as early as 2.1 Mya, in South Africa 2.04 Mya ), it is debated where H. erectus evolved. A 2011 study suggested that it was H. habilis who reached West Asia from Africa, that early H. erectus developed there, and that early H. erectus would then have dispersed from West Asia to East Asia ( Peking Man ), Southeast Asia ( Java Man ), back to Africa ( Homo ergaster ), and to Europe ( Tautavel Man ), eventually evolving into modern humans in Africa. Others have suggested that H. erectus / H. ergaster developed in Africa, where it eventually evolved into modern humans. H. erectus had reached Sangiran , Java, by 1.5 Mya, and
1390-436: A highly varied diet). Such versatility may have permitted H. erectus to inhabit a range of different environments and migrate beyond Africa. In 1999, British anthropologist Richard Wrangham proposed the "cooking hypothesis" which states that H. erectus speciated from the ancestral H. habilis because of fire usage and cooking 2 million years ago to explain the rapid doubling of brain size between these two species in only
1529-408: A humanlike curvature of the spine ( lordosis ) and the same number of respective vertebrae. It is largely unclear when human ancestors lost most of their body hair. Genetic analysis suggests that high activity in the melanocortin 1 receptor , which would produce dark skin, dates back to 1.2 Mya. This could indicate the evolution of hairlessness around this time, as a lack of body hair would have left
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#17328548519841668-531: A mixture of both dialects; these areas are Pekalongan and the Kedu Plain , which composes Magelang and Temanggung . Some parts of the districts of Brebes and Cilacap speak Sundanese , the western part of Central Java is the border between the Javanese people and Sundanese people worlds in the western of Java. Central Java is considered to be the heart of the Javanese culture. The ideal conduct and moral of
1807-556: A narrow lowland. In the Brebes area, it is 40 km wide from the coast, while in Semarang, it is only 4 km wide. This plain continues with the depression of Semarang-Rembang in the east. Mount Muria at the end of the Ice Age (around 10,000 years BC) was a separate island from Java, which eventually fused because of alluvial deposits from flowing rivers. The city of Demak during the era of
1946-459: A new Batang Regency was formed from the eastern half of Pekalongan Regency. Today, Central Java (excluding Yogyakarta Special Region) is divided into 29 regencies ( kabupaten ) and six cities ( kota , previously kotamadya and kota pradja ), the latter being independent of any regency. The Southeastern (Solo) area used to be the Surakarta Sunanate until the monarchy was unrecognized by
2085-733: A new structural element in Central Java. This section is separated from the Bogor Zone by the Majenang Depression. The eastern part was built by the Ajibarang anticline (narrow anticline) which was cut by the Serayu River stream. In the east of Banyumas, the anticline developed into an anticlinorium with a width reaching 30 km in the Lukulo area (south of Banjarnegara -Midangan) or often called
2224-537: A regional Council was formed. In addition, autonomous gemeente (municipal) was formed, Pekalongan , Tegal , Semarang , Salatiga , and Magelang . In 1930, the province was designated as an autonomous region with a provinciale raad (provincial council). The province consists of several residenties (residencies), covering several regentschap (districts), divided into several kawedanan (districts). Central Java consisted of 5 residences: Pekalongan, Jepara- Rembang , Semarang, Banyumas , and Kedu . On 1 March 1942,
2363-585: A result, the Sanjaya returned to power in Mataram. Bosch assumed that the title rakai was a dynastic title. The list of Sanjaya kings recorded in the Mantyasih inscription according to Bosch: Central Java Central Java ( Indonesian : Jawa Tengah , Javanese : ꦗꦮꦶꦩꦢꦾ , romanized: Jawi Tengah ) is a province of Indonesia , located in the middle of the island of Java . Its administrative capital
2502-410: A second and distinct wave of H. erectus had colonized Zhoukoudian , China, about 780 kya (thousand years ago) . Early teeth from Sangiran are bigger and more similar to those of basal (ancestral) Western H. erectus and H. habilis than to those of the derived Zhoukoudian H. erectus . However, later Sangiran teeth seem to reduce in size, which could indicate a secondary colonization event of Java by
2641-492: A separate special region (equivalent to a province) since the country's independence, and is administered separately. Although known as the "heart" of Javanese culture , there are several other non-Javanese ethnic groups, such as the Sundanese on the border with West Java. Chinese Indonesians , Arab Indonesians , and Indian Indonesians are also scattered throughout the province. The province has been inhabited by humans since
2780-440: A shift in female behavior which made it difficult for males to maintain a harem, and vice versa. Increasing brain size is often directly associated with a meatier diet and resultant higher caloric intake. Human entomophagy and therefore an increase in protein consumption through insects has also been proposed as a possible cause. However, it is also possible that the energy-expensive guts decreased in size in H. erectus , because
2919-622: A silver city called Argyra at its western end. This name mentioned Java, which most likely origins from the Sanskrit term Java-dvipa (Yawadvipa). Chinese records from the Songshu and the Liangshu referred to Java as She-po (5th century AD), He-ling (640–818 AD), then called it She-po again until the Yuan Dynasty (1271–1368), where they began to call Zhao-Wa. In the book Yingyai Shenglan , written by
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#17328548519843058-456: A similar activity level have a DEE of 2,450 calories, of which 33% derives from fat, and 49% of the fat from animals. The cortical bone (the outer layer of the bone) is extraordinarily thickened, particularly in East Asian populations. The skullcaps have oftentimes been confused with fossil turtle carapaces , and the medullary canal in the long bones (where the bone marrow is stored, in
3197-414: A similar reason for the unusual thickening of the modern Australian Aboriginal skull, a result of a ritual popular in central and southeast Australian tribes where adversaries would wack each other with waddies (sticks) until knockout . The only fossil evidence regarding H. erectus group composition comes from four sites outside of Ileret , Kenya, where 97 footprints made 1.5 Mya were likely left by
3336-555: A skullcap in 1891 and a femur in 1892 ( Java Man ) dating to the late Pliocene or early Pleistocene at the Trinil site along the Solo River , which he named Pithecanthropus erectus ("upright apeman") in 1893. He attempted unsuccessfully to convince the European scientific community that he had found an upright-walking ape-man. Given few fossils of ancient humans had even been discovered at
3475-592: Is Semarang . It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogyakarta in the south, East Java in the east, and the Java Sea in the north. It has a total area of 33,750.37 km , with a population of 36,516,035 at the 2020 Census making it the third-most populous province in both Java and Indonesia after West Java and East Java . The official population estimate in mid-2023
3614-403: Is 84% higher than that for Australopithecus females, possibly due to an increased body size and a decreased growth rate. A 2011 study, assuming high energy or dietary fat requirements based on the abundance of large game animals at H. erectus sites, calculated a DEE of 2,700–3,400 kcal of which 27–44% derived from fat, and 44–62% of the fat from animal sources. In comparison, modern humans with
3753-523: Is a limestone mountain area that extends to the southern coast of East Java. The rivers that empty into the Java Sea include the Bengawan Solo River , Kali Pemali, Kali Comal, and Kali Bodri, while the ones that empty into the Indian Ocean include Serayu River , Bogowonto River, Luk Ulo River and Progo River. Bengawan Solo is the longest river on the island of Java (572 km); has a spring in
3892-497: Is almost the same as the Baduy people in Banten . Although Indonesian is the official language, people mostly speak Javanese as their daily language. The Solo-Jogja dialect or the Mataram dialect is considered as the standard Javanese Language. Additionally, there are a number of Javanese dialects but in general, it consists of two, namely kulonan and timuran . The former is spoken in
4031-473: Is also common among Chinese Indonesians. In the post-Suharto era , it is recognised as an official religion along with the aforementioned five. Ethnic Groups in Central Java At approximately 98%, Javanese people form the overwhelming majority of the population, and a minority of the Sundanese people . Central Java is known as the centre of Javanese culture. The cities of Surakarta and Yogyakarta are
4170-550: Is an extinct species of archaic human from the Pleistocene , with its earliest occurrence about 2 million years ago. Its specimens are among the first recognizable members of the genus Homo . Several human species, such as H. heidelbergensis and H. antecessor , appear to have evolved from H. erectus , and Neanderthals , Denisovans , and modern humans are in turn generally considered to have evolved from H. heidelbergensis . H. erectus
4309-641: Is between 18–28 °C (64–82 °F) and the relative humidity varies between 73% and 94%. While the humidity is high in most low-lying parts of the province, it drops significantly in the upper mountains. The highest average annual rainfall of 3,990 mm with 195 rainy days was recorded in Salatiga . On the eve of the World War II in 1942, Central Java was subdivided into seven residencies ( Dutch : residentie or plural residenties , Javanese karésiḍènan or karésidhènan ) which corresponded more or less with
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4448-704: Is credited as the first human ancestor to have used fire, though the timing of this invention is debated mainly because campfires very rarely and very poorly preserve over long periods of time, especially thousands or millions of years. The earliest claimed fire sites are in Kenya, FxJj20 at Koobi Fora and GnJi 1/6E in the Chemoigut Formation , as far back as 1.5 Mya, and in South Africa, Wonderwerk Cave , 1.7 Mya. The first firekeepers are thought to have simply transported to caves and maintained naturally occurring fires for extended periods of time or only sporadically when
4587-883: Is credited with inventing the Acheulean stone tool industry, succeeding the Oldowan industry, and were the first to make lithic flakes bigger than 10 cm (3.9 in), and hand axes (which includes bifacial tools with only 2 sides, such as picks, knives, and cleavers ). Though larger and heavier, these hand axes had sharper, chiseled edges. They were likely multi-purpose tools, used in variety of activities such as cutting meat, wood, or edible plants. In 1979, American paleontologist Thomas Wynn stated that Acheulean technology required operational intelligence (foresight and planning), being markedly more complex than Oldowan technology which included lithics of unstandardized shape, cross-sections, and symmetry. Based on this, he concluded that there
4726-585: Is debated if the H. e. pekinensis inhabitants of Zhoukoudian , Northern China, were capable of controlling fires as early as 770 kya to stay warm in what may have been a relatively cold climate. In 1962, a 366 cm × 427 cm × 30 cm (12 ft × 14 ft × 1 ft) circle made with volcanic rocks was discovered in Olduvai Gorge . At 61–76 cm (2–2.5 ft) intervals, rocks were piled up to 15–23 cm (6–9 in) high. British palaeoanthropologist Mary Leakey suggested
4865-486: Is generally hypothesised that they lived in a monogamous society, as reduced sexual dimorphism in primates is typically correlated with this mating system. However, it is unclear if H. erectus did in fact exhibit humanlike rates of sexual dimorphism. If they did, then it would mean only female height increased from the ancestor species, which could have been caused by a shift in female fertility or diet, and/or reduced pressure on males for large size. This in turn could imply
5004-433: Is genetic rather than environmental. It is unclear if the condition is caused by increased bone apposition (bone formation) or decreased bone resorption , but Garn noted the stenosis is quite similar to the congenital condition in modern humans induced by hyper-apposition. In 1985, biological anthropologist Gail Kennedy argued for resorption as a result of hyperparathyroidism caused by hypocalcemia ( calcium deficiency),
5143-777: Is greater than the range of variation seen in modern humans and chimps, though less than that of gorillas. In an article published in 2021 titled "Interpopulational variation in human brain size: Implications for hominin cognitive phylogeny," it was found that the brain size of Asian H. erectus over the last 600,000 years overlaps significantly with modern human populations. Significantly, some small brained modern populations showed greater affinity with H. erectus than they did with other large brained and large bodied modern populations. The paper points out methodological flaws in current understanding of brain size increase in human evolution, where species averages are compared with fossils, which overlooks interpopulational variation. It also overlooks
5282-530: Is no definite consensus as to whether they should be classified as subspecies of H. erectus or H. sapiens or as separate species. Meganthropus , based on fossils found in Java, dated to between 1.4 and 0.9 Mya, was tentatively grouped with H. erectus in contrast to earlier interpretations of it as a giant species of early human although older literature has placed the fossils outside of Homo altogether. However, Zanolli et al. (2019) judged Meganthropus to be
5421-712: Is not a significant disparity in intelligence between H. erectus and modern humans and that, for the last 300,000 years, increasing intelligence has not been a major influencer of cultural evolution. However, a 1 year old H. erectus specimen shows that this species lacked an extended childhood required for greater brain development, indicating lower cognitive capabilities. A few sites, likely due to occupation over several generations, features hand axes en masse, such as at Melka Kunture , Ethiopia; Olorgesailie , Kenya; Isimila , Tanzania; and Kalambo Falls , Zambia. The earliest record of Acheulean technology comes from West Turkana , Kenya 1.76 Mya. Oldowan lithics are also known from
5560-799: Is notably absent. If these early European H. erectus did not have fire, it is largely unclear how they stayed warm, avoided predators, and prepared animal fat and meat for consumption. There was also a lower likelihood of naturally occurring fires due to lightning being less common in areas further north. It is possible that they only knew how to maintain fires in certain settings in the landscapes and prepared food some distance away from home, meaning evidence of fire and evidence of hominin activity are spaced far apart. Alternatively, H. erectus may have only pushed farther north during warmer interglacial periods—thus not requiring fire, food storage, or clothing technology— and their dispersal patterns indicate they generally stayed in warmer lower-to-middle latitudes. It
5699-530: Is only demonstrated in modern humans. Like modern humans and unlike other great apes , there does not seem to have been a great size disparity between H. erectus males and females (size-specific sexual dimorphism ), though there is not much fossil data regarding this. Brain size in two adults from Koobi Fora measured 848 and 804 cc (51.7 and 49.1 cu in), and another significantly smaller adult measured 691 cc (42.2 cu in), which could possibly indicate sexual dimorphism, though sex
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5838-495: Is possible that firestarting was invented and lost and reinvented multiple times and independently by different communities rather than being invented in one place and spreading throughout the world. The earliest evidence of hearths comes from Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel, over 700,000 years ago, where fire is recorded in multiple layers in an area close to water, both uncharacteristic of natural fires. Artificial lighting may have led to increased waking hours—modern humans have about
5977-447: Is possible that male–male bonding and male–female friendships were important societal aspects. Because H. erectus children had faster brain growth rates, H. erectus likely did not exhibit the same degree of maternal investment or child-rearing behaviours as modern humans. Because H. erectus males and females are thought to have been about the same size compared to other great apes (exhibit less size-specific sexual dimorphism), it
6116-466: Is possible that they were the first in the human line to do so, though the fragmentary fossil record for earlier species makes this unclear. If yes, then there was a substantial and sudden increase in female height. Certain features of sexual dimorphism are often identified in the possibility of determining sex such as lack of muscle marking. H. erectus had about the same limb configurations and proportions as modern humans, implying humanlike locomotion,
6255-430: Is sometimes considered as a wide-ranging, polymorphous species. Due to such a wide range of variation, it has been suggested that the ancient H. rudolfensis and H. habilis should be considered early varieties of H. erectus . The primitive H. e. georgicus from Dmanisi , Georgia has the smallest brain capacity of any known Pleistocene hominin (about 600 cc), and its inclusion in the species would greatly expand
6394-564: Is sometimes not even regarded as H. erectus . It is debated whether the African H. e. ergaster is a separate species (and that H. erectus evolved in Asia, then migrated to Africa), or is the African form ( sensu lato ) of H. erectus ( sensu stricto ) . In the latter, H. ergaster has also been suggested to represent the immediate ancestor of H. erectus . It has also been suggested that H. ergaster instead of H. erectus , or some hybrid between
6533-587: Is that the word "Java" comes from Proto-Austronesian , Awa or Yawa (Similar to the words Awa'i (Awaiki) or Hawa'i (Hawaiki) used in Polynesia , especially Hawaii ) which means "home". An island called Iabadiu or Jabadiu is mentioned in Ptolemy's work called Geographia which was made around 150 AD during the era of the Roman Empire . Iabadiu is said to mean "island of barley", also rich in gold, and has
6672-715: Is the North and South Serayu Mountains. The North forms a mountain chain that connects the Bogor range in West Java with the Kendeng Mountains in the east. The width of this mountain range is around 30–50 km; on the western end there is Mount Slamet , which is the highest mountain in Central Java as well as the second-highest mountain in Java, and the eastern part is the Dieng Plateau with peaks of Mount Prahu and Mount Ungaran . Between
6811-409: Is typically exacerbated in dark-skinned people living in higher latitudes due to vitamin D deficiency. Hairlessness is generally thought to have facilitated sweating, but reduction of parasite load and sexual selection have also been proposed. The 1.8 Ma Mojokerto child specimen from Java, who died at about 1 year of age, presented 72–84% of the average adult brain size, which is more similar to
6950-555: Is written in Sanskrit in Pallava script . It is written that a Shaivite king named Sri Sanjaya established a kingdom called Mataram . Under the reign of Sanjaya's dynasty, several monuments such as the Prambanan temple complex were built. At the same time, a competing dynasty Sailendra arose, adhering to Buddhism and built the Borobudur temple. After 820 AD, there was no more mention of
7089-418: The Brebes - Tegal - Slawi area in the northwest of the province. Religion in Central Java (June 2024) Although the overwhelming majority of Javanese are Muslims, many also profess indigenous Javanese beliefs . Clifford Geertz , in his book about the religion of Java, made a distinction between the so-called santri Javanese and abangan Javanese. He considered the former as orthodox Muslims and
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#17328548519847228-654: The Burma-Siam and Saketi-Bayah railways , and suffered or died as a result of ill-treatment and starvation. A later UN report stated that four million people died in Indonesia as a result of the Japanese occupation. About 2.4 million people died in Java from famine during 1944–45. Following the surrender of Japan, Indonesia proclaimed its independence on 17 August 1945. The final stages of warfare were initiated in October when, under
7367-553: The Cultivation System which was linked to famines and epidemics in the 1840s, first in Cirebon and then Central Java, as cash crops such as indigo and sugar had to be grown instead of rice. In the 1900s, the predecessor of the modern Central Java was created, named Gouvernement van Midden-Java . Before 1905, central Java consisted of 5 gewesten (regions) namely Semarang , Rembang , Kedu , Banyumas , and Pekalongan . Surakarta
7506-728: The Demak Sultanate was on the edge of the sea and became a thriving port. This sedimentation process is still ongoing on the coast of Semarang . In the south of the area are the Northern Cretaceous Mountains and the Kendeng Mountains, which are limestone mountains stretching from the east of Semarang from the Southwest end of Pati then east to the Lamongan and Bojonegoro in East Java. The main range of mountains in Central Java
7645-719: The Dutch East Indies . Because no directed expedition had ever discovered human fossils (the few known had all been discovered by accident), and the economy was strained by the Long Depression , the Dutch government refused to fund Dubois. In 1887, he enlisted in the Dutch East India Army as a medical officer, and was able to secure a post in 1887 in the Indies to search for his " missing link " in his spare time. On Java , he found
7784-462: The House of Representatives . The province's 77 elected members are comprised as follows: As of the 2010 census, Central Java's population stood at 32.38 million, barely increasing from 2000, compared with the 1990 census when the population was 28 million. This reflected an increase of approximately 13.5% in 20 years. At the 2020 Census the population was 36,516,035, and the official estimate for mid 2023
7923-756: The Hēlíng in Chinese records. Coinciding with the overthrow of the Sailendras by the Sanjayas who restored Shaivism as the dominant religion. In the middle of the 10th century, however, the centre of power moved to eastern Java. Raden Wijaya founded the Majapahit Empire , and reaching its peak during the reign of Hayam Wuruk . The kingdom claimed sovereignty over the entire Indonesian archipelago , although direct control tended to be limited to Java, Bali and Madura . Gajah Mada
8062-587: The Imperial Japanese Army landed on Java , and the following week, the Dutch East Indies surrendered to Japan. During Japanese rule, Java and Madura were placed under the Japanese 16th Army . Many who lived in areas considered important to the war effort experienced torture , sex slavery , arbitrary arrest and execution, and other war crimes . Thousands of people were taken away as forced labourers ( romusha ) for Japanese military projects, including
8201-695: The Kebumen Tinggi . At the very eastern end of Mandala, the South Serayu Mountains are formed by the dome of the Kulonprogo Mountains (1022 m), which is located between Purworejo and the Progo River . The area of the south coast of Central Java also has a narrow lowland, with a width of 10–25 km. In addition, there are South Gombong Karst Areas. Sloping hills stretch parallel to the coast, from Yogyakarta to Cilacap . East of Yogyakarta
8340-589: The Sanjaya dynasty , of the Ancient Mataram Kingdom . This inscription contains a genealogy of the kings of Mataram before King Balitung. The inscription mentions that Mantyasih village was awarded by King Balitung as sima (tax-free) land. In Mateseh village today a stone mortar believed to be used during sima ceremony can still be found. Two mountains are also mentioned: Mount Susundara and Wukir Sumbing (today Mount Sundoro and Sumbing ). The inscription
8479-472: The Second Sino-Japanese War after an attempt to smuggle them out of China for safekeeping. Only casts remain. Similarities between Java Man and Peking Man led Ernst Mayr to rename both as Homo erectus in 1950. Throughout much of the 20th century, anthropologists debated the role of H. erectus in human evolution . Early in the century, due in part to the discoveries at Java and Zhoukoudian,
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#17328548519848618-883: The Sewu Mountains (Wonogiri Regency), this river flows to the north, crosses the City of Surakarta , and finally goes to East Java and empties into the Gresik area (near Surabaya). Among the main reservoirs (lakes) in Central Java are Gunung Rowo Lake ( Pati Regency ), Gajahmungkur Reservoir ( Wonogiri Regency ), Kedungombo Reservoir ( Boyolali and Sragen Regency ), Rawa Pening Lake ( Semarang Regency ), Cacaban Reservoir ( Tegal Regency ), Malahayu Reservoir ( Brebes Regency ), Wadaslintang Reservoir (border of Kebumen Regency and Wonosobo Regency ), Gembong Reservoir (Pati Regency), Sempor Reservoir ( Kebumen Regency ) and Mrica Reservoir ( Banjarnegara Regency ). The average temperature in Central Java
8757-468: The Sultanate of Mataram , grew into a dominant force in the central and eastern Java. The cities of Surabaya and Cirebon were subdued by Mataram. Only the Mataram and Banten Sultanates remained after the Dutch arrived in the early 17th century. Some Islamic kingdoms in Java can still be found in several regions, such as Surakarta (with two kingdoms of Kasunanan and Mangkunegaran ), and Yogyakarta with
8896-552: The Yogyakarta Sultanate and Pakualaman . By the late 16th century, European traders began to frequent central Javanese ports. The Dutch established a presence in the region through the East India Company . Following the fall of Demak to Mataram under the reign of Sultan Agung , Mataram was able to conquer almost all of Java by the 17th century, but internal disputes and Dutch intervention forced it to cede more land to
9035-404: The upheavals in 1965–66, religious identification of citizens became compulsory, and there has been a renaissance of Buddhism and Hinduism since then. As one has to choose a religion out of the five official religions in Indonesia; i.e. Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, and Buddhism, the latter two became alternatives for people who did not want to be Muslims or Christians. Confucianism
9174-654: The 1970s, propelled most notably by Richard Leakey , more were being unearthed in East Africa predominantly at the Koobi Fora site, Kenya, and Olduvai Gorge , Tanzania. Archaic human fossils unearthed across Europe used to be assigned to H. erectus , but have since been separated as H. heidelbergensis as a result of British physical anthropologist Chris Stringer 's work. It has been proposed that H. erectus evolved from H. habilis about 2 Mya, though this has been called into question because they coexisted for at least
9313-440: The Chinese Ming explorer Ma Huan , the Chinese call Java as Chao-Wa, and it was once called the She-pó (She-bó). When Giovanni de' Marignolli returned from China to Avignon , he stopped at the kingdom of Saba, which he said had many elephants and was led by a queen; this name Saba might be his interpretation of She-bó. Java has been inhabited by humans or their ancestors ( hominina ) since prehistoric times. In Central Java and
9452-409: The Dutch. These cessions led to several partitions of Mataram. The first was after the 1755 Treaty of Giyanti , which divided the kingdom in two, the Sultanates of Surakarta and Yogyakarta. Surakarta was divided again with the establishment of the Mangkunegaran following the 1757 Treaty of Salatiga. During the Napoleonic Wars , Central Java as a Dutch colony was taken over by the British . In 1813,
9591-487: The Indonesian government. These contemporary regencies and cities can further be subdivided into 565 districts ( kecamatan ). These districts are further divided into 7,804 rural communes or "villages" ( desa ) and 764 urban communes ( kelurahan ). The regencies and cities are listed below with their areas and populations at the 2000, 2010 and 2020 Censuses, together with the official estimates as at mid 2023, and are grouped (for convenience) approximately according to
9730-542: The Japanese had almost captured the city when British forces arrived. The province of Central Java was formed on 15 August 1950, excluding Yogyakarta but including Surakarta . There has been no significant changes in the administrative division of the province ever since. In the aftermath of the 30 September Movement in 1965, an anti-communist purge took place in Central Java, in which the army and community vigilante groups killed Communists and leftists, both actual and alleged. Others were interned in concentration camps ,
9869-421: The South Central Java Basin located in the southern part of the province. This mandala is a geoantiklin that extends from west to east along 100 kilometres and is divided into two parts separated by the Jatilawang valley, namely the western and eastern regions. The western part is formed by Mount Kabanaran (360 m) and can be described as having the same elevation as the Bandung Depression Zone in West Java or as
10008-679: The Sultanate of Yogyakarta was divided with the establishment of the Pakualaman. Following the departure of the British, the Dutch returned as stipulated in the Congress of Vienna . The Java War between 1825 and 1830 ravaged Central Java, which resulted in a consolidation of the Dutch power. The power and the territories of the already divided Mataram were greatly reduced. After the war, the Netherlands enforced
10147-627: The Zhoukoudian or some closely related population. " Wushan Man " was proposed as Homo erectus wushanensis , but is now thought to be based upon fossilized fragments of an extinct non-hominin ape. Since the discovery of Java Man in 1893, there has been a trend in paleoanthropology of reducing the number of proposed species of Homo , to the point where H. erectus includes all early ( Lower Paleolithic ) forms of Homo sufficiently derived from H. habilis and distinct from early H. heidelbergensis (in Africa also known as H. rhodesiensis ). It
10286-579: The adjacent territories in East Java remains known as " Java Man " were discovered in the 1890s by the Dutch anatomist and geologist Eugène Dubois . It belongs to the species Homo erectus , and are believed to be about 1.7 million years old. The Sangiran site is an important prehistoric site on Java. Around 40,000 years ago, Australoid peoples related to modern Australian Aboriginals and Melanesians settled in Central Java. They were assimilated or replaced by Mongoloid Austronesians by about 3,000 BC, who brought technologies of pottery, outrigger canoes,
10425-551: The assistance of the Javanese Buddhist monk Jñānabhadra. It is not precisely known what is meant by the name Hēlíng . It used to be considered the Chinese transcription of Kalinga but it is now most commonly thought of as a rendering of the name Areng . Hēlíng is believed to be located somewhere between Semarang and Jepara . The first dated inscription in Central Java was the Canggal from 732 AD. This inscription, from Kedu ,
10564-454: The basic cranial features are maintained. In a wider sense, H. erectus had mostly been replaced by H. heidelbergensis by about 300 kya, with possible late survival of H. erectus soloensis in Java an estimated 117-108 kya. Homo erectus is the most long-lived species of Homo , having survived for almost two million years. By contrast, Homo sapiens emerged about a third of a million years ago. Regarding many archaic humans , there
10703-557: The belief that modern humans first evolved in Asia was widely accepted. A few naturalists— Charles Darwin the most prominent among them—theorized that humans' earliest ancestors were African. Darwin had pointed out that chimpanzees and gorillas , humans ' closest relatives, evolved and exist only in Africa. Darwin did not include orangutans among the great apes of the Old World, likely because he thought of orangutans as primitive humans rather than apes. While Darwin considered Africa as
10842-570: The bow and arrow, and introduced domesticated pigs, fowls, and dogs. They also introduced cultivated rice and millet. Recorded history began in what is now Central Java in the 7th century AD. The writing, as well as Hinduism and Buddhism, were brought by the Indians from South Asia, at the time of Central Java was a centre of power in Java. In 664 AD, the Chinese monk Hui-neng visited the Javanese port city he called Hēlíng (訶陵) or Ho-ling , where he translated various Buddhist scriptures into Chinese with
10981-481: The case. However, the squamous part of occipital bone , particularly the internal occipital crest , at the rear of the skull is notably thicker than that of modern humans, likely a basal (ancestral) trait. The fossil record indicates that H. erectus was the first human species to have featured a projecting nose, which is generally thought to have evolved in response to breathing dry air in order to retain moisture. American psychologist Lucia Jacobs hypothesized that
11120-484: The centres of the Javanese royal palace that still stands today. Significant minority ethnic groups include the Chinese Indonesians . They usually reside in urban areas, although they are also found in rural areas. In general, they primarily work in trade and services. Many speak the Javanese language with sufficient fluency as they have lived alongside the Javanese. One can feel the strong influence in Semarang and
11259-510: The courts (such as politeness, nobility and grace) has a tremendous influence on the people. They are known as soft-spoken, very polite, extremely class-conscious, apathetic, down-to-earth, etc. These stereotypes form what most non-Javanese see as the "Javanese Culture", when in fact, not all Javanese behave in such manner as most Javanese are far from the court culture. Homo erectus Homo erectus ( / ˌ h oʊ m oʊ ə ˈ r ɛ k t ə s / lit. ' upright man ' )
11398-403: The daily energy expenditure (DEE)—the amount of calories metabolized in one day—was estimated to be about 2271.8 and 1909.5 kcal , respectively. This is similar to that of earlier Homo , despite a marked increase in activity and migratory capacity, likely because the longer legs of H. erectus were more energy-efficient in long-distance movement. Nonetheless, the estimate for H. erectus females
11537-442: The diet of these hominins. At the 1.5 Mya Trinil H. K. site, Java, H. erectus likely gathered fish and shellfish. Dentally, H. erectus mouths were not as versatile as those of ancestor species, capable of processing a narrower range of foods. However, tools were likely used to process hard foods, thus affecting the chewing apparatus. This combination may have instead increased dietary flexibility (though this does not equate to
11676-655: The dominant religion in Java. The emergence of Islamic kingdoms in Java is also inseparable from the role of Walisongo . At first, the spread of Islam was quick and was accepted by ordinary people, until the entrance of da'wah and it was carried out by the rulers of the island. The Sultanate of Demak was the first recorded Islamic kingdom in Java, first led by one of the descendants of the Majapahit emperor Raden Patah , who converted to Islam. During this period, Islamic kingdoms began to develop from Pajang , Surakarta , Yogyakarta , Cirebon , and Banten . Another Islamic kingdom,
11815-445: The emergence of H. erectus with fire usage nor with any technological breakthrough for that matter, and cooking likely did not become a common practice until after 400 kya. Java Man's dispersal through Southeast Asia coincides with the extirpation of the giant turtle Megalochelys , possibly due to overhunting as the turtle would have been an easy, slow-moving target which could have been stored for quite some time. H. erectus
11954-534: The entry of Indian influence. It is possible that the island had many previous names, including the possibility of it originating from the word jaú which means "far away". Yavadvipa is mentioned in one of the Indian epic, Ramayana . According to the epic, Sugriva , the commander of the wanara (ape man) from Sri Rama 's army, sent his envoy to Yavadvip ("Java Island") to look for the Hindu goddess Sita . Another possibility
12093-473: The eyes, and transitions into a bar covering the ears, connecting all the way in the back of the skull, meaning blows to any of these regions can be effectively dissipated across the skull; and the sagittal keel protects the top of the braincase. Many skullcaps bear usually debilitating fractures, such as the Peking Man skull X, yet they can show signs of surviving and healing. Anthropologist Peter Brown suggested
12232-415: The fact that some modern populations have not seen any dramatic brain size increase relative to H. erectus with most of the increase occurring in northern populations, which has the result of obscuring interpopulational variation. As the authors write '...the increase in the mean of H. sapiens cranial capacity is to a large extent due to an increase in the upper limit with a much less pronounced increase in
12371-412: The faster brain growth trajectory of great apes than modern humans. This indicates that H. erectus was probably not cognitively comparable to modern humans, and that secondary altriciality —an extended childhood and long period of dependency due to the great amount of time required for brain maturation—evolved much later in human evolution, perhaps in the modern human/Neanderthal last common ancestor. It
12510-448: The first in the Homo lineage. H. erectus tracks near Ileret , Kenya, also indicate a human gait . A humanlike shoulder suggests an ability for high speed throwing. It was once thought that Turkana boy had 6 lumbar vertebra instead of the 5 seen in modern humans and 11 instead of 12 thoracic vertebrae , but this has since been revised, and the specimen is now considered to have exhibited
12649-518: The founder of the Mataram Kingdom, who adhered to Shivaist Hinduism . The next Maharaja was Panangkaran , who, according to Bosch, was defeated by the Sailendras. Thus in Mataram. there were two dynasties: the Sanjayas ruled the northern parts of Java, while the Sailendras ruled in southern Java. The daughter of Sailendra Maharaja Samaratungga , named Pramodhawardhani , married Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya, who succeeded his father-in-law's throne. As
12788-509: The increasing dependence on meat. With an emphasis on teamwork, division of labor, and food sharing, hunting and gathering was a dramatically different subsistence strategy from previous modes. H. erectus sites frequently are associated with assemblages of medium- to large-sized game, namely elephants , rhinos , hippos , bovines , and boars . H. erectus would have had considerable leftovers, potentially pointing to food sharing or long-term food preservation (such as by drying) if most of
12927-748: The kill was indeed utilized. It is possible that H. erectus grew to become quite dependent on large-animal meat, and the disappearance of H. erectus from the Levant is correlated with the local extinction of the straight-tusked elephant . Nonetheless, H. erectus diet likely varied widely depending upon location. For example, at the 780 kya Gesher Benot Ya'aqov site, Israel, the inhabitants gathered and ate 55 different types of fruits, vegetables, seeds, nuts, and tubers, and it appears that they used fire to roast certain plant materials that otherwise would have been inedible; they also consumed amphibians, reptiles, birds, aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates, in addition to
13066-400: The large ape gut is used to synthesize fat by fermenting plant matter, which was replaced by dietary animal fat, allowing more energy to be diverted to brain growth. This would have increased brain size indirectly while maintaining the same caloric requirements of ancestor species. H. erectus may have also been the first to use a hunting and gathering food collecting strategy as a response to
13205-589: The largest scale." (1889, pp. 155–156). In 1949, the species was reported in Swartkrans Cave, South Africa, by South African paleoanthropologists Robert Broom and John Talbot Robinson , who described it as " Telanthropus capensis ". Homo fossils have also been reported from nearby caves, but their species designation has been a tumultuous discussion. A few North African sites have additionally yielded H. erectus remains, which at first were classified as " Atlantanthropus mauritanicus " in 1951. Beginning in
13344-489: The latter as nominal Muslims that devote more energy to indigenous traditions. Dutch Protestants were active in missionary activities and were rather successful. The Dutch Catholic Jesuit missionary, F.G.C. van Lith also achieved some success, especially in areas around the central-southern parts of Central Java and Yogyakarta at the beginning of the 20th century, and is buried at the Jesuit necropolis at Muntilan . Following
13483-552: The limbs) is extremely narrowed (medullary stenosis ). This degree of thickening is usually exhibited in semi-aquatic animals which used their heavy ( pachyosteosclerotic ) bones as ballasts to help them sink, induced by hypothyroidism . Male specimens have thicker cortical bone than females. It is largely unclear what function this could have served. All pathological inducers would leave scarring or some other indicator not normally exhibited in H. erectus . Before more complete skeletons were discovered, Weidenreich suggested H. erectus
13622-415: The low success rate, female parties focus on more predictable foods. Based on modern day savanna chimp and baboon group composition and behavior, H. erectus ergaster may have lived in large, multi-male groups in order to defend against large savanna predators in the open and exposed environment. However, dispersal patterns indicate that H. erectus generally avoided areas with high carnivore density. It
13761-424: The lower limit relative to our H. erectus sample. And this increase in the upper limit seems to be more pronounced in northern populations – which may be a result of correlated increases in body size in addition to climatic factors. Consequently, the authors argue that purely based on brain size similarities, Asian H. erectus could be re-classified as a subspecies of H. sapiens , that is H. sapiens soloensis - as
13900-420: The main regions of this area. These residencies were Banjoemas , Kedoe , Pekalongan , Semarang , and Djapara-Rembang plus the so-called Gouvernement Soerakarta and Gouvernement Jogjakarta . However, after the local elections in 1957, the role of these residencies were reduced until they finally disappeared. The only major boundary change since the creation of the province took place on 14 June 1965, when
14039-552: The majority of modern-day Indonesians are of Javanese descent, both Central Java and East Java have a major impact on Indonesia's social, political, and economic life. The origin of the name "Java" can be traced from the Sanskrit chronicle which mentions the existence of an island called yavadvip(a) ( dvipa means "island", and yava means " barley " or also " grain "). These grains may be millet ( Setaria italica ) or rice, both of which have been widely found on this island, before
14178-645: The most infamous of which was on the isle of Buru in Maluku, first used as a place of political exile by the Dutch. Some were executed years later, but most were released in 1979 In 1998, near the downfall of Suharto , anti-Chinese violence broke out in Surakarta (Solo) and surrounding areas, in which Chinese property and other buildings were burnt down. The following year, public buildings in Surakarta were burnt by supporters of Megawati Sukarnoputri after Indonesia's parliament chose Abdurrahman Wahid instead of Megawati for
14317-645: The most probable birthplace of human ancestors, he also made the following statement about the geographic location of human origins in his book The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex : "... it is useless to speculate on this subject; for two or three anthropomorphous apes, one the Dryopithecus …, existed in Europe during the Miocene age; and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolutions, and there has been ample time for migration on
14456-466: The most productive H. erectus site in the world. Continued interest in Java led to further H. erectus fossil discoveries at Ngandong ( Solo Man ) in 1931, Mojokerto (Java Man) in 1936, and Sangiran (Java Man) in 1937. The Sangiran site yielded the best preserved Java Man skull. German paleoanthropologist Franz Weidenreich provided much of the detailed description of the Chinese specimens in several monographs. The original specimens were lost during
14595-402: The mouth as a third hand to carry objects. In 2004, Noel Boaz and Russel Ciochon suggested it was a result of a cultural practice, wherein H. erectus would fight each other with fists, stones, or clubs to settle disputes or battle for mates, since the skull is reinforced in key areas. The mandible is quite robust, capable of absorbing heavy blows (no "glass jaw"); the heavy brow ridge protects
14734-409: The nighttime temperature can drop to 10 or 5 °C (50 or 41 °F)—so they may have required hair to stay warm, unlike early Homo which inhabited lower, hotter elevations. Populations in higher latitudes potentially developed lighter skin to prevent vitamin D deficiency . A 500–300 kya H. erectus specimen from Turkey was diagnosed with the earliest known case of tuberculous meningitis , which
14873-499: The now defunct residenties in which they were formerly situated (omitting Yogyakarta residentie which now forms a separate province). Note: The regencies now appear in the formal order prescribed by the Indonesian Central Statistics Board ( Badan Pusat Statistik ), as indicated by the regional codes ( Kode Wilayah ). The province comprises ten of Indonesia's 84 national electoral districts to elect members to
15012-403: The opportunity arose. Maintaining fires would require firekeepers to have knowledge of slow-burning materials such as dung. Fire becomes markedly more abundant in the wider archaeological record after 400,000–300,000 years ago, which can be explained as some advancement in fire management techniques took place at this time or human ancestors only opportunistically used fire until this time. It
15151-443: The practical application of this is unclear. Nonetheless, the mandibular bodies of H. erectus are somewhat thinner than those of early Homo . The premolars and molars also have a higher frequency of pits than H. habilis , suggesting H. erectus ate more brittle foods (which cause pitting). These all indicate that the H. erectus mouth was less capable of processing hard foods and more at shearing through tougher foods, thus reducing
15290-517: The prehistoric-era. Remains of a Homo erectus , known as " Java Man ", were found along the banks of the Bengawan Solo , and date back to 1.7 million years ago. What is present-day Central Java was once under the control of several Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms, Islamic sultanates, and the Dutch East Indies colonial government. Central Java was also the centre of the Indonesian independence movement . As
15429-414: The presidency. The 2006 Yogyakarta earthquake in the south and Yogyakarta devastated many buildings and caused thousands of deaths and more than 37,000 injuries. According to the slope level of land in Central Java, 38% of the land has a slope of 0–2%, 31% has a slope of 2–15%, 19% has a slope of 15–40%, and the remaining 12% has a slope of more than 40%. The northern coastal region of Central Java has
15568-574: The projecting nose instead allowed for distinguishing the direction different smells come from (stereo olfaction) to facilitate navigation and long-distance migration. The average brain size of Asian H. erectus is about 1,000 cc (61 cu in). However, markedly smaller specimens have been found in Dmanisi, Georgia ( H. e. georgicus ); Koobi Fora and Olorgesailie , Kenya; and possibly Gona , Ethiopia. Overall, H. erectus brain size varies from 546–1,251 cc (33.3–76.3 cu in), which
15707-552: The province of West Java, there are Sundanese people and Sundanese culture, especially in the Cilacap, Brebes, and Banyumas regions. Sundanese toponyms are common in these regions such as Dayeuhluhur in Cilacap, Ciputih and Citimbang in Brebes and even Cilongok as far away in Banyumas. In the interior of Blora , which borders East Java, there is an isolated Samin community , the case of which
15846-400: The range of variation of H. erectus to perhaps include species as H. rudolfensis , H. gautengensis , H. ergaster , and perhaps H. habilis . However, a 2015 study suggested that H. georgicus represents an earlier, more primitive species of Homo derived from an older dispersal of hominins from Africa, with H. ergaster/erectus possibly deriving from a later dispersal. H. georgicus
15985-410: The rock piles were used to support poles stuck into the ground, possibly to support a windbreak or a rough hut. Some modern-day nomadic tribes build similar low-lying rock walls to build temporary shelters upon, bending upright branches as poles and using grasses or animal hide as a screen. Dating to 1.75 Mya, it is the oldest claimed evidence of architecture. The earliest evidence of cave habitation
16124-569: The series of North and South Serayu Mountains are separated by the Serayu Depression which stretches from Majenang in the Cilacap Regency , Purwokerto , to Wonosobo . East of this depression is the Sindoro and Sumbing volcano, and the east again (Magelang and Temanggung areas) is a continuation of depression which limits Mount Merapi and Mount Merbabu. The Southern Serayu Mountains are part of
16263-580: The site, and the two seemed to coexist for some time. The earliest records of Acheulean technology outside of Africa date to no older than 1 Mya, indicating it only became widespread after some secondary H. erectus dispersal from Africa. On Java, H. erectus produced tools from shells at Sangiran and Trinil. Spherical stones, measuring 6–12 cm (2.4–4.7 in) in diameter, are frequently found in African and Chinese Lower Paleolithic sites, and were potentially used as bolas ; if correct, this would indicate string and cordage technology. H. erectus
16402-574: The skin exposed to harmful UV radiation . It is possible that exposed skin only became maladaptive in the Pleistocene, because the increasing tilt of the Earth (which also caused the ice ages ) would have increased solar radiation bombardment- which would suggest that hairlessness first emerged in the australopithecines. However, australopithecines seem to have lived at much higher, much colder elevations—typically 1,000–1,600 m (3,300–5,200 ft) where
16541-571: The terms of their surrender, the Japanese tried to re-establish the authority they relinquished to the Indonesians in towns and cities. The fiercest fighting involving the Indonesian pemuda and the Japanese was in Semarang . Six days later, British forces began to occupy the city, after which retreating Indonesian Republican forces retaliated by killing between 130 and 300 Japanese prisoners. Five hundred Japanese and 2,000 Indonesians had been killed, and
16680-478: The time, they largely dismissed his findings as a malformed non-human ape. The significance of these fossils would not be realized until the 1927 discovery of what Canadian paleoanthropologist Davidson Black called " Sinanthropus pekinensis " (Peking Man) at the Zhoukoudian cave near Beijing , China. Black lobbied across North America and Europe for funding to continue excavating the site, which has since become
16819-646: The town of Lasem in Rembang Regency , which is on the northeastern tip of Central Java. Even Lasem is nicknamed Le petit chinois or the Small Chinese City. The urban areas that are densely populated by Chinese Indonesians are called pecinan , which means " Chinatown ". Additionally, in several major cities, the Arab-Indonesian community can also be found. Similar to the Chinese community, they are usually engaged in trade and services. In areas bordering
16958-515: The two, was the immediate ancestor of other archaic humans and modern humans. It has been proposed that Asian H. erectus have several unique characteristics from non-Asian populations ( autapomorphies ), but there is no clear consensus on what these characteristics are or if they are indeed limited to only Asia. Based on supposed derived characteristics, the 120 kya Javan H. e. soloensis has been proposed to have speciated from H. erectus , as H. soloensis , but this has been challenged because most of
17097-584: The usual large creatures such as elephant and fallow deer . At the 1.95 Mya FwJJ20 lakeside site in the East Turkana Basin, Kenya, the inhabitants ate (alongside the usual bovids, hippos, and rhinos) aquatic creatures such as turtles , crocodiles , and catfish . The large animals were likely scavenged at this site, but the turtles and fish were possibly collected live. In East Africa between 2.0 and 1.4 Mya, carcasses of C 4 -grazing ungulates, particularly alcelaphins , featured increasingly prominently in
17236-447: The variety of foods it could process, likely as a response to tool use. Like modern humans, H. erectus varied widely in size, ranging from 146–185 cm (4 ft 9 in – 6 ft 1 in) in height and 40–68 kg (88–150 lb) in weight, thought to be due to regional differences in climate, mortality rates, or nutrition. Among primates, this marked of a response to environmental stressors ( phenotypic plasticity )
17375-504: The western part of Central Java, consisting of the Banyumasan dialects and Tegal dialects (also called Basa Ngapak) . They are quite different in pronunciation from the standard Javanese. The latter dialect is spoken in the eastern part of the province, including the Mataram dialect (Solo-Jogja), Semarang dialect, and the Pati dialect. Between the borders of the two dialects, Javanese is spoken with
17514-602: Was 37,608,336 The province also includes a number of offshore islands, including the island of Nusakambangan in the south (close to the border of West Java), and the Karimun Jawa Islands in the Java Sea. Central Java is also a cultural concept that includes the Yogyakarta Special Region , in turn including the city of Yogyakarta ; however, administratively that city and its surrounding regencies have formed
17653-446: Was 37,608,336. Birthrates had not plunged between 2000 and 2010, instead losses due to domestic outmigration on 2010 figures, reversed themselves in 2020 with pandemic back to kampung influence. The three biggest regencies in terms of population are: Brebes , Cilacap and Banyumas . Together they make up approximately 16% of the province's population. Major urban population centres include Greater Semarang , Greater Surakarta and
17792-436: Was German naturalist Ernst Haeckel , who argued that the first human species evolved on the now-disproven hypothetical continent " Lemuria " in what is now Southeast Asia, from a species he termed " Pithecanthropus alalus " ("speechless apeman"). "Lemuria" had supposedly sunk below the Indian Ocean , so no fossils could be found to prove this. Nevertheless, Haeckel's model inspired Dutch scientist Eugène Dubois to journey to
17931-401: Was a gigantic species, thickened bone required to support the massive weight. It was hypothesized that intense physical activity could have induced bone thickening, but in 1970, human biologist Stanley Marion Garn demonstrated there is a low correlation between the two at least in modern humans. Garn instead noted different races have different average cortical bone thicknesses, and concluded it
18070-455: Was a military leader during this time, who led numerous territorial conquests. The kingdoms in Java had previously based their power on agriculture, but Majapahit had succeeded in seizing ports and shipping lanes, in a bid to become the first commercial empire on Java. The empire suffered a setback after the death of Hayam Wuruk and the entry of Islam into the archipelago . In the late 16th century, Islam had surpassed Hinduism and Buddhism as
18209-601: Was an apex predator ; sites generally show consumption of medium to large animals, such as bovines or elephants , and suggest the development of predatory behavior and coordinated hunting. H. erectus is associated with the Acheulean stone tool industry , and is postulated to have been the earliest human ancestor capable of using fire, hunting and gathering in coordinated groups, caring for injured or sick group members, and possibly seafaring and art (though examples of art are controversial, and are otherwise rudimentary and few and far between). Intentional seafaring has also been
18348-492: Was anatomically capable of speech, though it is postulated they communicated using some proto-language . Contrary to the view Charles Darwin expressed in his 1871 book Descent of Man , many late-19th century evolutionary naturalists postulated that Asia, not Africa, was the birthplace of humankind as it is midway between Europe and America, providing optimal dispersal routes throughout the world (the Out of Asia theory ). Among these
18487-511: Was dated 828 Saka (907 CE). This is the part that contains the genealogy list of Mataram ruling kings, part B lines 7-9: Bosch, in his book Sriwijaya, de Sailendrawamsa en de Sanjayawamsa (1952), suggests that in the Mataram Kingdom , there were two dynasties, the Sanjaya dynasty , and the Sailendra dynasty that equally ruled the kingdom. The Sanjaya lineage was established by Sri Sanjaya ,
18626-417: Was previously believed that, based on the narrow pelvis of Turkana boy, H. erectus could only safely deliver a baby with a brain volume of about 230 cc (14 cu in), equating to a similar brain growth rate as modern humans to achieve the average adult brain size of 600–1,067 cc (36.6–65.1 cu in). However, a 1.8 Ma female pelvis from Gona, Ethiopia, shows that H. erectus babies with
18765-477: Was still an independent vorstenland (autonomous region) which stood alone and consisted of two regions, Surakarta and Mangkunegaran, as well as Yogyakarta. Each gewest consisted of districts. At that time, the Rembang Gewest also included Regentschap Tuban and Regentschap Bojonegoro . After the enactment of the 1905 Decentralisatie Besluit (Decentralisation Decision), the governor was given autonomy and
18904-496: Was suggested by earlier authors. Dentally, H. erectus have the thinnest enamel of any Plio–Pleistocene hominin. Enamel prevents the tooth from breaking from hard foods but impedes shearing through tough foods. The bodies of the mandibles of H. erectus , and all early Homo , are thicker than those of modern humans and all living apes. The mandibular body resists torsion from the bite force or chewing, meaning their jaws could produce unusually powerful stresses while eating, but
19043-501: Was the first human ancestor to spread throughout Eurasia , with a continental range extending from the Iberian Peninsula to Java . Asian populations of H. erectus may be ancestral to H. floresiensis and possibly to H. luzonensis . The last known population of H. erectus is H. e. soloensis from Java, around 117,000–108,000 years ago. H. erectus had a more modern gait and body proportions, and
19182-410: Was the first human species to have exhibited a flat face, prominent nose, and possibly sparse body hair coverage. Though the species' brain size certainly exceeds that of ancestor species, capacity varied widely depending on the population. In earlier populations, brain development seemed to cease early in childhood, suggesting that offspring matured faster, thus limiting cognitive development. H. erectus
19321-493: Was undetermined. Another case that depicts the difficulty of assigning sex to the fossil record is a few samples taken in Olduvai Gorge. In 1960, in Olduvai Gorge two skulls identified as OH12 and OH9, were found to be that of H. erectus with a cranial capacities of 1000 cc and 700 cc. It is unclear if sexual dimorphism is at play here since the remains are fragmentary. If H. erectus did not exhibit sexual dimorphism, then it
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