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104-601: There are three main geographic divisions. In the far south of the regency (Sukorame, Bluluk, Ngimbang, Sambeng, Mantup and Modo Districts), and also in the northern coastal area (Brondong, Paciran and Solokuro Districts) are limestone mountains with land of medium fertility. Between the coastal uplands and the Solo River, much of the region consists of 'bonorowo' wetlands prone to periodic flooding (chiefly Glagah, Karangbinangun, Turi, Kalitengah, Karanggeneng, Laren, Maduran and Sekaran Districts). The remaining areas close to and south of

208-641: A nomen nudum ("naked name"), and has not been properly described with diagnostic characteristics which separate it from A. africanus . At the time, these remains were dated to 3.3 million years ago in the Late Pliocene . In 2019, Clarke and South African palaeoanthropologist Kathleen Kuman redated StW 573 to 3.67 million years ago, making it the oldest Australopithecus specimen from South Africa. They considered its antiquity further evidence of species distinction, drawing parallels with A. anamensis and A. afarensis from Middle Pliocene East Africa. Little foot

312-437: A failed state . Personal insolvency , development or sustaining of mental illness or severe physical incapacity without affordable domestic care commonly lead to a change of home. The underlying character of a home may be debased by structural defects , natural subsidence , neglect or soil contamination . Refugees are people who have fled their homes due to violence or persecution . They may seek temporary housing in

416-603: A gallery forest surrounded by more open grasslands or bushlands. South African australopithecine remains probably accumulated in caves due to predation by large carnivores (namely big cats ), and the Taung child appears to have been killed by a bird of prey . A. africanus probably went extinct due to major climatic variability and volatility and possibly competition with Homo and P. robustus . In 1924, Australian anatomist Professor Raymond Dart , since 1923 working in South-Africa,

520-413: A garage for vehicles or a shed for gardening equipment and tools. A house may have a backyard or a front yard or both, which serve as additional areas where inhabitants can relax or eat. Houses may provide "certain activities, which gradually accumulate meaning until they become homes". Joseph Rykwert distinguished between home and house in their physicality; a house requires a building whereas

624-478: A house or an apartment , mobile such as a houseboat , trailer or yurt or digital such as virtual space. The aspect of 'home' can be considered across scales; from the micro scale showcasing the most intimate spaces of the individual dwelling and direct surrounding area to the macro scale of the geographic area such as town , village , city , country or planet . The concept of 'home' has been researched and theorized across disciplines – topics ranging from

728-429: A house , ship , hospital or factory , such as cleaning , tidying/organizing, cooking , shopping , and bill payment. These tasks may be performed by members of the household , or by persons hired for the purpose . This is a more broad role than a cleaner , who is focused only on the cleaning aspect. The term is also used to refer to the money allocated for such use. By extension, it may also refer to an office or

832-456: A prognathic jaw (it jutted out), a somewhat dished face (the cheek were inflated, causing the nose to be at the bottom of a dip), and a defined brow ridge. The temporal lines running across either side of the braincase are raised as small crests. The canines are reduced in size compared to non-human apes, though still notably bigger than those of modern humans. Like other early hominins, the cheek teeth are large and feature thick enamel . In

936-456: A tropical savanna climate (Aw) with moderate to little rainfall from May to November and heavy rainfall from December to April. The following climate data is for the town of Lamongan. On 29 April 2013, Paciran Port (Class I ASDP) was officially opened to support the overloaded Tanjung Perak Port . Persela is a football team based in Lamongan. Former Persela Lamongan goalkeeper Choirul Huda

1040-554: A "symbol of the self", bound to the events of one's life. Emmanuel Levinas wrote of home as where, upon seclusion from the greater world, a sense of self can be regained. There exist many connotations regarding the concept of a home, including of security, identity, ritual and socialisation, varied definitions and residents may associate their home with meanings, emotions, experiences and relationships. Home has been described as an " essentially contested concept ". Common connotations of home are espoused by both those with or without

1144-525: A corporation, as well as the maintenance of computer storage systems. The basic concept can be divided into domestic housekeeping, for private households, and institutional housekeeping for commercial and other institutions providing shelter or lodging, such as hotels, resorts, inns, boarding houses, dormitories, hospitals and prisons. There are related concepts in industry known as workplace housekeeping and Industrial housekeeping, which are part of occupational health and safety processes. Housing tenure

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1248-548: A couple tens of kilometres according to Dart. The East African remains would be split off into A. afarensis in 1978. In 2008, palaeoanthropologist Ronald J. Clarke recommended reviving " A. prometheus " to house the StW 573 nearly-complete skeleton (" Little Foot "), StS 71 cranium, StW 505 cranium, StW 183 maxilla , StW 498 maxilla and jawbone, StW 384 jawbone, StS 1 palate , and MLD 2. In 2018, palaeoanthropologists Lee Rogers Berger and John D. Hawks considered " A. prometheus "

1352-417: A fixed or regular way." A person's conception of home can be dependent on congealing conditions, such as culture, geography or emotion; the sense of being at home may be contingent upon the presence of multiple emotions, such as joy, sorrow, nostalgia and pride. Further psychological interperation contends that homes serve the purpose of satisfying identity-based desires and expression and that it functions as

1456-486: A home does not. Home and house are often used interchangeably, although their connotations may differ: house being "emotionally neutral" and home evoking "personal, cognitive aspects". By the mid-18th century, the definition of home had extended beyond a house. "Few English words are filled with the emotional meaning of the word home". Home as constitutionally mobile and transient has been contended by anthropologists and sociologist. A mobile home (also known as

1560-421: A home. It is the sociality and action of homes which some scholars have said conditions a house in to a home, which is, according to Gram-Hanssen, "a phenomenon made by its residents". Dysfunctional sociality may negate the sense of a residence being a home whereas the physical contents may endow the sense; alienated from home one may feel "metaphorically homeless". Romantic or nostalgic notions are typical in

1664-461: A house is known as a household . Most commonly, a household is a family unit of some kind, although households may also be other social groups , such as roommates or, in a rooming house , unconnected individuals. Some houses only have a dwelling space for one family or similar-sized group; larger houses called townhouses or row houses may contain numerous family dwellings in the same structure. A house may be accompanied by outbuildings, such as

1768-639: A house outright, or it may be mortgaged . In the case of tenancy, the landlord may be a private individual, a non-profit organization such as a housing association , or a government body, as in public housing . Squatting is the action of occupying an abandoned or unoccupied area of land or a building, usually residential that the squatter does not own, rent or otherwise have lawful permission to use . The United Nations estimated in 2003 that there were one billion slum residents and squatters globally. Squatting occurs worldwide and tends to occur when people find empty buildings or land to occupy for housing. It has

1872-444: A house trailer, park home, trailer, or trailer home) is a prefabricated structure, built in a factory on a permanently attached chassis before being transported to site (either by being towed or on a trailer). Used as permanent homes, or for holiday or temporary accommodation, they are often left permanently or semi-permanently in one place, but can be moved, and may be required to move from time to time for legal reasons. A houseboat

1976-585: A human ancestor. In 1947, the most complete skull was discovered, STS 5 (" Mrs. Ples "). Wider acceptance of A. africanus prompted re-evaluation of Piltdown Man in 1953, revealing its falsehood. In 1949, Dart recommended splitting a presumed-female facial fragment from Makapansgat , South Africa, (MLD 2) into a new species as " A. prometheus ". In 1954, he referred another presumed-female specimen from Makapansgat (a jawbone fragment). However, in 1953, South African palaeontologist John Talbot Robinson believed that splitting species and genera on such fine hairs

2080-476: A limited capacity. The distinction between home and work formulated in the 20th century, with home acting as sanctuary. Modern definitions portray home as a site of supreme comfort and familial intimacy, operating as a buffer to the greater world. The concept of home is one with multiple interpretations, influenced by one's history and identity. People of differing ages, genders, ethnicities and classes may have resultingly different meanings of home. Commonly, it

2184-682: A long history, broken down by country below. In developing countries and least developed countries , shanty towns often begin as squatted settlements. In African cities such as Lagos much of the population lives in slums . There are pavement dwellers in India and in Hong Kong as well as rooftop slums . Informal settlements in Latin America are known by names such as villa miseria (Argentina), pueblos jóvenes (Peru) and asentamientos irregulares (Guatemala, Uruguay). In Brazil, there are favelas in

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2288-674: A new species, " A. transvaalensis ", and in 1938 moved it into a new genus as " Plesianthropus transvaalensis ". He also discovered the robust australopithecine Paranthropus robustus , showing evidence of a wide diversity of Early Pleistocene "man-apes". Before World War II , several more sites bore A. africanus fossils. A detailed monograph by Broom and palaeoanthropologist Gerrit Willem Hendrik Schepers in 1946 regarding these australopithecines from South Africa, as well as several papers by British palaeoanthropologist Sir Wilfrid Le Gros Clark , had turned around scientific opinion, garnering wide support for A. africanus ' classification as

2392-474: A non-rotational birth (unlike humans), though this is debated. When standing, the angle between the sacrum and the lumbar vertebrae was reconstructed to have been about 148.7°, which is much more similar to that of chimps (154.6°) than humans (118.3°). This would indicate A. africanus standing posture was not as erect as in humans. The A. africanus hand and arm exhibit a mosaic anatomy, with some aspects more similar to humans and others to non-human apes. It

2496-494: A range of 22.8–43.3 kg (50–95 lb) for weight based on 19 specimens. Based on seven specimens, McHenry estimated that males, on average, grew to 138 cm (4 ft 6 in) tall and females 125 cm (4 ft 1 in). In 2017, based on 24 specimens, anthropologist Manuel Will and colleagues estimated a height of 124.4 cm (4 ft 1 in) with a range of 110–142 cm (3 ft 7 in – 4 ft 8 in). The elderly, probably female StW 573

2600-454: A role. Scratches, gouges, and puncture marks on the Taung child similar to those inflicted by modern crowned eagles indicate this individual was killed by a bird of prey . Around 2.07 million years ago, just before the arrival of P. robustus and H. erectus , A. africanus became extinct in the Cradle of Humankind. It is possible that South Africa was a refuge for Australopithecus until

2704-407: A sample of ten A. africanus specimens, seven exhibited mild to moderate alveolar bone loss resulting from periodontal disease (the wearing away of the bone which supports the teeth due to gum disease). The juvenile specimen STS 24a was diagnosed with an extreme case of periodontal disease on the right side of the mouth, which caused pathological bone growth around the affected site, and movement of

2808-466: A series of caves near Krugersdorp and Mokopane in South Africa. The cave sites of Sterkfontein , Swartkrans , Kromdraai B, Drimolen , Malapa , Cooper's D, Gladysvale, Gondolin and Makapansgat have yielded a range of early human species dating back to between three and one million years ago, including Australopithecus africanus , Australopithecus sediba and Paranthropus robustus . However, it

2912-433: A shelter or they may claim asylum in another country in an attempt to relocate permanently. A dysfunctional home life commonly precipitates one's homelessness. The dichotomy between home and homelessness is to the extent that the concept of home, scholars have said, is dependent on homelessness: "in a sense, without homelessness, we would not be concerned with what home means". The connection between humans and dwelling

3016-437: A significant element in one's appraisal of their life, a time in which notions of home, it has been observed, are more profound. The connection between home and family is pertinent, to the extent that some scholars consider the terms to be synonymous. Australopithecus africanus Australopithecus africanus is an extinct species of australopithecine which lived between about 3.3 and 2.1 million years ago in

3120-486: A small brain size yet was, as shown by the position of the foramen magnum , bipedal . Dart, after hastily freeing the fossil from its matrix, already in January 1925 named the specimen as a new genus and species: Australopithecus africanus . At the time of discovery, great apes were classified into the family Pongidae encompassing all non-human fossil apes, and Hominidae encompassing humans and ancestors. Dart felt

3224-418: A team including Clarke and Kuman used cosmogenic nuclide techniques to date Member 4 at 3.4 million years, which it says discredits the assumption that A. africanus descended from A. afarensis . However, given the wide range of variation exhibited by these specimens, it is debated if all these elements can be confidently assigned to only A. africanus . At present, the classification of australopithecines

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3328-555: Is PP13B at Pinnacle Point . This may have allowed rapid expansion of humans out of Africa and colonization of areas of the world such as Australia by 60–50,000 years ago. Throughout southern Africa, Australia, and Europe, early modern humans used caves and rock shelters as sites for rock art, such as those at Giants Castle . Caves such as the yaodong in China were used for shelter; other caves were used for burials (such as rock-cut tombs ), or as religious sites (such as Buddhist caves ). Among

3432-743: Is a boat that has been designed or modified to be used primarily as a home. Some houseboats are not motorized, because they are usually moored , kept stationary at a fixed point and often tethered to land to provide utilities. However, many are capable of operation under their own power. Float house is a Canadian and American term for a house on a float (raft); a rough house may be called a shanty boat. In Western countries, houseboats tend to be either owned privately or rented out to holiday-goers, and on some canals in Europe, people dwell in houseboats all year round. Examples of this include, but are not limited to, Amsterdam, London, and Paris. A traditional yurt or ger

3536-514: Is a collective historical identity, such as Gettysburg or Ground Zero . The time spent with one's home is a considerable element in establishing one's attachment. Those without significant time spent of their life in a residence often struggle to consider home as a feature of residences. The perception of one's home can extend beyond the residence itself, to their neighbourhood, family, workplace or nation and one may feel as though they have multiple homes; to have felt at home beyond residence can be

3640-406: Is a financial arrangement and ownership structure under which someone has the right to live in a house or apartment . The most frequent forms are tenancy , in which rent is paid by the occupant to a landlord , and owner-occupancy , where the occupant owns their own home. Mixed forms of tenure are also possible. The basic forms of tenure can be subdivided, for example an owner-occupier may own

3744-537: Is a legal entity which owns real estate consisting of one or more residential buildings. The entity is usually a cooperative or a corporation and constitutes a form of housing tenure . Typically housing cooperatives are owned by shareholders but in some cases they can be owned by a non-profit organization. They are a distinctive form of home ownership that have many characteristics that differ from other residential arrangements such as single family home ownership, condominiums and renting . Home repair involves

3848-430: Is a portable round tent covered with skins or felt and used as a dwelling by several distinct nomadic groups in the steppes of Central Asia . The structure consists of an angled assembly or latticework of wood or bamboo for walls, a door frame, ribs (poles, rafters), and a wheel (crown, compression ring) possibly steam-bent. The roof structure is often self-supporting, but large yurts may have interior posts supporting

3952-471: Is associated with various forms of abodes such as wagons, cars, boats or tents although it is equally considered to extend beyond the space, in mind and emotion. The space of a home need not be significant or fixed though the boundaries of home are often tied to the space. There have been multiple theories regarding one's choice of home with the residential conditions of their childhood often reflected in their later choice of home. According to Paul Oliver ,

4056-618: Is caused by seasonal famine when a child has to rely on nursing to sustain themselves and less desirable fallback foods. However, it is unclear if this can be extended to A. africanus . The group dynamics of australopithecines is difficult to predict with any degree of accuracy. A 2011 strontium isotope study of A. africanus teeth from the dolomite Sterkfontein Valley found that, assuming that especially small teeth represented female specimens and especially large teeth males, females were more likely to leave their place of birth ( patrilocal ). This

4160-522: Is controversially suggested that it and similar specimens be split off into " A. prometheus ". A. africanus brain volume was about 420–510 cc (26–31 cu in). Like other early hominins, the cheek teeth were enlarged and had thick enamel . Male skulls may have been more robust than female skulls. Males may have been on average 140 cm (4 ft 7 in) in height and 40 kg (88 lb) in weight, and females 125 cm (4 ft 1 in) and 30 kg (66 lb). A. africanus

4264-526: Is in disarray. Australopithecus is considered a grade taxon , whose members are united by their similar physiology rather than close relations with each other over other hominin genera. It is unclear how A. africanus relates to other hominins. The discovery of Early Pleistocene Homo in Africa during the latter half of the 20th century placed humanity's origins on the continent and A. africanus as ancestral to Homo . The discovery of A. afarensis in 1978, at

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4368-434: Is more similar to non-human apes and indicates greater mobility to swivel up and down than in humans. Such motion is important for arboreal species to locate and focus on climbable surfaces. The StW 573 atlas shows similar mechanical advantages for the muscles which move the shoulder girdle as chimps and gorillas , which may indicate less lordosis (normal curvature of the spine) in A. africanus neck vertebrae. However,

4472-415: Is not associated with any tools. A. africanus conspicuously lacks evidence of dental cavities , whereas P. robustus seems to have had a modern humanlike cavity rate; this could possibly indicate that A. africanus either did not often consume high-sugar cavity-causing foods—such as fruit, honey, and some nuts and seeds—or frequently consumed gritty foods which decrease cavity incidence rate. However,

4576-463: Is not generally thought that these early humans were living in the caves, but that they were brought into the caves by carnivores that had killed them. The first early hominid ever found in Africa, the Taung Child in 1924, was also thought for many years to come from a cave, where it had been deposited after being preyed upon by an eagle. However, this is now debated. Caves do form in the dolomite of

4680-509: Is profound, such that, the likes of Gaston Bachelard and Martin Heidegger consider it an "essential characteristic" of humanity. A home is generally a place that is close to the heart of the owner, and can become a prized possession. It has been argued that psychologically "The strongest sense of home commonly coincides geographically with a dwelling. Usually, the sense of home attenuates as one moves away from that point, but it does not do so in

4784-558: Is similar to the dispersal patterns of modern-day hominins which have a multi-male kinship-based society, as opposed to the harem society of gorillas and other primates. However, the small canines of males compared to those of females would seem to suggest a much lower degree of male–male aggression than non-human hominins. Males did not seem to have ventured very far from the valley, which could either indicate small home ranges, or that they preferred dolomitic landscapes due to perhaps cave abundance or factors related to vegetation growth. In

4888-628: Is the most complete early hominin skeleton ever recovered, with about 90% preserved. In addition to Taung, Sterkfontein, and Makapansgat, A. africanus was in 1992 discovered in Gladysvale Cave. The latter three are in the Cradle of Humankind . Many hominin specimens traditionally assigned to A. africanus have been recovered from Sterkfontein Member 4 (including Mrs. Ples and 2 partial skeletons), previously dated to 2.8 to 2.15 million years ago. But in 2022

4992-527: Is the result of popular media and capitalist interest. Differing cultures may perceive the concept of a home differently, ascribing less value to the privacy of a residence or the residence itself – although housing issues have been seen as of great concern to immigrants. The home can render to men and women in significant differences: men conditioned to experience great control and little labour and vice versa for women; homelessness too can be subject to differences per gender. Sociologist Shelley Mallett preposed

5096-635: Is typically attributed to moderate to high levels of sexual dimorphism in that males were more robust than females. In 1992, American anthropologist Henry McHenry estimated an average weight (when assuming humanlike or apelike body proportions, respectively) of 40.8 or 52.8 kg (90 or 116 lb) for males based on five partial leg specimens, and 30.2 or 36.8 kg (67 or 81 lb) for females based on seven specimens. In 2015, American anthropologist William L. Jungers and colleagues similarly reported an average weight (without attempting to distinguish males from females) of 30.7 kg (68 lb) with

5200-406: Is unclear if this means australopiths were still arboreal to a degree, or if these traits were simply inherited from the human–chimpanzee last common ancestor . Nonetheless, A. africanus exhibits a more ape-like upper limb anatomy than A. afarensis , and is typically interpreted as having been, to some extent, arboreal. Like in arboreal primates, the fingers are curved, the arms relatively long and

5304-457: The Congolian rainforests , so its presence could potentially mean the area was an extension of this rainforest. The wildlife assemblages indicate a mix of habitats such as bush savanna , open woodland , or grassland. The shrub Anastrabe integerrima was also found, which today only grows on the wetter South African coastline. This could indicate the Cradle of Humankind received more rainfall in

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5408-655: The Ghaap Plateau , including the Early, Middle and Later Stone Age site of Wonderwerk Cave ; however, the caves that form along the escarpment's edge, like that hypothesized for the Taung Child, are formed within a secondary limestone deposit called tufa . There is numerous evidence for other early human species inhabiting caves from at least one million years ago in different parts of the world, including Homo erectus in China at Zhoukoudian , Homo rhodesiensis in South Africa at

5512-450: The Late Pliocene to Early Pleistocene of South Africa . The species has been recovered from Taung , Sterkfontein , Makapansgat , and Gladysvale . The first specimen, the Taung child , was described by anatomist Raymond Dart in 1924, and was the first early hominin found. However, its closer relations to humans than to other apes would not become widely accepted until the middle of

5616-412: The long bones , teeth, and horns of large hoofed prey: On this thesis man's predecessors differed from living apes in being confirmed killers: carnivorous creatures, that seized living quarries by violence, battered them to death, tore apart their broken bodies, dismembered them limb from limb, slaking their ravenous thirst with the hot blood of victims and greedily devouring livid writhing flesh. Broom

5720-601: The 2010 Census and the 2020 Census, together with the official estimates as of mid-2023. The table also includes the locations of the district administrative centres, the number of administrative villages in each district (totaling 462 rural desa and 12 urban kelurahan ), and their postal codes. Notes: (a) includes 2 kelurahan (Babat and Banaran). (b) comprises 8 kelurahan (Banjarmendalan, Jetis, Sidoharjo, Sidokumpul, Sukomulyo, Sukorejo, Tlogoanyar and Tumenggungan) and 12 desa . (c) including one kelurahan (Blimbing). (d) including one kelurahan (Brondong). Lamongan has

5824-459: The 2nd right permanent incisor (STW 270) and right canine (STW 213) from the same individual show lesions consistent with acid erosion , which indicates this individual was regularly biting into acidic foods such as citrus. Tubers could have caused the same damage if some chewing was done by the front teeth. Barium continually deposits onto A. africanus teeth until about 6–9 months of development, and then decreases until about 12 months. Because

5928-560: The Cave of Hearths ( Makapansgat ), Homo neanderthalensis and Homo heidelbergensis in Europe at Archaeological Site of Atapuerca , Homo floresiensis in Indonesia, and the Denisovans in southern Siberia. In southern Africa, early modern humans regularly used sea caves as shelter starting about 180,000 years ago when they learned to exploit the sea for the first time. The oldest known site

6032-550: The Cradle of Humankind, perhaps contemporaneously. A. sediba is also postulated to have been ancestral to Homo , which if correct would indeed put A. africanus in an ancestral position to Homo . Based on 4 specimens, the A. africanus brain volume averaged about 420–510 cc (26–31 cu in). Based on this, neonatal brain size was estimated to have been 165.5–190 cc (10.10–11.59 cu in) using trends seen in adult and neonate brain size in modern primates. If correct, this would indicate that A. africanus

6136-907: The Plio-Pleistocene. In total, the Cradle of Humankind may have featured gallery forests surrounded by grasslands. Taung also appears to have featured a wet, closed environment. Australopithecines and early Homo likely preferred cooler conditions than later Homo , as there are no australopithecine sites that were below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in elevation at the time of deposition. This would mean that, like chimps, they often inhabited areas with an average diurnal temperature of 25 °C (77 °F), dropping to 10 or 5 °C (50 or 41 °F) at night. In 1983, studying P. robustus remains, South African palaeontologist Charles Kimberlin Brain hypothesised that australopithecine bones accumulated in caves due to large carnivore activity, dragging in carcasses. He

6240-431: The Solo River comprise lowlands of limited fertility (Kembangbahu, Sugio, Kedungpring, Babat, Pucuk, Sukadadi, Lamongan, Tikung, Sarirejo and Deket Districts). Lamongan Regency is bordered by: The economy is mainly supported by agriculture, fishery, and commerce, especially the home industry. Lamongan Regency consists of twenty-seven districts ( kecamatan ), tabulated below with their areas and population totals from

6344-429: The Taung child as the transitional stage between apes and humans was at odds with the-then popular model of human evolution which held that large brain size and humanlike characteristics had developed rather early on, and that large brain size evolved before bipedalism. Resultantly, A. africanus was generally cast aside as a member of the gorilla or chimpanzee lineages, most notably by Sir Arthur Keith . This view

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6448-509: The Taung child fit into neither, and erected the family "Homo-simiadæ" ("man-apes"). This family name was soon abandoned, and Dart proposed "Australopithecidae" in 1929. In 1933, South African palaeoanthropologist Robert Broom suggested moving A. africanus into Hominidae, which at the time contained only humans and their ancestors. A. africanus was the first evidence that humans evolved in Africa, as Charles Darwin had postulated in his 1871 The Descent of Man . However, Dart's claim of

6552-441: The arm was 86.9% the length of the leg. She is the first and only early hominin specimen to definitively show that the arms were almost all long as the legs. Nonetheless, these proportion are more similar to humans than non-human apes, with humans at 64.5–78%, chimpanzees about 100%, gorillas 100–125%, and orangutans 135–150.9%. In 1954, Robinson proposed that A. africanus was a generalist omnivore whereas P. robustus

6656-624: The barium was most likely sourced from breast milk, this probably reflects the weaning age. This is comparable to the human weaning age. Following this initial period, barium deposits stall and then restart cyclically every year for several years. In the first molar specimen StS 28 (from Sterkfontein), this occurred every 6–9 months, and in the lower canine specimen StS 51 every 4–6 months, and this carried on until 4–5 years of development. Lithium and strontium also deposit cyclically. Cyclical barium, lithium, and strontium bands occur in modern primates—for example, wild orangutans up to 9 years of age—which

6760-482: The brachial index (the forearm to humerus ratio) is 82.8–86.2 (midway between chimpanzees and humans), which indicates a reduction in forearm length from the more ancient hominin Ardipithecus ramidus . The thumb and wrist indicate humanlike functionality with a precision grip and forceful opposition between the thumb and fingers. The adoption of such a grip is typically interpreted as an adaptation for tool making at

6864-418: The century because most had believed humans evolved outside of Africa. It is unclear how A. africanus relates to other hominins, being variously placed as ancestral to Homo and Paranthropus , to just Paranthropus , or to just P. robustus . The specimen " Little Foot " is the most completely preserved early hominin, with 90% of the skeleton intact, and the oldest South African australopith. However, it

6968-418: The concept with the bourgeoisie . The connection between home and house was reinforced by a case law declaration from Edward Coke : "The house of everyman is to him as his castle and fortress, as well as his defense against injury and violence, as for his repose". Colloquially, this was adapted into the phrase "The Englishman's home is his castle" which popularised the notion of home as house. A result of

7072-479: The conceptions of "ideal homes", at once a cultural and individual concept. An ideal working-class home in Postwar Britain was one of comfort and cleanliness, plentiful with food and compassion. In modern America, an owned house has greater cachet as a home than other residences; debate exists as to if a rooming house can provide a home. Some housing scholars have contended that a conflation of house and home

7176-413: The crown. The top of the wall of self-supporting yurts is prevented from spreading by means of a tension band which opposes the force of the roof ribs. Modern yurts may be permanently built on a wooden platform; they may use modern materials such as steam-bent wooden framing or metal framing, canvas or tarpaulin, plexiglass dome, wire rope, or radiant insulation . A housing cooperative , or housing co-op,

7280-518: The diagnosis and resolution of problems in a home, and is related to home maintenance to avoid such problems. Many types of repairs are " do it yourself " (DIY) projects, while others may be so complicated, time-consuming or risky as to require the assistance of a qualified handyperson , property manager , contractor /builder, or other professionals . Housekeeping is the management and routine support activities of running and maintaining an organized physical institution occupied or used by people, like

7384-454: The expense of efficient climbing and arboreal habitation. The leg bones clearly show that A. africanus habitually engaged in bipedal locomotion, though some aspects of the tibiae are apelike, which could indicate that the leg musculature had not been fully reorganised into the human condition. If correct, its functional implications are unclear. The trabecular bone at the hip joint is distinctly humanlike, which would be inconsistent with

7488-469: The female spine to aid in walking upright while pregnant. The StS 14 partial skeleton preserves a rather complete pelvis . Like in the restored pelvis of the Lucy specimen ( A. afarensis ), the sacrum was relatively flat and orientated more towards the back than in humans, and the pelvic cavity had an overall platypelloid shape. This could indicate a broad birth canal compared to neonate head size, and thus

7592-473: The first two right molars during cyclical periods of bacterial infection and resultant inflammation. Similarly, the individual appears to have preferred to chew using the left side of the jaw. The periodontal disease would have severely hindered chewing, particularly in the last year of life, and the individual potentially may have relied on group members to survive for as long as it did. In 1992, anthropologists Geoffrey Raymond Fisk and Gabriele Macho interpreted

7696-408: The food chain. Nonetheless, the species had a highly variable diet, making it a generalist . It may have eaten lower quality, harder foods, such as nuts, in leaner times. To survive, children may have needed nursing during such periods until reaching perhaps 4 to 5 years of age. The species appears to have been patrifocal , with females more likely to leave the group than males. A. africanus lived in

7800-509: The fossilisation process. Calcaneal fractures have been recorded in humans, and are present quite often in arboreal primates. South African australopithecines appear to have lived in an area with a wide range of habitats. At Sterkfontein, fossil wood belonging to the liana Dichapetalum cf. mombuttense was recovered. The only living member of this tree genus in South Africa is Dichapetalum cymosum , which grows in dense, humid gallery forests . In modern day, D. mombuttense only grows in

7904-401: The great degrees of hip loading required in prolonged arboreal activity. The tibia met the foot at a similar angle as it does in humans, which is necessary for habitual bipedalism. Consequently, the ankle was not as adept for climbing activities as it is in non-human apes. However, the modern Congo Twa hunter–gatherers can achieve a chimp-like angle with the ankle while climbing trees due to

8008-467: The home as the center of and as an attempt to amalgamate everyday life; one's conduct there, she said, can reflect greater culture or social values, such as gender roles insinuating the home to be the domain of women. To be homesick is to desire belonging , said Zygmunt Bauman . Places like homes can trigger self-reflection, thoughts about who someone is or used to be or who they might become. These types of reflections also occur in places where there

8112-405: The idea of home as abstractions: space, feeling, praxis or "a way of being in the world". Abstract notions of home are present in the proverb "A house is not a home". Since it can be said that humans are generally creatures of habit , the state of a person's home has been known to physiologically influence their behavior , emotions , and overall mental health . Marianne Gullestad wrote of

8216-528: The idea of home, the interior, the psyche, liminal space, contested space to gender and politics. The home as a concept expands beyond residence as contemporary lifestyles and technological advances redefine the way the global population lives and works. The concept and experience encompasses the likes of exile , yearning, belonging , homesickness and homelessness. The earliest homes that humans inhabited were likely naturally occurring features such as caves . The earliest human fossils found in caves come from

8320-404: The known sacred caves are China's Cave of a Thousand Buddhas and the sacred caves of Crete . As technology progressed, humans and other hominids began constructing their own dwellings. Buildings such as huts and longhouses have been used for living since the late Neolithic . From the 14th to the 16th century, homelessness was perceived of as a "vagrancy problem" and legislative responses to

8424-477: The later StW 679 has some similarities to human atlases, which could potentially indicate gradual evolution away from the ape condition. StW 573 has a narrow thoracic inlet unlike A. afarensis and humans. The clavicle is proportionally quite long, with a similar absolute length to that of modern humans. Like in modern women, L3–L5 curve outwards in specimen StS 14, whereas these are straighter in StW 431 as in modern men. This probably reflects reinforcement of

8528-442: The left ankle bone Stw 363 as bearing evidence of a healed calcaneal fracture on the heel bone (which was not preserved), which they believed resulted from a fall from a tree. If correct, then the individual was able to survive for a long time despite losing a great deal of function in the left leg. However, they also noted that similar damage could potentially have also been inflicted by calcite deposition and crystallisation during

8632-420: The longer fibres in the gastrocnemius (calf) muscle instead of specific skeletal adaptations. Some aspects of the ankle bone were apelike which may have affected walking efficiency. The foot elements of A. africanus are largely known from remains from Sterkfontein Member 4. The foot is humanlike with a stiff midfoot and lack of a midtarsal break (which allows non-human apes to lift the heel independently from

8736-425: The longstanding association between home and women, 18th century English women, of upper-class status, were scorned for pursuing activities outside of the home, thus seen to be of undesirable character. The concept of home took on unprecedent prominence by the 18th century, reified by cultural practice. The concept of a smart home arose in the 19th century in turn with electricity having been introduced to homes in

8840-637: The major cities and rural land-based movements. The state of being without a home can occur in many ways, ranging from the upheavals of natural disasters , fraud, theft, arson , or war-related destruction, to the more common voluntary sale, loss for one or more occupants on relationship breakdown, expropriation by government or legislated cause, repossession or foreclosure to pay secured debts, eviction by landlords , disposal by time-limited means – lease , or absolute gift. Jurisdiction-dependent means of home loss include adverse possession , unpaid property taxation and corruption such as in circumstances of

8944-481: The premolars, useful for eating small, hard objects such as seeds and nuts that need to be cracked open by the teeth, or for processing a large quantity of food at one time. However, like for P. robustus , microwear analysis on the cheek teeth indicate small, hard foods were infrequently eaten, probably as fall back foods during leaner times. Still, A. africanus , like chimps, may have required hammerstones to crack open nuts (such as marula nuts), though A. africanus

9048-563: The problem were predicated upon the threat it may pose to the state. According to Kirsten Gram-Hanssen , "It can be argued that historically and cross-culturally there is not always [a] strong relation between the concept of home and the physical building, and that this mode of thinking is rooted in the Enlightenment of the seventeenth century". Before, one's home was more public than private; traits such as privacy, intimacy and familiarity would proceed to achieve greater prominence, aligning

9152-535: The rest of the foot). Though A. africanus had an adducted big toe (it was not dextrous) like humans, A. africanus likely did not push off with the big toe, using the side of the foot instead. StW 573 is the oldest hominin specimen with an adducted big toe. The specimen StW 355 is the most curved proximal foot phalanx bone of any known hominin, more similar to that of orangutans and siamangs . The arms of StW 573 were about 53.4 cm (1 ft 9 in), and her legs 61.5 cm (2 ft 0 in). This means

9256-498: The shoulders are in a shrugging position. The A. africanus shoulder is most like that of orangutans , and well suited for maintaining stability and bearing weight while raised and placed overhead. However, the right clavicle of StW 573 has a distinctly S-shaped (sigmoid) curve like humans, which indicates a humanlike moment arm for stabilising the shoulder girdle against the humerus . The A. africanus arm bones are consistent with powerful muscles useful in climbing. Nonetheless,

9360-459: The time Broken Hill, Northern Rhodesia ) discovered in 1921, he asked his colleague to send him some primate remains from the quarry. On 24 November 1924, Dart received two boxes with fossils collected by De Bruyn. In them, he noticed a natural brain endocast and a face of a, now known to be 2.8 million year old, juvenile skull, the Taung child , that he immediately recognised as a transitional fossil between apes and humans. Most notably, it had

9464-561: The time the oldest known hominin, prompted a hypothesis that A. africanus was ancestral to P. robustus , and A. afarensis was the last common ancestor between Homo and A. africanus / P. robustus . It is also suggested that A. africanus is closely related to P. robustus but not to the other Paranthropus species in East Africa, or that A. africanus is ancestral to all Paranthropus . A. africanus has also been postulated to have been ancestral to A. sediba which also inhabited

9568-449: The upper jaw the third molar is the largest molar, and in the lower jaw it is the second molar. A. africanus had a fast, apelike dental development rate. According to Clarke, the older " A. prometheus " is distinguished by larger and more bulbous cheek teeth, larger incisors and canines, more projecting cheeks, more widely spaced eye sockets , and a sagittal crest . A. africanus has a wide range of variation for skull features, which

9672-408: The vast majority of abodes are vernacular , constructed in accordance with the residents' needs. A house is a single-unit residential building . It may range in complexity from a rudimentary hut to a complex structure of wood , masonry , concrete or other material, outfitted with plumbing , electrical, and heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems. The social unit that lives in

9776-652: Was a competent biped , albeit less efficient at walking than humans. A. africanus also had several upper body traits in common with arboreal non-human apes. This is variously interpreted as either evidence of a partially or fully arboreal lifestyle, or as a non-functional vestige from a more apelike ancestor. The upper body of A. africanus is more apelike than that of the East African A. afarensis . A. africanus , unlike most other primates, seems to have exploited C4 foods such as grasses, seeds, rhizomes , underground storage organs , or potentially creatures higher up on

9880-677: Was a specialised herbivore; and in 1981, American palaeoanthropologist Frederick E. Grine suggested that P. robustus specialised on hard foods such as nuts whereas A. africanus on softer foods such as fruits and leaves. Based on carbon isotope analyses , A. africanus had a highly variable diet which included a notable amount of C4 savanna plants such as grasses, seeds, rhizomes , underground storage organs , or perhaps grass-eating invertebrates (such as locusts or termites ), grazing mammals, or insectivores or carnivores. Most primates do not eat C4 plants. A. africanus facial anatomy seems to suggest adaptations for producing high stress on

9984-450: Was born with about 38% of its total brain size, which is more similar to non-human great apes at 40% than humans at 30%. The inner ear has wide semicircular canals like non-human apes, as well as loose turns at the terminal end of the cochlea like humans. Such a mix may reflect habitual locomotion both in the trees and walking while upright because inner ear anatomy affects the vestibular system (sense of balance). A. africanus had

10088-401: Was estimated to have stood about 130 cm (4 ft 3 in). Based on the A. afarensis skeleton DIK-1-1 , australopiths are thought to have had a humanlike spine, with 7 neck vertebrae , 12 thoracic vertebrae , and (based on other early australopith skeletons) 5 flexible lumbar vertebrae . In StW 573, the atlas bone in the neck, important for swiveling and stabilising the head,

10192-462: Was far removed from chimpanzees, showing several physical and claiming some behavioural similarities with humans. To this extent, Dart made note of the amalgamations of large mammal bone fragments in australopithecine-bearing caves which are now attributed to hyena activity. However, Dart proposed that the bones were instead evidence of what he named the " osteodontokeratic culture " produced by australopithecine hunters, who manufactured weapons using

10296-588: Was from Lamongan. Home A home , or domicile , is a space used as a permanent or semi-permanent residence for one or more human occupants, and sometimes various companion animals . It is a fully- or semi-sheltered space and can have both interior and exterior aspects to it. Homes provide sheltered spaces, for instance rooms , where domestic activity can be performed such as sleeping, preparing food, eating and hygiene as well as providing spaces for work and leisure such as remote working, studying and playing. Physical forms of homes can be static such as

10400-504: Was informed by one of his students, Josephine Salmons, that monkey fossils (of Papio izodi ) had been discovered by shotfirer M.G. de Bruyn in a limestone quarry in Taung , South Africa, operated by the Northern Lime Company. Knowing that Scottish geologist Professor Robert Burns Young was at the time carrying out excavations in the area in search of archaic human remains like Homo rhodesiensis from Kabwe , Zambia (at

10504-518: Was one of the few scientists defending the close human affinities of Australopithecus africanus . In 1936, he was informed by two of Dart's students, Trevor R. Jones and G. Schepers, that human-like remains had been discovered in the Sterkfontein Cave quarries. On 9 August 1936, he asked G.W. Barlow to provide him with any finds. On 17 August 1936 he received an adult skull including a natural endocast, specimen Sts 60. However, Broom classified it as

10608-449: Was perpetuated by Charles Dawson 's 1912 hoax Piltdown Man hailing from Britain. Further, the discovery of the humanlike Peking Man ( Homo erectus pekinensis ) in China also seemed to place the origins of humankind outside of Africa. Humanlike characteristics of the Taung child were attributed to the specimen's juvenile status, meaning they would disappear with maturity. Nonetheless, Dart and Broom continued to argue that Australopithecus

10712-412: Was unjustified, and that australopithecine remains from East Africa recovered over the previous couple of decades were indistinguishable from " Plesianthropus "/ A. africanus . Based on this, in 1955, Dart agreed with synonymising " A. prometheus " with A. africanus because they are already quite similar to each other, and if speciation did not occur across a continent, then it quite unlikely occurred over

10816-648: Was unsure if these predators actively sought them out and brought them back to the cave den to eat, or inhabited deeper recesses of caves and ambushed them when they entered. Baboons in this region modern day often shelter in sinkholes especially on cold winter nights, though Brain proposed that australopithecines seasonally migrated out of the Highveld and into the warmer Bushveld , only taking up cave shelters in spring and autumn. The A. africanus fossils from Sterkfontein Member 4 were likely accumulated by big cats , though hunting hyenas and jackals may have also played

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