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119-583: The smaller part of the isthmus to the southeast of the old Russia-Finland border is considered historically as Northern Ingria , rather than part of the Karelian Isthmus itself. The rest of the isthmus was historically a part of Finnish Karelia . This was conquered by the Russian Empire during the Great Northern War in 1712 and included within the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland (1809–1917) of

238-528: A distinct nation, since the population is made up of several different ethnic groups, despite the Soviet Union recognizing Ingrian as a nationality. The indigenous peoples of Ingria, like the Votians and Izhorians , are today close to extinction, together with their languages . This notwithstanding, many people still recognize and attempt to preserve their Ingrian heritage . Historic Ingria covers approximately

357-426: A few failures in the top electrical wires. The trams ran at the speed of 20 kilometres per hour (12 mph) and could carry 20 passengers per carriage. The carriages were converted from the used horsecars . About 900,000 passengers were transported over a regular season between 20 January and 21 March. The sparking of contacts at the top wires amused spectators in the night. The first concrete bridge across Neva,

476-554: A huge area, 740 km (286 sq mi), encircled by the Road of Life , the roads Rzhevka – Novoye Devyatkino and Novoye Devyatkino – Matoksa and the coast of Lake Ladoga (available to visitors since 2003). In 2006 a Voronezh early warning radar was built in Lekhtusi , Vsevolozhsky District . The port of Vysotsk is a base of the Baltic Fleet . 138th Guards Motor Rifle Brigade

595-484: A much larger flood of 760 centimetres (300 in) was described in 1691. Besides flooding as a result of tidal waves, in 1903, 1921 and 1956 floods were caused by the melting of snow. The Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of Russia classifies the Neva as a "heavily polluted" river. The main pollutants include copper , zinc , manganese , nitrites and nitrogen . The dirtiest tributaries of

714-615: A number of others along the Vyborg-Hiitola railroad ). Vyborg Shipyard is one of the largest shipbuilding companies in Northwestern Russia . Roskar Battery Farm in Pervomayskoye is a leading producer of chicken and eggs . In Vsevolozhsky District state-owned Morozov Plant is located, which is an important producer of paints , adhesives , abrasives and other substances. In Kuzmolovsky, Vsevolozhsky District , near

833-661: A separate river basin. The Karelian Isthmus is located in two regions of the Russian Federation , Saint Petersburg and the Leningrad Oblast . Saint Petersburg is represented by seven districts, the Leningrad Oblast by three. Apart from the old towns of Vyborg and Priozersk , and churches on the Konevets island of Lake Ladoga , since the late 19th century a number of other archaeological sites have been discovered on

952-502: A sizable Russophone minority in Finland. Neva River The Neva ( / ˈ n iː v ə / NEE -və , UK also / ˈ n eɪ v ə / NAY -və ; Russian : Нева́ , IPA: [nʲɪˈva] ) is a river in northwestern Russia flowing from Lake Ladoga through the western part of Leningrad Oblast (historical region of Ingria ) to the Neva Bay of

1071-727: A stronghold in the town of Narva , followed by the Russian castle Ivangorod on the opposite side of the Narva River in 1492. With the consolidation of the Kievan Rus and the expansion of the Republic of Novgorod north, the indigenous Ingrians became Eastern Orthodox . Ingria became a province of Sweden in the Treaty of Stolbovo in 1617 that ended the Ingrian War , fought between Sweden and Russia. After

1190-463: A year. Near the Ladozhsky Bridge there is an underwater tunnel to host a gas pipeline Nord Stream 1 . The tunnel has a diameter of 2 metres (6.6 ft) and a length of 750 metres (2,460 ft) and is laid at a maximum depth of 25 metres (82 ft). Neva is the main source of water (96 percent) of St. Petersburg and its suburbs. From 26 June 2009, St. Petersburg started processing

1309-465: Is 7 mg/L. The basin area of Neva is 5,000 km , including the pools of Lake Ladoga and Onega (281,000 km ). The basin contains 26,300 lakes and has a complex hydrological network of more than 48,300 rivers, however only 26 flow directly into Neva. The main tributaries are Mga , Tosna , Izhora , Slavyanka and Murzinka on the left, and Okhta and Chyornaya Rechka on the right side of Neva. The hydrological network had been altered by

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1428-686: Is a historical region in what is now northwestern European Russia . It lies along the southeastern shore of the Gulf of Finland , bordered by Lake Ladoga on the Karelian Isthmus in the north and by the River Narva on the border with Estonia in the west. The earliest known modern inhabitants of the region were indigenous Finnic ethnic groups, primarily the Izhorians and Votians , who were forcibly converted to Eastern Orthodoxy over several centuries during

1547-531: Is a popular summer resort for Saint Petersburg citizens since the late 19th century, served by trains of Finlyandsky Rail Terminal . The isthmus, especially the land along Saint Petersburg–Vyborg and Saint Petersburg–Priozersk railroads, hosts numerous dachas . A 20–35 km wide stretch of land in Vyborgsky District and Republic of Karelia to the west of the Vyborg–Hiitola railway , as well as

1666-751: Is also an important supplier of sand . A plant of Ford Motor Company producing Ford Focus cars was opened in Vsevolozhsk in 2002. The Karelian Isthmus is included within Leningrad Military District of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation . The isthmus hosts airfields in Levashovo , Pribylovo and Gromovo . Other airfields in Veshchevo and Kasimovo (Vartemyagi) have been abandoned. In

1785-894: Is an important link connecting inland waterways of Finland with the Gulf of Finland . The Karelian Isthmus is served by a number of railways; the trains arrive from Finlyandsky Rail Terminal and Ladozhsky Rail Terminal of Saint Petersburg : Also on the Karelian isthmus are all lines of the St. Petersburg metro . The pulp-and-paper , timber and woodworking industries ( JSC Svetogorsk , pulp and paper mill in Svetogorsk , Vyborgsky Pulp and Paper Mill in Vyborg , Priozersky Furniture and Woodworking Industrial Complex and Priozersky Woodworking Factory in Priozersk , as well as other smaller enterprises all over

1904-552: Is connecting the River Volkhov and Neva. Some of its historical structures are preserved, such as a four-chamber granite sluice (1836) and a bridge (1832). On 21 August 1963, a Soviet twinjet Tu-124 airliner performed an emergency water landing on the Neva near the Finland Railway Bridge . The plane took off from Tallinn -Ülemiste Airport ( TLL ) at 08:55 on 21 August 1963 with 45 passengers and seven crew on board and

2023-552: Is located in Kamenka , and in the 56th District Training Centre in Sertolovo . The population of the Karelian isthmus today is slightly less than 3.1 million inhabitants. Of these, about 2.4 million live in St. Petersburg and a little less than 700 thousand in the Leningrad region. The population is growing solely due to migration, as the mortality rate is much higher than the birth rate, but

2142-691: Is navigable throughout and is part of the Volga–Baltic Waterway and White Sea–Baltic Canal . It is the site of many major historical events, including the Battle of the Neva in 1240 which gave Alexander Nevsky his name, the founding of Saint Petersburg in 1703, and the Siege of Leningrad by the German army during World War II . The river played a vital role in trade between Byzantium and Scandinavia . The earliest people in recorded history known to have inhabited

2261-604: The Great Northern War that started with the Russian conquest of Ingria where the new imperial capital , Saint Petersburg, was founded (1703) in the southern end of the isthmus, in place of old Swedish town Nyenskans . Then in 1812, the northwestern half was transferred, as a part of Old Finland , to the Grand Duchy of Finland , created in 1809 as an autonomous part of the Russian Empire. Due to its size, favorable climate, rich fishing waters and proximity to Saint Petersburg ,

2380-600: The Gulf of Finland . Despite its modest length of 74 kilometres (46 mi), it is the fourth-largest river in Europe in terms of average discharge (after the Volga , the Danube and the Rhine ). The Neva is the only river flowing from Lake Ladoga. It flows through the city of Saint Petersburg , the three smaller towns of Shlisselburg , Kirovsk and Otradnoye , and dozens of settlements. It

2499-513: The Hermitage Bridge . From 1727 to 1916, the temporary Isaakievsky pontoon bridge was early constructed between the modern Saint Isaac's Square and Vasilievsky Island . A similar, but much longer Trinity pontoon bridge, which spanned 500 metres (1,600 ft), was brought from the Summer Garden to Petrogradsky Island . The first permanent bridge across Neva, Blagoveshchensky Bridge ,

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2618-790: The Kola Peninsula as well as Kazakhstan and Central Asia. The situation for the Ingrian Finns deteriorated further when in the fall of 1934 the Forbidden Border Zone along the western border of the Soviet Union was established, where entrance was forbidden without special permission issued by the NKVD . It was officially only 7.5 km (5 miles) deep initially, but along the Estonian border it extended to as much as 90 km (60 miles). The zone

2737-931: The Leningrad Oblast , the winter here is usually milder due to the moderating influence of the Gulf of Finland , but longer. The city of Vyborg and the town of Priozersk are situated on the northwestern part of the isthmus. The Karelian Isthmus is a popular place for hiking , cycling , skiing ( Korobitsyno and Kavgolovo ), climbing (near Kuznechnoye ), canoeing ( Losevo ), fishing for consumption (of carp bream , northern pike , roach , European perch , ruffe , burbot and others), mushroom hunting (for porcini , red-capped scaber stalk , birch bolete , velvet bolete , slippery Jack , golden chanterelle , Lactarius resimus , woolly milk-cap , ugly milk-cap , saffron milk-cap , Lactarius rufus , various Russulas and others), berry picking (of bilberry , raspberry , woodland strawberry , cowberry , cranberry , cloudberry , bog bilberry and stone bramble ). It

2856-506: The Leningrad Oblast . Since Estonia reclaimed its independence in 1991, this territory has been disputed. As Russia does not recognize the Treaty of Tartu, the area currently remains under Russian control. After the 1917 Bolshevik revolution in Russia, the Republic of North Ingria ( Finnish : Pohjois-Inkerin tasavalta ) declared its independence from Russia with the support of Finland and with

2975-562: The Peace of Moscow of 12 March. According to the protocol appended to the Moscow Peace Treaty, the fighting was ended at noon (Leningrad time) on 13 March and by 26 March the Finnish troops had been completely withdrawn. The entire Karelian population of the ceded areas of about 422 thousand people was evacuated to other parts of Finland (see Evacuation of Finnish Karelia ). On 31 March most of

3094-718: The Soviet Union staged the Shelling of Mainila and invaded Finland in what became known as the Winter War , which took a disproportionally heavy death toll on the Red Army . Only in February 1940 did the Soviet forces manage to penetrate the Mannerheim Line across the isthmus, the strength of which is often exaggerated. Finland ceded the Karelian Isthmus and Ladoga Karelia to the Soviet Union in

3213-516: The Treaty of Stolbova (1617) after the Ingrian War of 1610–1617. Sweden's interest in the territory was mainly strategic: the area served as a buffer zone against Russian attacks on the Karelian Isthmus and on present-day Finland, then the eastern half of the Swedish realm; and Russian Baltic trade had to pass through Swedish territory. The townships of Ivangorod , Jama (now Kingisepp ), Caporie (now Koporye ) and Nöteborg (now Shlisselburg ) became

3332-554: The Volodarsky Bridge , was built in 1936. During World War II, from 8 September 1941 to 27 January 1944, Leningrad was in the devastating German Siege . On 30 August 1941, the German army captured Mga and came to Neva. On 8 September Germans captured Shlisselburg and cut all land communications and waterways to St. Petersburg (then Leningrad). The siege was partly relieved in January 1943, and ended on 27 January 1944. A river station

3451-562: The Vyborg Offensive and pushed the front from the pre-1939 border to Vyborg in ten days. The returned Karelians were evacuated to Finland again. In the Battle of Tali-Ihantala , 25 June–9 July, the Finns concentrated their military strength and brought the offensive to a halt at the River Vuoksi , in the northwesternmost part of the isthmus, at the closest point only 40 kilometres from

3570-591: The Weichselian glaciation . Its highest point lies on the Lembolovo Heights moraine at about 205 m (670 ft). There are no mountains on the isthmus, but steep hills occur in some places. The Vuoksi , the largest river, runs southeastwards from Lake Saimaa of Finland to Lake Ladoga , dividing the isthmus into two uneven parts. Saimaa Canal opened in 1856 links Lake Saimaa to the Bay of Vyborg passing through

3689-515: The 11th century, Sweden and Novgorod Republic started to compete tax holding rights. The Treaty of Nöteborg of 1323 established a border between them along the rivers now known as the Sestra and the Volchya . During 17th century Sweden gained the whole isthmus and also Ingria . In this time many Karelians escaped to Tver's Karelia . From 1721–1917 the isthmus belonged to the Russian Empire , won in

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3808-591: The 12th century AD. The connection disappeared due to ongoing land uplift in the 2nd millennium AD. In 1818 a canal, which was dug to drain spring flood waters from Lake Suvanto (now Lake Sukhodolskoye, a 40-km long narrow lake in the eastern part of the Isthmus) into Lake Ladoga , unexpectedly eroded and turned into the Taipaleenjoki (now Burnaya River). The Taipaleenjoki started draining Suvanto and decreased its level by 7 m. Originally waters of Lake Suvanto flowed into

3927-455: The 20-year-old Prince Alexander Yaroslavich , aimed to stop the planned Swedish invasion. The Swedish army was defeated; the prince showed personal courage in combat and received the honorary name of "Nevsky". As a result of the Russian defeat in the Ingrian War of 1610–17 and the concomitant Treaty of Stolbovo , the area of the Neva River became part of Swedish Ingria . Beginning in 1642,

4046-568: The 860s, the warring Finnic and Slavic tribes rebelled under Vadim the Bold , but later asked the Varangians under Rurik to return and to put an end to the recurring conflicts between them. The Swedes referred to the ancient Novgorodian land of Vod people as "Ingermanland", Latinized to "Ingria". Folk etymology traces its name to Ingegerd Olofsdotter , the daughter of the Swedish king Olof Skötkonung (995–1022). Upon her marriage to Yaroslav I

4165-585: The 8th to 13th centuries, Neva provided a waterway from Scandinavia to the Byzantine Empire . In the 9th century, the area belonged to Veliky Novgorod . The Neva was already mentioned in the Life of Alexander Nevsky (13th century). At that time, Veliky Novgorod was engaged in nearly constant wars with Sweden. A major battle occurred on 15 July 1240 at the confluence of the Izhora and Neva Rivers. The Russian army, led by

4284-516: The Baltic Sea, retreated, and many lowland lakes were also isolated in depressions formed earlier by glacial exaration and fluvioglacial activity. Lake Ladoga was separated from the sea as well. Due to land uplift, around 5000 BP the River Vuoksi started emptying into Lake Ladoga as a new outlet of Lake Saimaa . Lake Ladoga transgressed , flooding lowland lakes and the Vuoksi, and became connected with

4403-711: The Baltic Sea. Then, the Tosna was flowing in the modern lower half of the Neva as today, into the Litorinal Sea. In the north of the Karelian Isthmus , the sea was united by a wide strait with Lake Ladoga . The Mga then flowed to the east, into Lake Ladoga, near the modern source of the Neva. Thus the Mga then was separate from the Tosna/lower-Neva basin. Near the modern Lake Ladoga, by glacial rebound land rose faster, and an endorheic lake briefly formed. This overspilled, eventually

4522-405: The Church of the Intercession. Raised in 2007, it is a wooden replica of a historical church which stood on the southern shore of Lake Onega. That church was constructed in 1708 and it burned down in 1963. It is believed to be the forerunner of the famous Kizhi Pogost . Old Ladoga Canal , built in the first half of the 18th century, is a water transport route along the shore of Lake Ladoga which

4641-432: The Ingrian Finns started in late 1920s, and Russification was nearly complete by the 1940s. In the modern era, Ingria forms the northwestern anchor of Russia—its "window" on the Baltic Sea —with Saint Petersburg as its centre. Although Sweden and Novgorod had fought for the Ingrian lands more or less since the Great Schism of 1054, the first actual attempt to establish Swedish dominion in Ingria appears to date from

4760-436: The Karelian Isthmus is an important transport corridor linking Scandinavia and Central Russia . Primorsk , terminus of the Baltic Pipeline System , which has recently become one of the most efficient Russian sea ports , is also located here. The only motorway on the isthmus is the recently completed E18 "Scandinavia" (M10) going from Saint Petersburg through Vyborg and Vaalimaa . Saimaa Canal (opened in 1856)

4879-406: The Karelo-Finnish SSR). The border of the Moscow Peace Treaty (1940) was recognized by Finland again in the Peace of Paris , 1947. As a result of the war, the population of the Karelian Isthmus was almost completely replaced. After the war the isthmus was included in the Leningrad Oblast and people from other parts of the Soviet Union, mostly Russians, were settled there. The vast majority of

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4998-420: The Leningrad Oblast. They include the fortress Oreshek , which was built in 1323 on the Orekhovy Island at the source of Neva River, south-west of the Petrokrepost Bay, near the city of Shlisselburg . The waterfront of Schlisselburg has a monument of Peter I. In the city, there are Blagoveshchensky Cathedral (1764–95) and a still functioning Orthodox church of St. Nicholas, built in 1739. On the river bank stands

5117-442: The Neva River runs from late April to November. To the west of Shlisselburg, an oil pipeline runs under the river. The pipeline is part of the Baltic Pipeline System , which provides oil from Timan-Pechora plate, West Siberia , Ural , Kazakhstan and Primorsk to the Gulf of Finland. The 774-metre (2,539 ft) long pipeline lies 7 to 9 metres (23 to 30 ft) below the river bottom and delivers about 42 million tonnes of oil

5236-410: The Neva are the Mga, Slavyanka, Ohta, and Chernaya. Hundreds of factories pour wastewater into the Neva within St. Petersburg, and petroleum is regularly transported along the river. The annual influx of pollutants is 80,000 tonnes, and the heaviest polluters are Power-and-heating Plant 2 ( Russian : ТЭЦ-2 ), "Plastpolymer" and " Obukhov State Plant ". The biggest polluters in the Leningrad Oblast are

5355-411: The Russian Empire. When Finland became independent in 1917, the isthmus (except for the territory roughly corresponding to present-day Vsevolozhsky District and some districts of Saint Petersburg) remained Finnish. Finnish Karelia was partly ceded to the Soviet Union by Finland following the Winter War (1939–1940) and Continuation War (1941–1944). In 1940–1941, during the Interim Peace , most of

5474-531: The Russian population of central Ingria outnumbered the Finnic peoples living there, but Ingrian Finns formed the majority in the districts along the Finnish border. In the early 1930s the Izhorian language was taught in the schools of the Soikinsky Peninsula and the area around the mouth of the Luga River . In 1928 collectivization of agriculture started in Ingria. To facilitate it, in 1929–1931, 18,000 people (4320 families), kulaks (independent peasants) from North Ingria, were deported to East Karelia ,

5593-434: The Saint Petersburg–Vyborg section had become popular place of summer resort for wealthy Saint Petersburgers. When Finland declared its independence in 1917, the isthmus (except for the territory roughly corresponding to present-day Vsevolozhsky District and some districts of Saint Petersburg) remained Finnish, part of the Viipuri province with its center in Viipuri , the fourth largest Finnish city. A considerable part of

5712-513: The Soviet period. 63,000 fled to Finland during World War II, and were required back by Stalin after the war. Most became victims of Soviet population transfers and many were executed as " enemies of the people ". The remainder, including some post-Stalin returnees (it was not until 1956 that some of the deported were allowed to return to their villages), were outnumbered by Russian immigration. The 1959 census recorded 1,062 Izhorians; in 1979 that number had fallen to 748, only 315 of them around

5831-435: The Swedish conquest of the area in 1617 the Ingrian Finns , descendants of 17th-century Lutheran emigrants from present-day Finland , became the majority in Ingria. In 1710, following a Russian conquest, Ingria was designated as the Province of St. Petersburg. In the Treaty of Nystad in 1721, Sweden formally ceded Ingria to Russia. In 1927 the Soviet authorities designated the area as Leningrad Province. Deportations of

5950-501: The Swedish town Nyen , close to the Neva river's estuary at the Gulf of Finland, the new Russian capital Saint Petersburg was founded in 1703. Peter the Great raised Ingria to the status of a duchy with Prince Menshikov as its first (and last) duke. In 1708, Ingria was designated a governorate ( Ingermanland Governorate in 1708–1710, Saint Petersburg Governorate in 1710–1914, Petrograd Governorate in 1914–1924, Leningrad Governorate in 1924–1927). In 1870, printing started of

6069-491: The Vuoksi River through a waterway at Kiviniemi (now Losevo), but as a result of the change, the waterway dried out. In 1857 the canal was dug there, but the stream reversed direction, revealed rapids and rendered navigation at Kiviniemi impossible. Since 1857 Suvanto and the Taipaleenjoki have constituted the southern armlet of the Vuoksi River, which has decreased the level of the original northern armlet emptying into Ladoga near Kexholm (now Priozersk) by 4 m, isolating it as

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6188-493: The Wise , Grand Prince of Novgorod and Kiev, in 1019, she received the lands around Ladoga as a marriage gift. They were administered by Swedish jarls , such as Ragnvald Ulfsson , under the sovereignty of the Novgorod Republic . In the 12th century, Western Ingria was absorbed by the Novgorod Republic. There followed centuries of frequent wars , chiefly between Novgorod and Sweden, and occasionally involving Denmark and Teutonic Knights as well. The Teutonic Knights established

6307-490: The aim of incorporation into Finland. It ruled parts of Ingria from 1919 until 1920. With the Russian-Finnish Peace Treaty of Tartu it was re-integrated into Russia, but enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy. At its height in the 1920s, there were about 300 Finnish language schools and 10 Finnish language newspapers in Ingria. The First All-Union Census of the Soviet Union in 1926 recorded 114,831 Leningrad Finns, as Ingrian Finns were called. The 1926 census also showed that

6426-400: The area are the Finnic people . The word Neva is widespread in Finnic languages , having quite cognate meanings. In Finnish it means poor fen , in Karelian : watercourse and in Estonian (as nõva ): waterway. It has been postulated the name could derive from Indo-European adjective newā which means new – the river began its flow some time between 2000 BC and 1250 BC. However,

6545-464: The area ceded to Estonia under the Peace Treaty of Tartu (1920). Under the Russian-Estonian Peace Treaty of Tartu of 1920, a small part of West Ingria became part of the Republic of Estonia . In contrast to other parts of Ingria, Finnish culture blossomed in this area, known as Estonian Ingria  [ ru ; et ] . This was to a large extent due to the work of Leander Reijo (also Reijonen or Reiju) from Kullankylä  [ fi ] on

6664-401: The border of 1940. The Moscow Armistice ending the war was signed on 19 September 1944. The entire isthmus became Soviet, although most of it had never been captured by the Soviets in battles. This time the ceded territories of the Karelian Isthmus (including the districts of Jääski , Kexholm and Vyborg ) were incorporated into Leningrad Oblast (unlike Ladoga Karelia, which remained within

6783-443: The capital of Ingria was Nyen, a city near the Nyenschantz fortress. Because of financial and religious oppression, much of the Orthodox population left the Neva region, emptying 60 percent of the villages by 1620. The abandoned areas became populated by people from the Karelian Isthmus and Savonia . As a result of the Great Northern War of 1700–21, the valley of Neva River became part of Russian Empire . On 16 May 1703,

6902-421: The capital of the Russian Empire , the Karelian Isthmus became the wealthiest part of Finland once the Industrial Revolution had gained momentum in the 19th century. The railroads Saint Petersburg–Vyborg–Riihimäki (1870), Vyborg–Hiitola–Sortavala (1893), Saint Petersburg–Kexholm–Hiitola (1917) crossed the isthmus, contributing to its economic development. By the end of the 19th century the nearby areas along

7021-426: The ceded territories in the isthmus were included within the Karelo-Finnish SSR . However, since World War II the entire isthmus has been divided between the city of Saint Petersburg (mostly Kurortny District ), as well as Priozersky District , Vsevolozhsky District and Vyborgsky District of Leningrad Oblast . According to the 2002 census , the population of the Kurortny District of Saint Petersburg and

7140-450: The ceded territories were incorporated into Karelo-Finnish SSR by a decision of the Supreme Council of the Soviet Union (in the Karelian Isthmus the districts of Jääski , Kexholm and Vyborg ). The districts of Kanneljärvi , Koivisto and Rautu as well as the town of Terijoki were, however, included into Leningrad Oblast . In 1941, during World War II , Germany invaded the Soviet Union in Operation Barbarossa . A few days later

7259-552: The centres of the four Ingrian counties ( slottslän ), and consisted of citadels, in the vicinity of which were small boroughs called hakelverk – before the wars of the 1650s mainly inhabited by Russian townspeople. The degree to which Ingria became the destination for Swedish deportees has often been exaggerated. Ingria remained sparsely populated. In 1664 the total population amounted to 15,000. Swedish attempts to introduce Lutheranism , which accelerated after an initial period of relative religious tolerance , met with repugnance on

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7378-476: The cities of Shlisselburg, Kirovsk and Otradnoye, as well as the Kirov thermal power station . More than 40 oil spills are registered on the river every year. In 2008, the Federal Service of St. Petersburg announced that no beach of the Neva was fit for swimming. Cleaning of wastewater in Saint Petersburg started in 1979; by 1997, about 74% was purified. This rose to 85% in 2005, to 91.7% by 2008, and Feliks Karamzinov expected it to reach almost 100% by 2011 with

7497-640: The city of Lappeenranta in South Karelia , Finland. The Karelian Isthmus lies within the ecoregion of Scandinavian and Russian taiga . Geobotanically, it lies at the juncture of the Central European, Eastern European and Northern European floristic provinces of the Circumboreal Region of the Holarctic Kingdom . The isthmus is mostly covered by coniferous forests formed by Scots pine ( Pinus sylvestris ) and Norway spruce ( Picea abies ), with numerous lakes (e.g. Lake Sukhodolskoye and Lake Glubokoye ) as well as small grass, fen and Sphagnum raised bogs . Forests cover approximately 11,700 km of

7616-459: The city of St. Petersburg was founded in the mouth of Neva and became capital of Russia in 1712. Neva became the central part of the city. It was cleaned, intersected with canals and enclosed with embankments. In 1715, construction began of the first wooden embankment between the Admiralty building and the Summer Garden . In the early 1760s works started to cover it in granite and to build bridges across Neva and its canals and tributaries, such as

7735-477: The completion of the expansion of the main sewerage plant. Many sites of ancient people, up to nine thousand years old, were found within the territory of the Neva basin. It is believed that around twelve thousand years BC, Finnic people ( Votes and Izhorians ) moved to this area from the Ural Mountains . In the 8th and 9th centuries AD, the area was inhabited by the East Slavs who were mainly engaged in slash and burn agriculture, hunting and fishing. From

7854-406: The confluence of the river Tosna, and near the island Fabrinchny near the source. The average depth is 8 to 11 metres (26 to 36 ft); the maximum of 24 metres (79 ft) is reached above the Liteyny Bridge , and the minimum of 4.0 to 4.5 metres (13 to 15 ft) is in Ivanovskye rapids. In the Neva basin, rainfall greatly exceeds evaporation; the latter accounts for only 37.7 percent of

7973-418: The development of Saint Petersburg through its entire history. When it was founded in 1703, the area was low and swampy and required construction of canals and ponds for drainage. The earth excavated during their construction was used to raise the city. At the end of the 19th century, the delta of Neva consisted of 48 rivers and canals and 101 islands. The most significant distributaries of the delta are listed in

8092-420: The diversity of fish species in Neva is small. Permanent residents include such undemanding to environment species as perch , ruffe and roaches . Many fish species are transitory, of which commercial value have smelt , vendace and partly salmon . Floods in St. Petersburg are usually caused by the overflow of the delta of Neva and by surging water in the eastern part of Neva Bay . They are registered when

8211-507: The drinking water with ultraviolet light, abandoning the use of chlorine for disinfection. The Neva also has developed fishery, both commercial and recreational. Leningrad Oblast : St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg, Neva delta Construction of the Novo-Admiralteisky Bridge , a movable drawbridge across the river, has been approved, but will not commence before 2011. Whereas most tourist attractions of Neva are located within St. Petersburg, there are several historical places upstream, in

8330-441: The early 14th century, when Sweden first founded the settlement of Viborg in Karelia and then the fortress Landskrona (built in 1299 or 1300) at the confluence of the Ohta and Neva rivers. However, Novgorod re-conquered Landskrona in 1301 and destroyed it. Ingria eventually became a Swedish dominion in the 1580s, but the Treaty of Teusina (1595) returned it to Russia in 1595. Russia in its turn ceded Ingria to Sweden in

8449-629: The entire Finnish population of the parishes of Valkeasaari , Lempaala , Vuole and Miikkulainen near the Finnish border, 20,000 people, were resettled to the areas around Cherepovets and Siberia in the next wave of deportations. In Ingria they were replaced with people from other parts of the Soviet Union , mostly Russians but also Ukrainians and Tatars . In 1937 Lutheran churches and Finnish and Izhorian schools in Ingria were closed down and publications and radio broadcasting in Finnish and Izhorian were suspended. Both Ingrian Finnish and Izhorian populations all but disappeared from Ingria during

8568-615: The fires and cutting for technical needs. Extensive damage was caused during World War II : in Saint Petersburg, the forests were reduced completely, and in the upper reaches down to 40 to 50 percent. Forest were replanted after the war with spruce, pine, cedar , Siberian larch , oak , Norway maple , elm , America, ash , apple tree, mountain ash and other species. The shrubs include barberry , lilac , jasmine , hazel , honeysuckle , hawthorn , rose hip , viburnum , juniper , elder , shadbush and many others. Nowadays,

8687-736: The first Finnish-language newspaper in Ingria, Pietarin Sanomat . Before that Ingria received newspapers mostly from Viborg. The first public library was opened in 1850 in Tyrö. The largest of the libraries, situated in Skuoritsa, had more than 2,000 volumes in the second half of the 19th century. In 1899 the first song festival in Ingria was held in Puutosti (Skuoritsa). By 1897 (year of the Russian Empire Census )

8806-505: The ice sheet retreated to Salpausselkä , the upland area of the Isthmus remained a large island and many upland lakes emerged. Prior to 12650 BP, the land was characterized by harsh Arctic conditions with permafrost and sparse vegetation . Steppe-tundra complexes developed after this point. Around 11000 BP climate began to warm and became humid, first pine and birch forests were established. Around 9000 BP Ancylus Lake , another stage of

8925-502: The islands and shores of the Gulf of Vyborg, belongs to the strictly guarded zone of the border control , reaching the shore of Lake Ladoga at Hiitola. In 1993–2006 the zone was formally 5 km wide, although in fact it has always been much wider. Visiting it is forbidden without a permit issued by the FSB (by KGB during the time of the Soviet Union ). Geologically the Karelian Isthmus lies on

9044-590: The isthmus) are well developed in Vyborgsky and Priozersky Districts. The pulp and paper industry , however, affects the environment adversely. The predecessor of the Priozersk facilities, Priozersky Pulp and Paper Mill , a major polluter of Lake Ladoga constructed in 1931, was closed down in 1986. Northern and western parts of the isthmus are also an important reserve of granite (quarries in Kuznechnoye , as well as

9163-580: The isthmus, more than three quarters of its total area. Swampy areas occupy 5.5 percent of the territory. In the large contiguous area along the shore of Lake Ladoga in Vsevolozhsky District , in the southeastern part of the isthmus, bogs occur much more frequently than in other parts. The same was once true of the lowland along the Neva River , which has since been drained. The soil is predominantly podsol , which contains massive boulders, especially in

9282-551: The isthmus. Numerous archaeological remnants of the Mesolithic , Neolithic , Copper Age and Bronze Age occur all over the isthmus. The eastern part of the Karelian Isthmus hosts a number of medieval remnants. There are many grave pits of Karelians of the 10th–15th centuries with metal and ceramic artifacts along the northern armlet of the Vuoksi, near Lake Sukhodolskoye and in a few other places in Priozersky District . On

9401-563: The isthmus. See also the List of the vascular plants of the Karelian Isthmus . Red squirrel , moose , red fox , mountain hare and boar (reintroduced) are typical inhabitants of the forests. The climate of the isthmus is moderately continental , with 650–800 mm (25–32 in) average precipitation per year, long snowy winters lasting from November through mid-April and occasionally reaching about -40 °C (-40 F), moderately cool summers and short frost-free period. Compared to other parts of

9520-541: The late Middle Ages . They were later joined by the Ingrian Finns , descendants of 17th century Lutheran Finnish immigrants to the area. At that time, modern Finland proper and Ingria were both part of the Swedish Empire . Ingria as a whole never formed a separate state; however, North Ingria was an independent state for just under two years in 1919–1920. The inhabitants of Ingria cannot be said to have comprised

9639-729: The late 19th century to park unused ships. Neva is part of the major Volga–Baltic Waterway and White Sea – Baltic Canal , however it has relatively low transport capacity because of its width, depth and bridges. Neva is available for vessels with capacity below 5,000 tonnes. Major transported goods include timber from Arkhangelsk and Vologda ; apatite , granite and diabase from Kola Peninsula ; cast iron and steel from Cherepovets ; coal from Donetsk and Kuznetsk ; pyrite from Ural; potassium chloride from Solikamsk ; oil from Volga region. There are also many passenger routes to Moscow , Astrakhan , Rostov , Perm , Nizhny Novgorod , Valaam and other destinations. Navigation season on

9758-527: The local place names with such influence coincide with Scandinavian traders and Slavs' first main settlement in the region, in the 8th century AD. In the Paleozoic , 300–400 million years ago, all the delta region was covered by a sea. Modern relief, eminences, were formed by glacial scouring. Its retreat formed the Littorina Sea , the level of which was 7 to 9 metres (23 to 30 ft) higher than its successor

9877-409: The main trading centre of Ingria, especially after Ivangorod dwindled, and in 1642 it was made the administrative centre of the province. In 1656 a Russian attack badly damaged the town, and the administrative centre moved to Narva . In the early 18th century the area was reconquered by Russia in the Great Northern War after having been in Swedish possession for about 100 years. Near the location of

9996-786: The migration attractiveness of St. Petersburg and the surrounding areas of the Leningrad region is very high. Thus, about 40% of the population of St. Petersburg and about 30% of the population of the Leningrad region live on the Karelian isthmus. There is strong growth in population in all the districts of the Karelian isthmus in addition to the Vyborg district and Priozersk district . 60°30′N 29°54′E  /  60.5°N 29.9°E  / 60.5; 29.9 Ingria Ingria ( Russian : Ингрия, Ингерманландия, Ижорская земля , romanized :  Ingriya, Ingermanlandiya, Izhorskaya zemlya ; Finnish : Inkeri, Inkerinmaa ; Swedish : Ingermanland ; Estonian : Ingeri, Ingerimaa )

10115-612: The mouth of the Luga River and on the Soikinsky Peninsula . According to the Soviet census of 1989 , there were 829 Izhorians, 449 of them in Russia (including other parts of the country) and 228 in Estonia. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, surviving Ingrian Finns and their Russified descendants have been allowed to emigrate to Finland . This has led to the birth of

10234-578: The mouth. There are three sharp turns: the Ivanovskye rapids, at Nevsky Forest Park of the Ust-Slavyanka region (the so-called "Crooked Knee"), and near the Smolny Institute , below the mouth of the river Okhta . The river declines 4.27 metres (14.0 ft) in elevation between source and mouth. At one point the river crosses a moraine ridge and forms the Ivanovskye rapids. There, at the beginning of

10353-582: The new border between Estonia and the Soviet Union, who was called "The King of Ingria" by the Finnish press. Finnish schools and a Finnish newspaper were started. A church was built in Kallivieri  [ fi ] in 1920 and by 1928 the parish had 1,300 people. In 1945, after the Second World War , Estonian Ingria, then in the Soviet Union , was transferred to the Russian SFSR and incorporated into

10472-783: The north and northwest, where large granite rocky outcrops occur. Pine forests (with Pinus sylvestris ) are the most widespread and occupy 51% of the forested area of the Karelian Isthmus, followed by spruce forests (with Picea abies , 29%) and birch forests (with Betula pendula and B. pubescens , 16%). Stands on more fertile soils and in more favorable locations are occasionally dominated by Norway maple , black alder , grey alder , common aspen , English oak , grey willow , dark-leaved willow , tea-leaved willow , small-leaved lime or European white elm . Common vegetation of various types of pine forests includes heather , crowberry , common juniper , eared willow , lingonberry , water horsetail , bracken , graminoids (i.e. grasses in

10591-503: The northern Vuoksi armlet near the Tiuri village (now Vasilyevo). A few treasures of silver adornments and medieval Arabian and Western European coins have also been found, as the isthmus laid on the Volga trade route (at that time, the Vuoksi River had a distributary emptying into the Bay of Vyborg ). Ancestors of Baltic Finns wandered to the Karelian Isthmus possibly around 8500BC. In

10710-517: The northern part of Vsevolozhsky District , to the south of the old Finnish border, Karelian Fortified Region (KaUR) is located, which was reconstructed as late as in the 1960s, but now is abandoned as well. There is Bobochinsky tank range (195.975 km², founded in 1913) between Kamenka and Kirillovskoye and a number of military facilities in Vsevolozhsky District in the lowlands between Lake Ladoga and Saint Petersburg-Hiitola railroad , including Rzhevsky artillery range (founded in 1879),

10829-985: The number of Ingrian Finns had grown to 130,413, and by 1917 it had exceeded 140,000 (45,000 in Northern Ingria, 52,000 in Central (Eastern) Ingria and 30,000 in Western Ingria, the rest in Petrograd ). From 1868 Estonians began to migrate to Ingria as well. In 1897 the number of Estonians inhabiting the Saint Petersburg Governorate reached 64,116 (12,238 of them in Saint Petersburg itself); by 1926 it had increased to 66,333 (15,847 of them in Leningrad). As to Izhorians , in 1834 there were 17,800 of them, in 1897—21,000, in 1926—26,137. About 1000 Ingrians lived in

10948-487: The old Finnish toponyms in the conquered territories were renamed to invented Russian ones by the government around 1948. The Finnish toponyms of the territories included within Karelo-Finnish SSR and of the southern part of the isthmus (albeit assimilated) mostly remained. A lot of youth summer camps were built all over the isthmus during the time of the Soviet Union . Some of them still exist. The western part of

11067-485: The part of the majority of the Orthodox peasantry, who were obliged to attend Lutheran services; converts were promised grants and tax reductions, but Lutheran gains were mostly due to voluntary resettlements by Finns from Savonia and Finnish Karelia (mostly from Äyräpää ). The proportion of Lutheran Finns in Ingria ( Ingrian Finns ) comprised 41.1% in 1656, 53.2% in 1661, 55.2% in 1666, 56.9% in 1671 and 73.8% in 1695,

11186-496: The parts of Leningrad Oblast situated on the Karelian Isthmus amounts to 539,000. Many Saint Petersburg residents also decamp to the Isthmus during their vacations. The main population centers of the Isthmus are Vyborg ( Выборг ; Finnish : Viipuri ; Swedish : Viborg ), Priozersk ( Приозе́рск ; Finnish : Käkisalmi ; Swedish : Kexholm ) and Primorsk ( Примо́рск ; Finnish : Koivisto ; Swedish : Björkö ). The isthmus' terrain has been influenced dramatically by

11305-673: The policy of national delimitation in the Soviet Union . However, in 1936 the entire Finnish population of the parishes of Valkeasaari , Lempaala , Vuole and Miikkulainen along the Finnish border was deported to Siberia and Central Asia , and replaced by a Russian-speaking population. A number of defensive lines crossed the isthmus during the Soviet-Finnish hostilities in World War II , such as Mannerheim Line , VKT-line , VT-line , Main line (Finnish) and KaUR (Soviet), and fronts moved back and forth over it. In November 1939,

11424-418: The rapids, is the narrowest part of the river: 210 metres (690 ft). The average flow rate in the rapids is about 0.8–1.1 metres per second (2.6–3.6 ft/s). The average width along the river is 400 to 600 metres (1,300 to 2,000 ft). The widest places, at 1,000 to 1,250 metres (3,280 to 4,100 ft), are in the delta, near the gates of the marine trading port, at the end of the Ivanovskye rapids near

11543-404: The remainder being Russians, Izhorians and Votes . Ingermanland was to a considerable extent enfiefed to noble military and state officials, who brought their own Lutheran servants and workmen. However, a small number of Russian Orthodox churches remained in use until the very end of the Swedish dominion, and the forceful conversion of ethnic Russian Orthodox forbidden by law. Nyen became

11662-606: The remaining area populated by Ingrian Finns seceded from Bolshevist Russia as the Finland-backed Republic of North Ingria , but was reintegrated with Russia in the end of 1920 according to the conditions of the Treaty of Tartu . In 1928–1939 parts of the isthmus which belonged to Russia constituted the Kuivaisi National District with its center in Toksova , with Finnish as the official language, according to

11781-427: The river, this sometimes causes upstream floods. Of the total ice volume of Lake Ladoga, 10.6 cubic kilometres (2.5 cu mi), less than 5 percent enters the Neva. The average summer water temperature is 17 to 20 °C (63 to 68 °F), and the swimming season lasts only about 1.5 months. The water is fresh, with medium turbidity; the average salinity is 61.3 mg/L and the calcium bicarbonate content

11900-634: The same area as the Gatchinsky , Kingiseppsky , Kirovsky , Lomonosovsky , Tosnensky , Volosovsky and Vsevolozhsky districts of modern Leningrad Oblast as well as the city of Saint Petersburg . The names of the region are: In the Viking era (late Iron Age ), from the 750s onwards, Ladoga served as a bridgehead on the Varangian trade route to Eastern Europe. A Varangian aristocracy developed that would ultimately rule over Novgorod and Kievan Rus' . In

12019-465: The sea at Heinjoki (now Veshchevo), to the east of present-day Vyborg . Around 3100–2400 BP the Neva River emerged, draining Lake Ladoga into the Baltic Sea . Ladoga level gradually sank from 15–18 m to its modern position of 4–5 m above sea-level, and lowland lakes were isolated again. However, the Vuoksi still had a significant direct outflow connection to the Bay of Vyborg , possibly as late as in

12138-455: The source of the Neva, near Shlisselburg, there are the two small islands of Orekhovy and Fabrichny. Island Glavryba lies up the river, above the town of Otradnoye . There is almost no aquatic vegetation in Neva. The river banks mostly consist of sand, podsol , gleysols , peat , and boggy peat soils. Several centuries ago, the whole territory of the Neva lowland was covered by pine and spruce mossy forests. They were gradually reduced by

12257-516: The southern edge of the Baltic Shield 's crystalline bedrock. During the final part of the last Weichselian glaciation , deglaciation in the central parts of the Isthmus started as early as 14000 BP , when it formed the bottom of a large lake dammed by the surrounding ice sheet . During further deglaciation, at the time of the Baltic Ice Lake , an early high water stage of the Baltic Sea , when

12376-407: The southern shore of Lake Sukhodolskoye small medieval burial mounds are abundant as well. A lot of large cult stones have been found along these bodies of water, as well as agglomerations of cairns . Remnants of several rural settlements were also discovered there as well as on the shore of Lake Ladoga. Remnants of the Tiuri ( Tiversk ) town (10th–15th centuries) were excavated on a former island in

12495-509: The station Kapitolovo of the Saint Petersburg–Hiitola railroad , a facility of the Saint Petersburg nuclear enterprise Izotop is located, which specializes in transportation of nuclear materials and radioactive waste . Bogs of Vsevolozhsky District along the shores of Lake Ladoga and the Neva River were major sources of peat for fuel. Now it is extracted in smaller quantities, mostly for agricultural purposes. The district

12614-844: The table. Before construction of the Obvodny Canal , the left tributary of that area was the Volkovka; its part at the confluence is now called Monastyrka. The Ladoga Canal starts at the root of Neva and connects it along the southern coast of Lake Ladoga with the Volkhov . Some canals of the delta were filled over time, so that only 42 islands remained by 1972, all within the city limits of St. Petersburg. The largest islands are Vasilyevsky at 1,050 hectares (2,600 acres), Petrogradsky at 570 hectares (1,400 acres), Krestovsky at 420 hectares (1,000 acres), and Dekabristov at 410 hectares (1,000 acres); others include Zayachy , Yelagin and Kamenny Islands . At

12733-408: The uniform water flow from Lake Ladoga to the Neva over the whole year, there are almost no floods and corresponding water rise in the spring. The Neva freezes throughout from early December to early April. The ice thickness is 0.3 to 0.4 metres (1.0 to 1.3 ft) within Saint Petersburg and 0.5 to 0.6 metres (1.6 to 2.0 ft) in other areas. Ice congestion may form in winter in the upper reaches of

12852-573: The upper regions of the river are dominated by birch and pine-birch grass-shrub forests and in the middle regions there are swampy pine forests. In St. Petersburg, along the Neva, there are many gardens and parks, including the Summer Garden , Field of Mars , Rumyantsev, Smolny , Alexander Gardens , Garden of the Alexander Nevsky Lavra and many others. Because of the rapid flow, cold water and lack of quiet pools and aquatic vegetation

12971-417: The water consumption from the Neva and the remaining 62.3 percent is water runoff. Since 1859, the largest volume of 116 cubic kilometres (28  cu mi ) was observed in 1924 and the lowest in 1900 at 40.2 cubic kilometres (9.6 cu mi). The average annual discharge is 78.9 cubic kilometres (18.9 cu mi) or 2,500 cubic metres per second (88,000 cu ft/s) on average. Due to

13090-478: The water rises above 160 centimetres (63 in) with respect to a gauge at the Mining Institute . More than 300 floods occurred after the city was founded in 1703. Three of them were catastrophic: on 7 November 1824, when water rose to 421 centimetres (166 in); on 23 September 1924 when it reached 369 centimetres (145 in), and 10 September 1777 when it rose to 321 centimetres (126 in). However,

13209-518: The whole Mga valley and thus broke into the western valley (the valley of the Tosna/lower-Neva). The Ivanovo rapids of the modern Neva were created at the breakthrough. According to early books, the breakthrough may have been about 2000 BC, but according to more recent research, this happened at 1410–1250 BC, making the river rather young. The valley is lined with glacial and post-glacial sediments and has changed little over 2,500 years. The delta

13328-649: The wider sense) Avenella flexuosa and Carex globularis , mosses Pleurozium schreberi , Sphagnum angustifolium and S. russowii , and lichens Cladonia spp. Prominent in various spruce forests are wood horsetail , common wood sorrel , bilberry , lingonberry, graminoids Avenella flexuosa , Calamagrostis arundinacea , Carex globularis , and mosses Polytrichum commune and Sphagnum girgensohnii . Prominent vegetation of various birch forests include meadowsweet , common wood sorrel, bilberry and graminoids Calamagrostis arundinacea and C. canescens . 1184 species of wild vascular plants are recorded in

13447-469: Was 1,130 kilometres (700 mi) long. Every winter from 1895 to 1910, electric tramways were laid on the ice of the river, connecting the Senate Square , Vasilievsky island , Palace Embankment and other parts of the city. The power was supplied through the rails and a top cable supported by wooden piles frozen into the ice. The service was highly successful and ran without major accidents except for

13566-631: Was built above the Volodarsky Bridge in 1970 which could accept 10 large ships at a time. Wastewater treatment plants were built in Krasnoselsk in 1978, on the Belyi Island in 1979–83, and in Olgino in 1987–94. The South-West Wastewater Treatment Plant was constructed in 2003–05. Neva has very few shoals and its banks are steep, making the river suited for navigation. Utkino Backwaters were constructed in

13685-534: Was formed at that time, technically a pseudodelta, as not from accumulation of river material but by scouring past sediments. The Neva flows out of Lake Ladoga near Shlisselburg , flows through Neva's lowlands and discharges into the Baltic Sea in the Gulf of Finland . It has a length of 74 kilometres (46 mi), and the shortest distance from the source to the mouth is 45 kilometres (28 mi). The river banks are low and steep, on average about 3 to 6 metres (10 to 20 ft) and 2 to 3 metres (7 to 10 ft) at

13804-468: Was opened in 1850, and the second, Liteyny Bridge , came into operation in 1879. In 1858, a "Joint-stock company St. Petersburg water supply" was established, which built the first water supply network in the city. A two-stage water purification station was constructed in 1911. The development of the sewerage system began only in 1920, after the October Revolution , and by 1941, the sewerage network

13923-441: Was scheduled to land at Moscow -Vnukovo ( VKO ). After liftoff, the crew noticed that the nose gear undercarriage did not retract, and the ground control diverted the flight to Leningrad ( LED ) because of fog at Tallinn. While circling above St. Petersburg at the altitude of 1,650 feet (500 m), under unclear circumstances (lack of fuel was one of the factors), both engines stalled. The crew performed an emergency landing on

14042-669: Was the beginning of the Continuation War as it is known in Finland. (It is considered to be a front of the Great Patriotic War in the Soviet Union and Russia.) Finland initially regained the lost territory, reaching the Russian side of the border of 1939 in what was seen by the Russians as indirectly contributing to the Siege of Leningrad (see Finnish reconquest of the Karelian Isthmus (1941) ). Some 260,000 Karelian evacuees returned home. On 9 June 1944, strong Soviet forces opened

14161-460: Was to be free of Finnic and some other peoples, who were considered politically unreliable. On 25 March 1935, Genrikh Yagoda authorized a large-scale deportation targeting Estonian, Latvian and Finnish kulaks and lishentsy residing in the border regions near Leningrad. About 7,000 people (2,000 families) were deported from Ingria to Kazakhstan, Central Asia and the Ural region . In May and June 1936

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