Keilaniemi ( Finnish pronunciation: [ˈkei̯lɑˌnie̯mi] ; Swedish : Kägeludden ; ; lit. ' pin cape ' ) is a district in the south-eastern part of Espoo , Finland .
180-666: Keilaniemi is bordered by the university district of Otaniemi to the north, the commercial/residential district of Tapiola to the west, the Keilalahti bay separating Espoo and Helsinki to the east, and the Gulf of Finland to the south. The distance from Keilaniemi to the centre of Helsinki along the Länsiväylä highway is about 8 km. There are numerous islands and islets in Keilaniemi, including Fröknarna and Leppäluoto . Keilaniemi
360-664: A Russian people desiring modernisation. The Tsar's power was transferred to the State Duma (Russian Parliament) and the left-leaning Provisional Government , but this new authority was challenged by the Petrograd Soviet (city council), leading to dual power in the country. In Finland, mass meetings and local strikes of early 1917 escalated to a general strike in support of the Finnish state's power struggle and for increased availability of foodstuffs. The Second Period of Russification
540-438: A board of trustees; a president, chancellor , or rector ; at least one vice president, vice-chancellor, or vice-rector; and deans of various divisions. Universities are generally divided into a number of academic departments, schools or faculties . Public university systems are ruled over by government-run higher education boards . They review financial requests and budget proposals and then allocate funds for each university in
720-521: A boulevard and reuse of the coast as a public space. Keilaniemi belongs to the district of Otaniemi . The medieval village of Otaniemi, consisting of Keilaniemi, the current area of Tapiola and Westend , originally belonged to the lands of the Hagalund manor . Over time, the manor has been owned by the von Wright, von Numers, Sinebrychoff and Grahn families. The ownership of the Sinebrychoff family from
900-490: A broader consideration within a global context. Although there are antecedents, the modern university is generally regarded as a formal institution that has its origin in the Medieval Christian tradition. European higher education took place for hundreds of years in cathedral schools or monastic schools ( scholae monasticae ), in which monks and nuns taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of
1080-467: A bus connection via Leppävaara to western Vantaa . The terminus of the Jokeri light rail will be built in Keilaniemi. Construction of the light rail was started in 2019 and it is projected to open for traffic in 2024. There is also a small boat harbour in Keilaniemi. Immediately south of Keilaniemi proper, there is the small peninsula of Karhusaari, where a 19th-century mansion, the Sinebrychoff mansion,
1260-404: A certain field (e.g. music, fine arts, business). They might or might not have the power to award PhD degrees, depending on the respective government legislation. If they award PhD degrees, their rank is considered equivalent to that of universities proper (Universität), if not, their rank is equivalent to universities of applied sciences. Colloquially, the term university may be used to describe
1440-559: A climax in 1917. The "Law of Supreme Power" incorporated a plan by the socialists to substantially increase the authority of Parliament, as a reaction to the non-parliamentary and conservative leadership of the Finnish Senate between 1906 and 1916. The bill furthered Finnish autonomy in domestic affairs: the Russian Provisional Government was only allowed the right to control Finnish foreign and military policies. The Act
1620-502: A consequence, export to the free market of the Petrograd area increased. Food supply, prices and, in the end, the fear of starvation became emotional political issues between farmers and urban workers, especially those who were unemployed. Common people, their fears exploited by politicians and an incendiary, polarised political media, took to the streets. Despite the food shortages, no actual large-scale starvation hit southern Finland before
1800-755: A contest for leadership of the Finnish state during the ten years before the collapse of the Russian Empire. The main factor behind the Finnish Civil War was a political crisis arising out of World War I. Under the pressures of the Great War, the Russian Empire collapsed, leading to the February and October Revolutions in 1917. This breakdown caused a power vacuum and a subsequent struggle for power in Eastern Europe . The Grand Duchy of Finland became embroiled in
1980-475: A domestic policy that tackled social problems and responded to the demand for democracy . This was a reaction to the domestic dispute, ongoing since the 1880s, between the Finnish nobility- bourgeoisie and the labour movement concerning voting rights for the common people. Despite their obligations as obedient, peaceful and non-political inhabitants of the Grand Duchy (who had, only a few decades earlier, accepted
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#17328552481132160-556: A higher education institution which is similar to the former polytechnics in the British education system, the English term used for these German institutions is usually 'university of applied sciences'. They can confer master's degrees but no PhDs. They are similar to the model of teaching universities with less research and the research undertaken being highly practical. Hochschule can refer to various kinds of institutions, often specialised in
2340-533: A historic opportunity to gain national independence. After the October Revolution, the conservatives were eager for secession from Russia in order to control the left and minimise the influence of the Bolsheviks. The socialists were skeptical about sovereignty under conservative rule, but they feared a loss of support among nationalistic workers, particularly after having promised increased national liberty through
2520-410: A law school teaching the ius gentium or Roman law of peoples which was in demand across Europe for those defending the right of incipient nations against empire and church. The University of Bologna, or Alma Mater Studiorum , is widely recognized as the oldest university that is independent of any direct authority, such as kings, emperors, or religious organizations. Bologna's claim to being
2700-514: A long-term culture of moderate politics and religion and a post-war economic recovery. The war has been assigned several designations according to different political and ideological viewpoints. War of Independence ( Finnish : vapaussota ) was used during the war by both sides to express the fight for liberation from capitalism for the Reds and freedom from Soviet Russian influence by the Whites; Civil War
2880-584: A more equal and laic higher education system. Universities created by bilateral or multilateral treaties between states are intergovernmental . An example is the Academy of European Law , which offers training in European law to lawyers, judges, barristers, solicitors, in-house counsel and academics. EUCLID (Pôle Universitaire Euclide, Euclid University) is chartered as a university and umbrella organization dedicated to sustainable development in signatory countries, and
3060-404: A narrow majority to start a revolution on 16 November, but the uprising had to be called off the same day due to the lack of active revolutionaries to execute it. At the end of November 1917, the moderate socialists among the social democrats won a second vote over the radicals in a debate over revolutionary versus parliamentary means, but when they tried to pass a resolution to completely abandon
3240-507: A period called Pax Russica , the peripheral authority of the Finns gradually increased, and relations between Russian Empire and Grand Duchy of Finland were exceptionally peaceful for a many years. Russia's defeat in the Crimean War in the 1850s led to attempts to speed up the modernisation of the country. This caused more than 50 years of economic, industrial, cultural and educational progress in
3420-823: A phase in one's life: "When I was at university..." (in the United States and Ireland, college is often used instead: "When I was in college..."). In Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, Nigeria, the Netherlands, Spain and the German-speaking countries , university is often contracted to uni . In Ghana, New Zealand, Bangladesh and in South Africa it is sometimes called "varsity" (although this has become uncommon in New Zealand in recent years). "Varsity"
3600-613: A policy of integration through the Russification of Finland . The strengthened, pan-slavist central power tried to unite the "Russian Multinational Dynastic Union" as the military and strategic situation of Russia became more perilous due to the rise of Germany and Japan . Finns called the increased military and administrative control, "the First Period of Oppression", and for the first time Finnish politicians drew up plans for disengagement from Russia or full sovereignty for Finland. In
3780-431: A power struggle and social disintegration interacted. The collapse of Russia induced a chain reaction of disintegration, starting from the government, military and economy, and spreading to all fields of society, such as local administration, workplaces and to individual citizens. The social democrats wanted to retain the civil rights already achieved and to increase the socialists' power over society. The conservatives feared
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#17328552481133960-572: A result, Svinhufvud's delegation won Lenin's concession of sovereignty on 31 December 1917. By the beginning of the Civil War, Austria-Hungary , Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland had recognised Finnish independence. The United Kingdom and United States did not approve it; they waited and monitored the relations between Finland and Germany (the main enemy of the Allies ), hoping to override Lenin's regime and to get Russia back into
4140-429: A significant factor in driving many scientists away from the university and toward private benefactors, usually in princely courts, and associations with newly forming scientific societies. Other historians find incongruity in the proposition that the very place where the vast number of the scholars that influenced the scientific revolution received their education should also be the place that inhibits their research and
4320-510: A socialist uprising. In this phase, Lenin and Joseph Stalin , under threat in Petrograd, urged the social democrats to take power in Finland. The majority of Finnish socialists were moderate and preferred parliamentary methods, prompting the Bolsheviks to label them "reluctant revolutionaries". The reluctance diminished as the general strike appeared to offer a major channel of influence for the workers in southern Finland. The strike leadership voted by
4500-549: A spirit of inquiry into natural processes that had already begun to emerge in the 12th century. Some scholars believe that these works represented one of the most important document discoveries in Western intellectual history. Richard Dales, for instance, calls the discovery of Aristotle's works "a turning point in the history of Western thought." After Aristotle re-emerged, a community of scholars, primarily communicating in Latin, accelerated
4680-522: A state autonomic institution which functions as a completely independent body inside of the same state. Some national universities are closely associated with national cultural , religious or political aspirations, for instance the National University of Ireland , which formed partly from the Catholic University of Ireland which was created almost immediately and specifically in answer to
4860-463: A state of dual power and divided sovereignty on Finnish society. The decisive rift between the guards broke out during the general strike: the Reds executed several political opponents in southern Finland and the first armed clashes between the Whites and Reds took place. In total, 34 casualties were reported. Eventually, the political rivalries of 1917 led to an arms race and an escalation towards civil war. The disintegration of Russia offered Finns
5040-536: A very high standard in specific area of study, can be declared by the Central Government on the advice of the University Grants Commission as an Institution (Deemed-to-be-university). Institutions that are 'deemed-to-be-university' enjoy the academic status and the privileges of a university. Through this provision many schools that are commercial in nature and have been established just to exploit
5220-563: A well-kept model farmstead and also paid attention to agriculture and forestry. The family's generosity and good treatment of the workers was appreciated, and the family was known as the "good people in Hagalund". Because of this good reputation, the Sinebrychoff family was left in peace during the Finnish Civil War , unlike many other families. When Jorvaksentie was completed in 1937, the connection to Helsinki improved substantially, causing
5400-409: Is a high-rise business district mostly known for the numerous head offices of large corporations located there. The district includes the head offices of Tieto (in land formerly occupied by Nokia ), Microsoft Finland, Kone , Fortum , Neste Oil , Valmet , and many smaller corporations such as Rovio Entertainment . The large office buildings serve as landmarks in the area. Keilaniemi rose to
5580-619: Is an institution of higher (or tertiary ) education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines . University is derived from the Latin phrase universitas magistrorum et scholarium , which roughly means "community of teachers and scholars". Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs. The first universities in Europe were established by Catholic monks . The University of Bologna ( Università di Bologna ), Italy , which
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5760-518: Is located. The mansion, owned by the City of Espoo, houses the Karhusaari Art Centre and is used for weddings and other events. [REDACTED] Media related to Keilaniemi at Wikimedia Commons 60°10′16″N 024°49′39″E / 60.17111°N 24.82750°E / 60.17111; 24.82750 University A university (from Latin universitas 'a whole')
5940-559: Is possible, however, that the development of cathedral schools into universities was quite rare, with the University of Paris being an exception. Later they were also founded by kings - but with prior papal approval. ( University of Naples Federico II , Charles University in Prague , Jagiellonian University in Kraków ) or municipal administrations ( University of Cologne , University of Erfurt ). In
6120-419: Is the term increasingly employed by the reconstituted social democrats after their defeat in the war. The general terms for the conflict, Civil War ( Finnish : sisällissota ) and Citizen War ( Finnish : kansalaissota ), are synonymous and appeared mostly after the war. More ideologic names were also used including Class War ( Finnish : luokkasota ) and Revolution ( Finnish : vallankumous ) by
6300-420: Is transferred from faculty to managers, economic justifications dominate, and the familiar 'bottom line' eclipses pedagogical or intellectual concerns". Academics' understanding of time, pedagogical pleasure, vocation, and collegiality have been cited as possible ways of alleviating such problems. A national university is generally a university created or run by a national state but at the same time represents
6480-837: The July Days brought matters to a head. The Helsinki Soviet and the Regional Committee of the Finnish Soviets, led by the Bolshevik Ivar Smilga , both pledged to defend the Finnish Parliament, were it threatened with attack. However, the Provisional Government still had sufficient support in the Russian army to survive and as the street movement waned, Vladimir Lenin fled to Karelia. In the aftermath of these events,
6660-467: The Kola Peninsula , an area rich in raw materials for the mining industry. Finland possessed large ore reserves and a well-developed forest industry. The February Revolution removed Tsar Nicholas II . The collapse of the Russian Empire was caused by military defeats, war-weariness against the duration and hardships of the Great War, and the collision between the most conservative regime in Europe and
6840-498: The Neste head office and HTC Keilaniemi were built in 2008 and 2009. There are also plans to connect Keilaniemi to the neighbouring areas of Tapiola and Otaniemi with new buildings. The Ring I beltway passing between Keilaniemi and Tapiola will go in a tunnel with a cover with a park over it. This park will serve as a recreation area for both Keilaniemi residents and inhabitants of neighbouring areas. There are also plans for new parks,
7020-607: The Parliament of Finland ( Finnish : eduskunta ; Swedish : riksdag ) with universal suffrage . The number of voters increased from 126,000 to 1,273,000, including female citizens. The reform led to the social democrats obtaining about fifty per cent of the popular vote, but the Tsar regained his authority after the crisis of 1905. Subsequently, during the more severe programme of Russification, called "the Second Period of Oppression" by
7200-629: The United Nations University engages in efforts to resolve the pressing global problems that are of concern to the United Nations, its peoples and member states. The European University Institute , a post-graduate university specialized in the social sciences, is officially an intergovernmental organization, set up by the member states of the European Union . Although each institution is organized differently, nearly all universities have
7380-447: The early medieval period , most new universities were founded from pre-existing schools, usually when these schools were deemed to have become primarily sites of higher education. Many historians state that universities and cathedral schools were a continuation of the interest in learning promoted by monasteries . Pope Gregory VII was crucial in promoting and regulating the concept of modern university, as his 1079 Papal Decree ordered
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7560-472: The social democrats substantially. The party encompassed a higher proportion of the population than any other socialist movement in the world. The Reform of 1906 was a giant leap towards the political and social liberalisation of the common Finnish people because the Russian House of Romanov had been the most autocratic and conservative ruler in Europe. The Finns adopted a unicameral parliamentary system,
7740-521: The "Law of Supreme Power" was overruled and the social democrats eventually backed down; more Russian troops were sent to Finland and, with the co-operation and insistence of the Finnish conservatives, Parliament was dissolved and new elections announced. In the October 1917 elections , the social democrats lost their absolute majority, which radicalised the labour movement and decreased support for moderate politics. The crisis of July 1917 did not bring about
7920-416: The "Law of Supreme Power". Eventually, both political factions supported an independent Finland, despite strong disagreement over the composition of the nation's leadership. Nationalism had become a "civic religion" in Finland by the end of nineteenth century, but the goal during the general strike of 1905 had been a return to the autonomy of 1809–1898, not full independence. In contrast to their status under
8100-640: The 17th century was rife with events that adversely affected university expansion. Many wars, and especially the Thirty Years' War , disrupted the university landscape throughout Europe at different times. War , plague , famine , regicide , and changes in religious power and structure often adversely affected the societies that provided support for universities. Internal strife within the universities themselves, such as student brawling and absentee professors, acted to destabilize these institutions as well. Universities were also reluctant to give up older curricula, and
8280-460: The 1860s to the 1920s was a particularly luxurious time at the manor. The manor served as a summer retreat for the family, which was fashionable at the time. The people wanted to go the unspoilt nature, and steam ships improved traffic connections, allowing wealthy Helsinki families to acquire summer villas at the peaceful countryside near Helsinki. The Sinebrychoff family commissioned large-scale repair and expansion work in Hagalund. They made it into
8460-540: The 19th century, religion played a significant role in university curriculum; however, the role of religion in research universities decreased during that century. By the end of the 19th century, the German university model had spread around the world. Universities concentrated on science in the 19th and 20th centuries and became increasingly accessible to the masses. In the United States, the Johns Hopkins University
8640-456: The 19th century, the German and the French university models had arisen. The German, or Humboldtian model, was conceived by Wilhelm von Humboldt and based on Friedrich Schleiermacher 's liberal ideas pertaining to the importance of freedom , seminars , and laboratories in universities. The French university model involved strict discipline and control over every aspect of the university. Until
8820-490: The Bolshevik regime came into force on 6 December and peace negotiations began on 22 December 1917 at Brest-Litovsk . November 1917 became another watershed in the 1917–1918 rivalry for the leadership of Finland. After the dissolution of the Finnish Parliament, polarisation between the social democrats and the conservatives increased markedly and the period witnessed the appearance of political violence. An agricultural worker
9000-596: The Bolsheviks and major disputes appeared, for example, over the demarcation of the border between Red Finland and Soviet Russia. The significance of the Russo–Finnish Treaty evaporated quickly due to the signing of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between the Bolsheviks and the German Empire on 3 March 1918. Lenin's policy on the right of nations to self-determination aimed at preventing the disintegration of Russia during
9180-522: The Early Modern period, as the term is applied to a burgeoning number of institutions. In fact, the term "university" was not always used to designate a higher education institution. In Mediterranean countries , the term studium generale was still often used, while "Academy" was common in Northern European countries. The propagation of universities was not necessarily a steady progression, as
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#17328552481139360-500: The Education Services for Overseas Students Act (ESOS). In the United States there is no nationally standardized definition for the term university , although the term has traditionally been used to designate research institutions and was once reserved for doctorate-granting research institutions. Some states, such as Massachusetts , will only grant a school "university status" if it grants at least two doctoral degrees . In
9540-550: The Energizing Urban Ecosystems (EUE) research project by the research institute Tekes, aiming to develop future urban ecosystems according to the principles of sustainable development. The T3 area, consisting of Otaniemi , Keilaniemi and Tapiola , is planned to become a unique activity and development environment for universities, companies as well as the public and third sectors. The project is coordinated by RYM Oy. Other participants include SRV, Fortum, Kemira , Kone,
9720-502: The Finnish Social Democratic Party's ethos; their visions differed from Lenin's dictatorship of the proletariat . Otto Ville Kuusinen formulated a proposal for a new constitution, influenced by those of Switzerland and the United States. With it, political power was to be concentrated to Parliament, with a lesser role for a government. The proposal included a multi-party system; freedom of assembly, speech and press; and
9900-572: The Finnish territory was the less important northern section of the Estonian–Finnish gateway and a buffer zone to and from Petrograd through the Narva area, the Gulf of Finland and the Karelian Isthmus . The German Empire saw Eastern Europe - particularly Russia - as a major source of vital products and raw materials, both during World War I and for the future. Russia's resources overstretched by
10080-436: The Finns had specialised in milk and butter production, the bulk of the food supply for the country depended on cereals produced in southern Russia. The cessation of cereal imports from disintegrating Russia led to food shortages in Finland. The Senate responded by introducing rationing and price controls . The farmers resisted the state control and thus a black market , accompanied by sharply rising food prices, formed. As
10260-468: The Finns, the Tsar neutralised the power of the Finnish Parliament between 1908 and 1917. He dissolved the assembly, ordered parliamentary elections almost annually, and determined the composition of the Finnish Senate, which did not correlate with the Parliament. The capacity of the Finnish Parliament to solve socio-economic problems was stymied by confrontations between the largely uneducated commoners and
10440-468: The Grand Duchy of Finland, including an improvement in the status of the Finnish language. All this encouraged Finnish nationalism and cultural unity through the birth of the Fennoman movement , which bound the Finns to the domestic administration and led to the idea that the Grand Duchy was an increasingly autonomous state ruled by the Russian Empire. However, in 1899, the Russian Empire had begun to initiate
10620-791: The Guards was the establishment of a 200-strong cavalry school at the Saksanniemi estate in the vicinity of the town of Porvoo , in September 1917. The vanguard of the Finnish Jägers and German weaponry arrived in Finland during October–November 1917 on the Equity freighter and the German U-boat UC-57 ; around 50 Jägers had returned by the end of 1917. After political defeats in July and October 1917,
10800-516: The Higher Learning: the Madrasah. Significantly, the institutional adjustments of the madrasahs affected both the structure and the content of these institutions. In terms of structure, the adjustments were twofold: the reorganization of the available original madaris and the creation of new institutions. This resulted in two different types of Islamic teaching institutions in al-Maghrib. The first type
10980-413: The Karelian Isthmus on 27 January 1918. The Finnish rivalry for power had culminated. At the beginning of the war, a discontinuous front line ran through southern Finland from west to east, dividing the country into White Finland and Red Finland . The Red Guards controlled the area to the south, including nearly all the major towns and industrial centres, along with the largest estates and farms with
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#173285524811311160-419: The Middle Ages, though other guilds stood in the way of developing commerce and therefore were eventually abolished, the scholars guild did not. According to historian Elliot Krause, "The university and scholars' guilds held onto their power over membership, training, and workplace because early capitalism was not interested in it." By the 18th century, universities published their own research journals and by
11340-454: The Red Revolution of January 1918 on its own, but together with political developments based on the commoners' interpretation of the ideas of Fennomania and socialism, the events favoured a Finnish revolution. In order to win power, the socialists had to overcome Parliament. The February Revolution resulted in a loss of institutional authority in Finland and the dissolution of the police force, creating fear and uncertainty. In response, both
11520-426: The Red area lay Porvoo, Kirkkonummi and Uusikaupunki . The elimination of these strongholds was a priority for both armies in February 1918. Red Finland was led by the Finnish People's Delegation ( Finnish : kansanvaltuuskunta ; Swedish : folkdelegationen ), established on 28 January 1918 in Helsinki, which was supervised by the Central Workers' Council . The delegation sought democratic socialism based on
11700-519: The Reds and their supporters while Red Rebellion ( Finnish : punakapina ) was used by the Whites and their supporters. Another designation, Brethren War ( Finnish : veljessota ), is applied in some poetic settings. According to a 2008 interview of 1,005 people done by the newspaper Aamulehti , the most popular names were as follows: Civil War: 29%, Citizen War: 25%, Class War: 13%, War of Independence: 11%, Red Rebellion: 5%, Revolution: 1%, other name: 2% and no answer: 14%. From 1809 to 1898,
11880-420: The Reds began late in the evening of 27 January, with the Helsinki Red Guard and some of the Guards located along the Viipuri-Tampere railway having been activated between 23 and 26 January, in order to safeguard vital positions and escort a heavy railroad shipment of Bolshevik weapons from Petrograd to Finland. White troops tried to capture the shipment: 20–30 Finns, Red and White, died in the Battle of Kämärä at
12060-426: The Senate consisted of a broad national coalition, but in practice (with the main political groups unwilling to compromise and top politicians remaining outside of it), it proved unable to solve any major Finnish problem. After the February Revolution, political authority descended to the street level: mass meetings, strike organisations and worker-soldier councils on the left and to active organisations of employers on
12240-465: The United Kingdom, the Privy Council is responsible for approving the use of the word university in the name of an institution, under the terms of the Further and Higher Education Act 1992 . In India, a new designation deemed universities has been created for institutions of higher education that are not universities, but work at a very high standard in a specific area of study ("An Institution of Higher Education, other than universities, working at
12420-561: The United States offer students the opportunity to apply for financial scholarships to help pay for tuition based on academic achievement. There are several major exceptions on tuition fees. In many European countries, it is possible to study without tuition fees. Public universities in Nordic countries were entirely without tuition fees until around 2005. Denmark, Sweden and Finland then moved to put in place tuition fees for foreign students. Citizens of EU and EEA member states and citizens from Switzerland remain exempted from tuition fees, and
12600-443: The University Grants Committee) and Sir Samuel Curran , with the formation of the University of Strathclyde . The British also established universities worldwide, and higher education became available to the masses not only in Europe. In 1963, the Robbins Report on universities in the United Kingdom concluded that such institutions should have four main "objectives essential to any properly balanced system: instruction in skills;
12780-432: The University of Bologna. Among the southern universities, a further distinction has been noted between those of northern Italy, which followed the pattern of Bologna as a "self-regulating, independent corporation of scholars" and those of southern Italy and Iberia, which were "founded by royal and imperial charter to serve the needs of government." During the Early Modern period (approximately late 15th century to 1800),
12960-693: The Whites began in March, reinforced by the German Empire 's military detachments in April. The decisive engagements were the Battles of Tampere and Viipuri , won by the Whites, and the Battles of Helsinki and Lahti , won by German troops, leading to overall victory for the Whites and the German forces. Political violence became a part of this warfare. Around 12,500 Red prisoners died of malnutrition and disease in camps . About 39,000 people, of whom 36,000 were Finns, died in
13140-583: The Whites' hegemony and established a military authority of their own. Aaltonen installed his headquarters in Helsinki and nicknamed it Smolna echoing the Smolny Institute , the Bolsheviks' headquarters in Petrograd. The Red Order of Revolution was issued on 26 January, and a red lantern, a symbolic indicator of the uprising, was lit in the tower of the Helsinki Workers' House . A large-scale mobilisation of
13320-469: The administration's actions. Among urban workers, socio-economic problems steepened during periods of industrial depression. The position of rural workers worsened after the end of the nineteenth century, as farming became more efficient and market-oriented, and the development of industry was insufficiently vigorous to fully utilise the rapid population growth of the countryside. The difference between Scandinavian-Finnish and Russian- Slavic culture affected
13500-521: The advancement of science. In fact, more than 80% of the European scientists between 1450 and 1650 included in the Dictionary of Scientific Biography were university trained, of which approximately 45% held university posts. It was the case that the academic foundations remaining from the Middle Ages were stable, and they did provide for an environment that fostered considerable growth and development. There
13680-489: The amounts of public grants granted to promising foreign students were increased to offset some of the impact. The situation in Germany is similar; public universities usually do not charge tuition fees apart from a small administrative fee. For degrees of a postgraduate professional level sometimes tuition fees are levied. Private universities, however, almost always charge tuition fees. The Adjustments of Original Institutions of
13860-473: The architecture bureau SARC and they would be constructed by SRV. There are plans to build a 26-storey high-rise building in the area. Fortum is also building a new 16-storey building next to its original building. Other buildings in the area include Elisa , Microsoft and Kone . Life Science Center consists of five buildings of 7 to 11 storeys, containing offices of various companies. These will be accompanied by six buildings of 7 to 10 storeys, for example
14040-675: The attention of apartment seekers to turn into the loosely-built southern Espoo, which had until then only been accessible by sea. Arne Grahn , the owner of the manor at the time, sold parts of the manor lands as zoned lots, and from the 1930s to the 1950s the manor lands became the site of the Westend villa town, the Tapiola garden city, the Helsinki University of Technology and the scientific community in Otaniemi. The Keilaniemi area has been part of
14220-445: The books of Aristotle for logic, natural philosophy , and metaphysics ; while Hippocrates , Galen , and Avicenna were used for medicine. Outside of these commonalities, great differences separated north and south, primarily in subject matter. Italian universities focused on law and medicine, while the northern universities focused on the arts and theology. The quality of instruction in the different areas of study varied, depending on
14400-537: The city from many lands entering into a contract to gain this knowledge, eventually organising themselves into Nationes , divided between that of the Cismontanes and that of the Ultramontanes. The students "had all the power ... and dominated the masters". All over Europe, rulers and city governments began to create universities to satisfy a European thirst for knowledge, and the belief that society would benefit from
14580-654: The city of Espoo and the environmental services of the Helsinki region (HSY). Research institutes include various branches of the Aalto University and the Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE). Keilaniemi is located at the intersection between Länsiväylä and Ring I . Keilaniemi is served by a station of the Helsinki metro . The extension ( Länsimetro ) was completed in 2017. The area can be accessed via all buses travelling along Länsiväylä. The area also has
14760-468: The civil war and the food market remained a secondary stimulator in the power struggle of the Finnish state. The passing of the Tokoi Senate bill called the "Law of Supreme Power" ( Finnish : laki Suomen korkeimman valtiovallan käyttämisestä , more commonly known as valtalaki ; Swedish : maktlagen ) in July 1917, triggered one of the key crises in the power struggle between the social democrats and
14940-424: The class system as the natural order of their life), the commoners began to demand their civil rights and citizenship in Finnish society. The power struggle between the Finnish estates and the Russian administration gave a concrete role model and free space for the labour movement. On the other side, due to an at-least century-long tradition and experience of administrative authority, the Finnish elite saw itself as
15120-511: The confines of the university, the connection has been commonly perceived as having been severed by the changing nature of science during the Scientific Revolution . Historians such as Richard S. Westfall have argued that the overt traditionalism of universities inhibited attempts to re-conceptualize nature and knowledge and caused an indelible tension between universities and scientists. This resistance to changes in science may have been
15300-464: The conflict. In the immediate aftermath, the Finns passed from Russian governance to the German sphere of influence with a plan to establish a German-led Finnish monarchy . The scheme ended with Germany's defeat in World War I, and Finland instead emerged as an independent, democratic republic. The civil war divided the nation for decades. Finnish society was reunited through social compromises based on
15480-496: The conservatives. The fall of the Russian Empire opened the question of who would hold sovereign political authority in the former Grand Duchy. After decades of political disappointment, the February Revolution offered the Finnish social democrats an opportunity to govern; they held the absolute majority in Parliament. The conservatives were alarmed by the continuous increase of the socialists' influence since 1899, which reached
15660-581: The continued reliance on the works of Aristotle defied contemporary advancements in science and the arts. This era was also affected by the rise of the nation-state . As universities increasingly came under state control, or formed under the auspices of the state, the faculty governance model (begun by the University of Paris) became more and more prominent. Although the older student-controlled universities still existed, they slowly started to move toward this structural organization. Control of universities still tended to be independent, although university leadership
15840-707: The demand for higher education have sprung up. In Canada, college generally refers to a two-year, non-degree-granting institution, while university connotes a four-year, degree-granting institution. Universities may be sub-classified (as in the Macleans rankings ) into large research universities with many PhD-granting programs and medical schools (for example, McGill University ); "comprehensive" universities that have some PhDs but are not geared toward research (such as Waterloo ); and smaller, primarily undergraduate universities (such as St. Francis Xavier ). In Germany, universities are institutions of higher education which have
16020-491: The end of the nineteenth century from temperance , religious movements and Fennomania, had a Finnish nationalist, working-class character. From 1899 to 1906, the movement became conclusively independent, shedding the paternalistic thinking of the Fennoman estates, and it was represented by the Finnish Social Democratic Party, established in 1899. Workers' activism was directed both toward opposing Russification and in developing
16200-545: The entire curriculum, there emerged a type of scholar that put science first and viewed it as a vocation in itself. The divergence between those focused on science and those still entrenched in the idea of a general scholar exacerbated the epistemological tensions that were already beginning to emerge. The epistemological tensions between scientists and universities were also heightened by the economic realities of research during this time, as individual scientists, associations and universities were vying for limited resources. There
16380-485: The events of 1917 was the rise of the Workers' Order Guards. There were 20–60 separate guards between 31 August and 30 September 1917, but on 20 October, after defeat in parliamentary elections, the Finnish labour movement proclaimed the need to establish more worker units. The announcement led to a rush of recruits: on 31 October the number of guards was 100–150; 342 on 30 November 1917 and 375 on 26 January 1918. Since May 1917,
16560-401: The former estates. Another conflict festered as employers denied collective bargaining and the right of the labour unions to represent workers. The parliamentary process disappointed the labour movement, but as dominance in the Parliament and legislation was the workers' most likely way to obtain a more balanced society, they identified themselves with the state. Overall domestic politics led to
16740-422: The highest concentrations in the German Empire (34), Italian countries (26), France (25), and Spain (23) – this was close to a 500% increase over the number of universities toward the end of the Middle Ages. This number does not include the numerous universities that disappeared, or institutions that merged with other universities during this time. The identification of a university was not necessarily obvious during
16920-529: The highest numbers of crofters and tenant farmers . The White Army controlled the area to the north, which was predominantly agrarian and contained small or medium-sized farms and tenant farmers. The number of crofters was lower and they held a better social status than those in the south. Enclaves of the opposing forces existed on both sides of the front line: within the White area lay the industrial towns of Varkaus , Kuopio , Oulu , Raahe , Kemi and Tornio ; within
17100-477: The idea of a socialist revolution, the party representatives and several influential leaders voted it down. The Finnish labour movement wanted to sustain a military force of its own and to keep the revolutionary road open, too. The wavering Finnish socialists disappointed V. I. Lenin and in turn, he began to encourage the Finnish Bolsheviks in Petrograd. Among the labour movement, a more marked consequence of
17280-540: The inherent natural leader of the nation. The political struggle for democracy was solved outside Finland, in international politics: the Russian Empire's failed 1904–1905 war against Japan led to the 1905 Revolution in Russia and to a general strike in Finland . In an attempt to quell the general unrest, the system of estates was abolished in the Parliamentary Reform of 1906 . The general strike increased support for
17460-469: The intent of the degree holder after graduation – in the north the focus tended to be on acquiring teaching positions, while in the south students often went on to professional positions. The structure of northern universities tended to be modeled after the system of faculty governance developed at the University of Paris . Southern universities tended to be patterned after the student-controlled model begun at
17640-547: The interests of education. Today, this is claimed as the origin of "academic freedom". This is now a widely accepted concept in international research. On 18 September 1988, 430 university rectors signed the Magna Charta Universitatum , marking the 900th anniversary of Bologna's foundation. The number of universities signing the Magna Charta Universitatum continues to grow, drawing from all parts of
17820-457: The later White Guards ( Finnish : valkokaartit ; Swedish : vita gardet ) were organised by local men of influence: conservative academics, industrialists, major landowners, and activists. The Workers' Order Guards ( Finnish : työväen järjestyskaartit ; Swedish : arbetarnas ordningsgardet ) and the Red Guards ( Finnish : punakaartit ; Swedish : röda gardet ) were recruited through
18000-531: The later university at many places dates back to the 6th century. In Europe, young men proceeded to university when they had completed their study of the trivium – the preparatory arts of grammar , rhetoric and dialectic or logic –and the quadrivium : arithmetic , geometry , music , and astronomy . The earliest universities were developed under the aegis of the Latin Church by papal bull as studia generalia and perhaps from cathedral schools. It
18180-460: The leader of the Agrarian League. Parliament seized the sovereign power in Finland on 15 November 1917 based on the socialists' "Law of Supreme Power" and ratified their proposals of an eight-hour working day and universal suffrage in local elections , from July 1917. The purely non-socialist, conservative-led government of Pehr Evind Svinhufvud was appointed on 27 November. This nomination
18360-452: The left, the vanguard of the movement was the urban Red Guards from Helsinki , Kotka and Turku ; they led the rural Reds and convinced the socialist leaders who wavered between peace and war to support the revolution. On the right, the vanguard was the Jägers, who had transferred to Finland, and the volunteer Civil Guards of southwestern Finland, southern Ostrobothnia and Viipuri province in
18540-468: The local social democratic party sections and from the labour unions. The Bolsheviks' and Vladimir Lenin's October Revolution of 7 November 1917 transferred political power in Petrograd to the radical, left-wing socialists. The German government's decision to arrange safe-conduct for Lenin and his comrades from exile in Switzerland to Petrograd in April 1917, was a success. An armistice between Germany and
18720-447: The loss of their long-held socio-economic dominance. Both factions collaborated with their equivalents in Russia, deepening the split in the nation. The Social Democratic Party gained an absolute majority in the parliamentary elections of 1916 . A new Senate was formed in March 1917 by Oskari Tokoi , but it did not reflect the socialists' large parliamentary majority: it comprised six social democrats and six non-socialists. In theory,
18900-695: The madrasas in Al-Andalus , the Emirate of Sicily , and the Middle East during the Crusades . Norman Daniel, however, views this argument as overstated. In 2013, Roy Lowe and Yoshihito Yasuhara claimed that the influences of scholarship from the Islamic world on the universities of Western Europe requires a reconsideration of the development of higher education, turning away from a concern with local institutional structures to
19080-454: The middle and upper classes, controlled rural central and northern Finland, and were led by General C. G. E. Mannerheim . In the years before the conflict, Finland had experienced rapid population growth, industrialisation , urbanisation and the rise of a comprehensive labour movement . The country's political and governmental systems were in an unstable phase of democratisation and modernisation. The socio-economic condition and education of
19260-467: The most part been displaced and the humanities had become a fixture, and a new openness was beginning to take hold in the construction and dissemination of knowledge that were to become imperative for the formation of the modern state. Modern universities constitute a guild or quasi-guild system. This facet of the university system did not change due to its peripheral standing in an industrialized economy; as commerce developed between towns in Europe during
19440-521: The nature of Finnish national integration. The upper social strata took the lead and gained domestic authority from the Russian tsar in 1809. The estates planned to build an increasingly autonomous Finnish state, led by the elite and the intelligentsia. The Fennoman movement aimed to include the common people in a non-political role; the labour movement, youth associations and the temperance movement were initially led "from above". Between 1870 and 1916 industrialisation gradually improved social conditions and
19620-409: The nineteenth century (from 860,000 in 1810 to 3,130,000 in 1917), and a class of agrarian and industrial workers, as well as crofters , emerged over the period. The Industrial Revolution was rapid in Finland, though it started later than in the rest of Western Europe . Industrialisation was financed by the state and some of the social problems associated with the industrial process were diminished by
19800-798: The non-denominational universities which had been set up in Ireland in 1850. In the years leading up to the Easter Rising , and in no small part a result of the Gaelic Romantic revivalists, the NUI collected a large amount of information on the Irish language and Irish culture . Reforms in Argentina were the result of the University Revolution of 1918 and its posterior reforms by incorporating values that sought for
19980-465: The oldest university is based on its unique characteristics, such as its autonomy and its ability to grant degrees. The conventional date for the start of teaching at Bologna of 1088, or 1087 according to some, records when Irnerius commenced teaching Emperor Justinian's 6th-century codification of Roman law, the Corpus Iuris Civilis , recently discovered at Pisa. Lay students arrived in
20160-417: The paramilitary organisations of the left had grown in two phases, the majority of them as Workers' Order Guards. The minority were Red Guards, these were partly underground groups formed in industrialised towns and industrial centres, such as Helsinki , Kotka and Tampere, based on the original Red Guards that had been formed during 1905–1906 in Finland. The presence of the two opposing armed forces created
20340-444: The period of military weakness. He assumed that in war-torn, splintering Europe, the proletariat of free nations would carry out socialist revolutions and unite with Soviet Russia later. The majority of the Finnish labour movement supported Finland's independence. The Finnish Bolsheviks, influential, though few in number, favoured annexation of Finland by Russia. The government of White Finland, Pehr Evind Svinhufvud's first senate ,
20520-524: The population had gradually improved, and national awareness and culture had progressed. World War I led to the collapse of the Russian Empire , causing a power vacuum in Finland, and the subsequent struggle for dominance led to militarisation and an escalating crisis between the left-leaning labour movement and the conservatives. The Reds carried out an unsuccessful general offensive in February 1918, supplied with weapons by Soviet Russia . A counteroffensive by
20700-456: The position of a corporate concentration in 1976, when the Accountor Tower (formerly Fortum Head Office) was built there. The 20-storey building is still one of the tallest office buildings in Finland. Significant new construction in Keilaniemi is planned: construction of new tower blocks for office and residential use has been approved, and there have been alterations to the ground level in
20880-566: The power to confer bachelor, master and PhD degrees. They are explicitly recognised as such by law and cannot be founded without government approval. The term Universität (i.e. the German term for university) is protected by law and any use without official approval is a criminal offense. Most of them are public institutions, though a few private universities exist. Such universities are always research universities. Apart from these universities, Germany has other institutions of higher education (Hochschule, Fachhochschule ). Fachhochschule means
21060-434: The primary mission of lecturers, and the expectation of students. The university culture developed differently in northern Europe than it did in the south, although the northern (primarily Germany, France and Great Britain ) and southern universities (primarily Italy) did have many elements in common. Latin was the language of the university, used for all texts, lectures, disputations and examinations. Professors lectured on
21240-399: The process and practice of attempting to reconcile the thoughts of Greek antiquity, and especially ideas related to understanding the natural world, with those of the church. The efforts of this " scholasticism " were focused on applying Aristotelian logic and thoughts about natural processes to biblical passages and attempting to prove the viability of those passages through reason. This became
21420-541: The profitable Finnish financial zone. The economic collapse of Russia and the power struggle of the Finnish state in 1917 were among the key factors that brought sovereignty to the fore in Finland. Svinhufvud's Senate introduced Finland's Declaration of Independence on 4 December 1917 and Parliament adopted it on 6 December. The social democrats voted against the Senate's proposal, while presenting an alternative declaration of sovereignty. The establishment of an independent state
21600-462: The program were not accepted and the socialists initiated a general strike during 14–19 November to increase political pressure on the conservatives, who had opposed the "Law of Supreme Power" and the parliamentary proclamation of sovereign power on 15 November. Revolution became the goal of the radicalised socialists after the loss of political control, and events in November 1917 offered momentum for
21780-589: The promotion of the general powers of the mind so as to produce not mere specialists but rather cultivated men and women; to maintain research in balance with teaching, since teaching should not be separated from the advancement of learning and the search for truth; and to transmit a common culture and common standards of citizenship." In the early 21st century, concerns were raised over the increasing managerialisation and standardisation of universities worldwide. Neo-liberal management models have in this sense been critiqued for creating "corporate universities (where) power
21960-551: The qualifications of their members. In modern usage, the word has come to mean "an institution of higher education offering tuition in mainly non-vocational subjects and typically having the power to confer degrees". The earlier emphasis on its corporate organization is no longer the primary feature by which a modern university is recognized. The original Latin word referred to degree-awarding institutions of learning in Western and Central Europe , where this form of legal organisation
22140-491: The regulated establishment of cathedral schools that transformed themselves into the first European universities. The first universities in Europe with a form of corporate/guild structure were the University of Bologna ( c. 1180–1190 ), the University of Paris ( c. 1208–1210 , later associated with the Sorbonne ), and the University of Oxford ( c. 1200–1214 ). The University of Bologna began as
22320-429: The resources available through private benefactors. By the end of the early modern period, the structure and orientation of higher education had changed in ways that are eminently recognizable for the modern context. Aristotle was no longer a force providing the epistemological and methodological focus for universities and a more mechanistic orientation was emerging. The hierarchical place of theological knowledge had for
22500-484: The revolutionary reform of 1906, but after the crisis of 1917–1918, concluded that empowering the common people would not work. Social liberals and reformist non-socialists opposed any restriction of parliamentarianism. They initially resisted German military help, but the prolonged warfare changed their stance. In foreign policy, the Vaasa Senate relied on the German Empire for military and political aid. Their objective
22680-425: The right and left assembled their own security groups, which were initially local and largely unarmed. By late 1917, following the dissolution of Parliament, in the absence of a strong government and national armed forces, the security groups began assuming a broader and more paramilitary character. The Civil Guards ( Finnish : suojeluskunnat ; Swedish : skyddskåren ; lit. ' protection corps ' ) and
22860-484: The right, all serving to undermine the authority of the state. The February Revolution halted the Finnish economic boom caused by the Russian war-economy. The collapse in business led to unemployment and high inflation , but the employed workers gained an opportunity to resolve workplace problems. The commoners' call for the eight-hour working day , better working conditions and higher wages led to demonstrations and large-scale strikes in industry and agriculture. While
23040-538: The scholarly expertise generated from these institutions. Princes and leaders of city governments perceived the potential benefits of having a scholarly expertise developed with the ability to address difficult problems and achieve desired ends. The emergence of humanism was essential to this understanding of the possible utility of universities as well as the revival of interest in knowledge gained from ancient Greek texts. The recovery of Aristotle 's works – more than 3000 pages of it would eventually be translated – fuelled
23220-441: The scientific changes through providing a stable environment for instruction and material resources. Regardless of the way the tension between universities, individual scientists, and the scientific revolution itself is perceived, there was a discernible impact on the way that university education was constructed. Aristotelian epistemology provided a coherent framework not simply for knowledge and knowledge construction, but also for
23400-488: The self-confidence of workers, but while the standard of living of the common people rose in absolute terms, the rift between rich and poor deepened markedly. The commoners' rising awareness of socio-economic and political questions interacted with the ideas of socialism , social liberalism and nationalism . The workers' initiatives and the corresponding responses of the dominant authorities intensified social conflict in Finland. The Finnish labour movement, which emerged at
23580-457: The social democrats put forward an uncompromising program called "We Demand" ( Finnish : Me vaadimme ; Swedish : Vi kräver ) on 1 November, in order to push for political concessions . They insisted upon a return to the political status before the dissolution of Parliament in July 1917, disbandment of the Civil Guards and elections to establish a Finnish Constituent Assembly. The demands of
23760-470: The source of their finances. The funding and organization of universities varies widely between different countries around the world. In some countries universities are predominantly funded by the state, while in others funding may come from donors or from fees which students attending the university must pay. In some countries the vast majority of students attend university in their local town, while in other countries universities attract students from all over
23940-548: The southeastern corner of Finland. The first local battles were fought during 9–21 January 1918 in southern and southeastern Finland, mainly to win the arms race and to control Viipuri . On 12 January 1918, Parliament authorised the Svinhufvud Senate to establish internal order and discipline on behalf of the state. On 15 January, Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim , a former Finnish general of the Imperial Russian Army ,
24120-535: The state university system in 1947. Madrasa , in modern usage, the name of an institution of learning where the Islamic sciences are taught, i.e. a college for higher studies, as opposed to an elementary school of traditional type ( kuttab ); in medieval usage, essentially a college of law in which the other Islamic sciences, including literary and philosophical ones, were ancillary subjects only. Finnish Civil War Finnish Whites victory The Finnish Civil War
24300-471: The struggle against integration, activists drawn from sections of the working class and the Swedish-speaking intelligentsia carried out terrorist acts. During World War I and the rise of Germanism, the pro-Swedish Svecomans began their covert collaboration with Imperial Germany and, from 1915 to 1917, a Jäger ( Finnish : jääkäri ; Swedish : jägare ) battalion consisting of 1,900 Finnish volunteers
24480-564: The system. They also approve new programs of instruction and cancel or make changes in existing programs. In addition, they plan for the further coordinated growth and development of the various institutions of higher education in the state or country. However, many public universities in the world have a considerable degree of financial, research and pedagogical autonomy. Private universities are privately funded and generally have broader independence from state policies. However, they may have less independence from business corporations depending on
24660-502: The texts used at the institution came from Muslim Spain...Al Quaraouiyine began its life as a small mosque constructed in 859 C.E. by means of an endowment bequeathed by a wealthy woman of much piety, Fatima bint Muhammed al-Fahri. Higher education has always been an integral part of Morocco, going back to the ninth century when the Karaouine Mosque was established. The madrasa , known today as Al Qayrawaniyan University, became part of
24840-404: The training of scholars within the higher education setting. The creation of new scientific constructs during the scientific revolution, and the epistemological challenges that were inherent within this creation, initiated the idea of both the autonomy of science and the hierarchy of the disciplines. Instead of entering higher education to become a "general scholar" immersed in becoming proficient in
25020-400: The translation and propagation of ancient texts, but also their adaptation and expansion. For instance, Vesalius was imperative for advocating the use of Galen, but he also invigorated this text with experimentation, disagreements and further research. The propagation of these texts, especially within the universities, was greatly aided by the emergence of the printing press and the beginning of
25200-626: The turmoil. Geopolitically less important than the continental Moscow – Warsaw gateway, Finland, isolated by the Baltic Sea , was relatively peaceful until early 1918. The war between the German Empire and Russia had only indirect effects on the Finns . Since the end of the 19th century, the Grand Duchy had become a vital source of raw materials , industrial products, food and labour for the growing Imperial Russian capital Petrograd (modern Saint Petersburg), and World War I emphasised that role. Strategically,
25380-636: The two-front war, Germany attempted to divide Russia by providing financial support to revolutionary groups, such as the Bolsheviks and the Socialist Revolutionary Party , and to radical, separatist factions, such as the Finnish national activist movement leaning toward Germanism . Between 30 and 40 million Reichsmark were spent on this endeavour. Controlling the Finnish area would allow the Imperial German Army to penetrate Petrograd and
25560-425: The unitary Swedish regime, the domestic power of Finns had increased under the less uniform Russian rule. Economically, the Grand Duchy of Finland benefited from having an independent domestic state budget, a central bank with national currency, the markka (deployed 1860), and customs organisation and the industrial progress of 1860–1916. The economy was dependent on the huge Russian market and separation would disrupt
25740-462: The universities of Europe would see a tremendous amount of growth, productivity and innovative research. At the end of the Middle Ages, about 400 years after the first European university was founded, there were 29 universities spread throughout Europe. In the 15th century, 28 new ones were created, with another 18 added between 1500 and 1625. This pace continued until by the end of the 18th century there were approximately 143 universities in Europe, with
25920-451: The university were affected by the humanist approaches to learning and their linguistic expertise in relation to ancient texts, as well as the ideology that advocated the ultimate importance of those texts. Professors of medicine such as Niccolò Leoniceno , Thomas Linacre and William Cop were often trained in and taught from a humanist perspective as well as translated important ancient medical texts. The critical mindset imparted by humanism
26100-408: The university's focus. This led scholars to travel north or south based on their interests and means. The universities also awarded different types of degrees. English, French and German universities usually awarded bachelor's degrees, with the exception of degrees in theology, for which the doctorate was more common. Italian universities awarded primarily doctorates. The distinction can be attributed to
26280-430: The university; to increase the humanist presence in professorships and chairs, syllabi and textbooks so that published works would demonstrate the humanistic ideal of science and scholarship. Although the initial focus of the humanist scholars in the university was the discovery, exposition and insertion of ancient texts and languages into the university, and the ideas of those texts into society generally, their influence
26460-412: The use of referendums in political decision-making. In order to ensure the authority of the labour movement, the common people would have a right to permanent revolution . The socialists planned to transfer a substantial part of property rights to the state and local administrations. In foreign policy, Red Finland leaned on Bolshevist Russia . A Red-initiated Finno–Russian treaty and peace agreement
26640-402: The use of the vernacular, which allowed for the printing of relatively large texts at reasonable prices. Examining the influence of humanism on scholars in medicine, mathematics, astronomy and physics may suggest that humanism and universities were a strong impetus for the scientific revolution. Although the connection between humanism and the scientific discovery may very well have begun within
26820-445: The vicinity of the metro station, including the introduction of cafes, to make the area more "urban". There are plans for four circular apartment buildings in Keilaniemi, with the highest of which has 40 storeys. The building would be 127 metres tall above sea level. Two of the other houses would have 36 storeys and the fourth would have 32 storeys. The buildings would contain a thousand new apartments. The buildings have been designed by
27000-502: The war against the German Empire. In turn, the Germans hastened Finland's separation from Russian rule so as to move the country to within their sphere of influence. The final escalation towards war began in early January 1918, as each military or political action of the Reds or the Whites resulted in a corresponding counteraction by the other. Both sides justified their activities as defensive measures, particularly to their own supporters. On
27180-506: The works of Erasmus as a highly influential guide for connecting theology back to original texts, which was important for the reform at Protestant universities. Galileo Galilei , who taught at the Universities of Pisa and Padua , and Martin Luther , who taught at the University of Wittenberg (as did Melanchthon), also had humanist training. The task of the humanists was to slowly permeate
27360-513: The world, and may provide university accommodation for their students. The definition of a university varies widely, even within some countries. Where there is clarification, it is usually set by a government agency. For example: In Australia, the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA) is Australia's independent national regulator of the higher education sector. Students rights within university are also protected by
27540-486: The world. An early institution, often called a university, is the Harran University , founded in the late 8th century . Scholars occasionally call the University of al-Qarawiyyin (name given in 1963), founded as a mosque by Fatima al-Fihri in 859 CE, a university, although Jacques Verger [ fr ] writes that this is done out of scholarly convenience. Several scholars consider that al-Qarawiyyin
27720-608: Was a civil war in Finland in 1918 fought for the leadership and control of the country between White Finland and the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic (Red Finland) during the country's transition from a grand duchy ruled by the Russian Empire to a fully independent state. The clashes took place in the context of the national, political, and social turmoil caused by World War I ( Eastern Front ) in Europe. The war
27900-574: Was a collegiate or tutorial model based on the system at University of Oxford where teaching and organization was decentralized and knowledge was more of a generalist nature. There were also universities that combined these models, using the collegiate model but having a centralized organization. Early Modern universities initially continued the curriculum and research of the Middle Ages: natural philosophy , logic, medicine, theology, mathematics, astronomy, astrology, law, grammar and rhetoric . Aristotle
28080-601: Was adopted with the support of the Social Democratic Party, the Agrarian League, part of the Young Finnish Party and some activists eager for Finnish sovereignty. The conservatives opposed the bill and some of the most right-wing representatives resigned from Parliament. In Petrograd, the social democrats' plan had the backing of the Bolsheviks. They had been plotting a revolt against the Provisional Government since April 1917, and pro-Soviet demonstrations during
28260-497: Was also common usage in the UK in the 19th century. In many countries, students are required to pay tuition fees. Many students look to get 'student grants' to cover the cost of university. In 2016, the average outstanding student loan balance per borrower in the United States was US$ 30,000. In many U.S. states, costs are anticipated to rise for students as a result of decreased state funding given to public universities. Many universities in
28440-449: Was also competition from the formation of new colleges funded by private benefactors and designed to provide free education to the public, or established by local governments to provide a knowledge-hungry populace with an alternative to traditional universities. Even when universities supported new scientific endeavors, and the university provided foundational training and authority for the research and conclusions, they could not compete with
28620-634: Was appointed the commander-in-chief of the Civil Guards. The Senate appointed the Guards, henceforth called the White Guards, as the White Army of Finland. Mannerheim placed his Headquarters of the White Army in the Vaasa – Seinäjoki area. The White Order to engage was issued on 25 January. The Whites gained weaponry by disarming Russian garrisons during 21–28 January, in particular in southern Ostrobothnia. The Red Guards, led by Ali Aaltonen , refused to recognise
28800-572: Was both a long-term aim of the conservatives and a response to the challenges of the labour movement during November 1917. Svinhufvud's main aspirations were to separate Finland from Russian rule, to strengthen the Civil Guards, and to return a part of Parliament's new authority to the Senate. There were 149 Civil Guards on 31 August 1917 in Finland, counting local units and subsidiary White Guards in towns and rural communes; 251 on 30 September; 315 on 31 October; 380 on 30 November and 408 on 26 January 1918. The first attempt at serious military training among
28980-546: Was called the Vaasa Senate after its relocation to the safer west-coast city of Vaasa, which acted as the capital of the Whites from 29 January to 3 May 1918. In domestic policy, the White Senate's main goal was to return the political right to power in Finland. The conservatives planned a monarchist political system, with a lesser role for Parliament. A section of the conservatives had always supported monarchy and opposed democracy; others had approved of parliamentarianism since
29160-617: Was considerable reluctance on the part of universities to relinquish the symmetry and comprehensiveness provided by the Aristotelian system, which was effective as a coherent system for understanding and interpreting the world. However, university professors still have some autonomy, at least in the sciences, to choose epistemological foundations and methods. For instance, Melanchthon and his disciples at University of Wittenberg were instrumental for integrating Copernican mathematical constructs into astronomical debate and instruction. Another example
29340-464: Was derived from the fusion of old madaris with new universities. For example, Morocco transformed Al-Qarawiyin (859 A.D.) into a university under the supervision of the ministry of education in 1963. The Quaraouiyine Mosque, founded in 859, is the most famous mosque of Morocco and attracted continuous investment by Muslim rulers. As for the nature of its curriculum, it was typical of other major madrasahs such as al-Azhar and Al Quaraouiyine, though many of
29520-740: Was fought between the Red Guards , led by a section of the Social Democratic Party , and the White Guards , conducted by the senate and those who opposed socialism with assistance late in the war by the German Imperial Army at the request of the Finnish civil government. The paramilitary Red Guards, which were composed of industrial and agrarian workers, controlled the cities and industrial centres of southern Finland. The paramilitary White Guards, which consisted of land owners and those in
29700-413: Was founded and run as a madrasa until after World War II . They date the transformation of the madrasa of al-Qarawiyyin into a university to its modern reorganization in 1963. In the wake of these reforms, al-Qarawiyyin was officially renamed "University of Al Quaraouiyine" two years later. Some scholars, including George Makdisi, have argued that early medieval universities were influenced by
29880-573: Was founded in 1088, is the first university in the sense of: The original Latin word universitas refers in general to "a number of persons associated into one body, a society, company, community, guild, corporation , etc". As urban town life and medieval guilds developed, specialized associations of students and teachers with collective legal rights (these rights were usually guaranteed by charters issued by princes , prelates , or their towns ) became denominated by this general term. Like other guilds, they were self-regulating and determined
30060-472: Was imperative for changes in universities and scholarship. For instance, Andreas Vesalius was educated in a humanist fashion before producing a translation of Galen, whose ideas he verified through his own dissections. In law, Andreas Alciatus infused the Corpus Juris with a humanist perspective, while Jacques Cujas humanist writings were paramount to his reputation as a jurist. Philipp Melanchthon cited
30240-428: Was increasingly appointed by the state. Although the structural model provided by the University of Paris, where student members are controlled by faculty "masters", provided a standard for universities, the application of this model took at least three different forms. There were universities that had a system of faculties whose teaching addressed a very specific curriculum; this model tended to train specialists. There
30420-411: Was not a guaranteed conclusion for the small Finnish nation. Recognition by Russia and other great powers was essential; Svinhufvud accepted that he had to negotiate with Lenin for the acknowledgement. The socialists, having been reluctant to enter talks with the Russian leadership in July 1917, sent two delegations to Petrograd to request that Lenin approve Finnish sovereignty. In December 1917, Lenin
30600-477: Was prevalent and from where the institution spread around the world. An important idea in the definition of a university is the notion of academic freedom . The first documentary evidence of this comes from early in the life of the University of Bologna , which adopted an academic charter, the Constitutio Habita , in 1155 or 1158, which guaranteed the right of a traveling scholar to unhindered passage in
30780-527: Was prevalent throughout the curriculum, while medicine also depended on Galen and Arabic scholarship. The importance of humanism for changing this state-of-affairs cannot be underestimated. Once humanist professors joined the university faculty, they began to transform the study of grammar and rhetoric through the studia humanitatis . Humanist professors focused on the ability of students to write and speak with distinction, to translate and interpret classical texts, and to live honorable lives. Other scholars within
30960-418: Was shot during a local strike on 9 August 1917 at Ypäjä and a Civil Guard member was killed in a local political crisis at Malmi on 24 September. The October Revolution disrupted the informal truce between the Finnish non-socialists and the Russian Provisional Government. After political wrangling over how to react to the revolt, the majority of the politicians accepted a compromise proposal by Santeri Alkio ,
31140-436: Was signed on 1 March 1918, where Red Finland was called the Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic ( Finnish : Suomen sosialistinen työväentasavalta ; Swedish : Finlands socialistiska arbetarrepublik ). The negotiations for the treaty implied that – as in World War I in general – nationalism was more important for both sides than the principles of international socialism . The Red Finns did not simply accept an alliance with
31320-547: Was stopped and the autonomous status of 1809–1899 was returned to the Finns by the 15th March 1917 manifesto of the Russian Provisional Government. For the first time in history, de facto political power existed in the Parliament of Finland. The political left, consisting mainly of social democrats, covered a wide spectrum from moderate to revolutionary socialists. The political right was even more diverse, ranging from social liberals and moderate conservatives to rightist conservative elements. The four main parties were: During 1917,
31500-446: Was the first to adopt the (German) research university model and pioneered the adoption of that model by most American universities. When Johns Hopkins was founded in 1876, "nearly the entire faculty had studied in Germany." In Britain, the move from Industrial Revolution to modernity saw the arrival of new civic universities with an emphasis on science and engineering , a movement initiated in 1960 by Sir Keith Murray (chairman of
31680-553: Was the short-lived but fairly rapid adoption of Cartesian epistemology and methodology in European universities, and the debates surrounding that adoption, which led to more mechanistic approaches to scientific problems as well as demonstrated an openness to change. There are many examples which belie the commonly perceived intransigence of universities. Although universities may have been slow to accept new sciences and methodologies as they emerged, when they did accept new ideas it helped to convey legitimacy and respectability, and supported
31860-454: Was to defeat the Finnish Reds; end the influence of Bolshevist Russia in Finland and expand Finnish territory to East Karelia , a geopolitically significant home to people speaking Finnic languages . The weakness of Russia inspired an idea of Greater Finland among the expansionist factions of both the right and left: the Reds had claims concerning the same areas. General Mannerheim agreed on
32040-462: Was trained in Germany. The major reasons for rising political tensions among Finns were the autocratic rule of the Russian tsar and the undemocratic class system of the estates of the realm . The latter system originated in the regime of the Swedish Empire that preceded Russian governance and divided the Finnish people economically, socially and politically. Finland's population grew rapidly in
32220-436: Was ultimately quite progressive. The emergence of classical texts brought new ideas and led to a more creative university climate (as the notable list of scholars above attests to). A focus on knowledge coming from self, from the human, has a direct implication for new forms of scholarship and instruction, and was the foundation for what is commonly known as the humanities. This disposition toward knowledge manifested in not simply
32400-451: Was under intense pressure from the Germans to conclude peace negotiations at Brest-Litovsk , and the Bolsheviks' rule was in crisis, with an inexperienced administration and the demoralised army facing powerful political and military opponents. Lenin calculated that the Bolsheviks could fight for central parts of Russia but had to give up some peripheral territories, including Finland in the geopolitically less important north-western corner. As
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