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124-550: The style drew from western exposure to depictions of Indian buildings from about 1795, such as those by William Hodges and the Daniell duo ( William Daniell and his uncle Thomas Daniell ). The first Indo-Saracenic building is often said to be the Chepauk Palace , completed in 1768, in present-day Chennai (Madras), for the Nawab of Arcot . Bombay and Calcutta (as they then were), as

248-618: A " carnival sideshow", and dismissed by threatened nationalists as "an architectural folly of inferior design", no less) and elsewhere, these rare and often diminutive (though sometimes, as mentioned, of grand-scale), residential structures that exhibit this colonial style are highly valuable and prized by the communities in which they exist as being somehow "magical" in appearance. Typically, in India, villages, towns and cities of some means would lavish significant sums on construction of such architectural works when plans were drawn up for construction of

372-539: A Victorian illustrator's fantasy from the Arabian Nights ". Contrary to what is sometimes claimed, the leading figures were English professional architects (whereas in India former soldiers or military engineers were often used) who had never worked in India. Usually they could design in both Indo-Saracenic and European styles. For example, the major buildings by Regent Alfred John Bidwell , who left his career in London at

496-582: A bank, which failed during the banking crisis of March 1797. On 6 March of that year, he died from what was officially recorded as "gout in the stomach", but which was also rumoured to be suicide from an overdose of laudanum . Hodges Knoll in Antarctica is named after William Hodges. On 11 May 1776 Hodges married Martha Bowden Nesbit, the daughter of William and Jane Nesbit, at St George's, Hanover Square , London. The couple settled in Pimlico . They undertook

620-496: A consolidated scheme for city planning for both defence and civil convenience; however, the roots of this scheme go back to even older civilizations. At its most basic, the grid system of streets, a central forum with city services, two main slightly wider boulevards, and the occasional diagonal street were characteristic of the very logical and orderly Roman design. Ancient façades and building layouts were oriented to these city design patterns and they tended to work in proportion with

744-424: A discovery of the genuine classic interior, inspired by the rediscoveries at Pompeii and Herculaneum . These had begun in the late 1740s, but only achieved a wide audience in the 1760s, with the first luxurious volumes of tightly controlled distribution of Le Antichità di Ercolano Esposte ( The Antiquities of Herculaneum Exposed ). The antiquities of Herculaneum showed that even the most classicizing interiors of

868-573: A further addition of Timurid and Persian elements. The height of the style was perhaps reached under Akbar , the third Mughal emperor . Some of the significant architectural works of the Mughals are Humayun's Tomb , the Taj Mahal , the Forts of Agra and Lahore , the city of Fatehpur Sikri , Akbar's Tomb . Shah Jahan was succeeded by his son, Aurangzeb , who had little interest in art and architecture. As

992-463: A grand scale. However the occasional residential structure of this sort, (its being built in part or whole with Indo-Saracenic design elements/motifs) did appear quite often, and such buildings have grown ever more valuable and highly prized by local and foreign populations for their exuberant beauty and elegance today. Either evidenced in a property's primary unit or any of its outbuildings, such estate-caliber residential properties lucky enough to boost

1116-540: A leading scholar of the style, "the Indo-Saracenic, with its imagined past turned to the purposes of British colonialism, took shape outside India [ie the subcontinent] most fully only in Malaya". British Malaya was a predominantly Muslim society, where there was hardly any recent tradition of building in brick or stone, with even mosques and the palaces of the local rulers built in the abundant local hardwoods . Kuala Lumpur

1240-456: A mere antique revival, drained of all the high-minded ideas and force of conviction that had inspired its masterpieces". High neoclassicism was an international movement. Architects reacted against the excesses and profuse ornament used in Late Baroque architecture . The new "classical" architecture emphasized planar qualities, rather than elaborate sculptural ornament in both the interior and

1364-543: A modesty that always characterizes worth and genius, he retired from the prosecution of his art, conceiving that his place would be filled by men of greater merit. He had, therefore, with the profit of his labours in the East, taken a share in a provincial bank, which, with his attention, his integrity, and the many friends his virtues and talents had procured him, would probably have proved a prosperous undertaking. His personal manners were easy, affable and communicative; and all he said

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1488-570: A new impetus to neoclassicism, the Greek Revival. There was little direct knowledge of surviving Greek buildings before the middle of the 18th century in Western Europe , when an expedition funded by the Society of Dilettanti in 1751 and led by James Stuart and Nicholas Revett began serious archaeological enquiry. Stuart was commissioned after his return from Greece by George Lyttelton to produce

1612-645: A new note of sobriety and restraint in public buildings in Britain around 1800 as an assertion of nationalism attendant on the Act of Union , the Napoleonic Wars , and the clamour for political reform. It was to be William Wilkins 's winning design for the public competition for Downing College, Cambridge , that announced the Greek style was to be the dominant idiom in architecture. Wilkins and Robert Smirke went on to build some of

1736-553: A number of buildings with mixed influences. By doing this they kept Indian architecture while adding elements of British and European architecture ; this, coupled with the British allowing regional Indian princes to stay in power under various agreements, made their presence more "palatable" for the Indians. The British attempted to encapsulate South Asia's past within their new Indic buildings and so represent Britain's Raj as legitimate to

1860-715: A partner in a small bank at Dartmouth. His partner was Thomas Gretton, a lawyer. Also present in South Devon was Gretton's brother, the Reverend George Gretton. The Grettons were the nephews of John and Elizabeth Whitehurst of Derby, further evidence of the family connections with the town. The bank opened in Dartmouth on 24 August 1795, and the following is an extract from the Exeter Flying Post dated 1 October 1795: The public are hereby informed that on this day Bank

1984-725: A result, Mughal commissioned architecture suffered, with most engineers, architects and artisans migrating to work under the patronage of local rulers. By the early 19th century, the British East India Company (EIC) controlled large portions of the Indian subcontinent . In 1803, their control was further strengthened after defeating the Maratha Empire which was led by Daulat Rao Sindhia . The EIC legitimized their rule by taking Mughal emperor Shah Alam II under their protection, and ruling in conjunction with him. However, their power

2108-416: A series of "revival" styles, such as Greek , Renaissance , or Italianate . Various historians of the 19th century have made this clear since the 1970s. Classical architecture during the 20th century is classified less as a revival, and more a return to a style that was decelerated with the advent of Modernism . Yet still Neoclassical architecture is beginning to be practiced again in the 21st century more in

2232-728: A skeleton derived from the Indo-Islamic school." This is known as the "Nawabi style." Saracen was a term used in the Middle Ages in Europe for the Arabic-speaking Muslim people of the Middle East and North Africa , and the term "Indo-Saracenic" was first used by the British to describe the earlier Indo-Islamic architecture of the Mughals and their predecessors, and often continued to be used in that sense. "Saracenic architecture" (without

2356-504: A symbol of British Malta. Other 19th-century neoclassical buildings include the Monument to Sir Alexander Ball (1810), RNH Bighi (1832), St Paul's Pro-Cathedral (1844), the Rotunda of Mosta (1860) and the now-destroyed Royal Opera House, Valletta (1866). Neoclassicism gave way to other architectural styles by the late 19th century. Few buildings were built in the neoclassical style during

2480-687: A tour of Wales and the Midlands, during which they visited Derby, where Joseph Wright of Derby painted a portrait of Martha Hodges. Martha died within a year, possibly during childbirth. Having finished his work for the Admiralty, and with the death of his wife, Hodges was free to travel. Hodges left India in November 1783, in Worcester. This ship was nearly wrecked at St Helena , but reached Britain in June 1784. Hodges

2604-552: A visit to St. Petersburg in Russia in 1790. In December 1794 Hodges opened an exhibition of twenty-five of his own works at Orme's Gallery, 14 Old Bond Street, London that included two large paintings called The Effects of Peace and The Effects of War . In late January 1795, with Britain engaged in the War of the First Coalition against Revolutionary France and feelings running high,

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2728-614: Is also an important example of Neoclassical architecture along with the islands of Poros and Syros (especially in the capital Ermoupoli ). The earliest examples of neoclassical architecture in Hungary may be found in Vác . In this town the triumphal arch and the neoclassical façade of the Baroque Cathedral were designed by the French architect Isidor Marcellus Amandus Ganneval (Isidore Canevale) in

2852-554: Is an architectural style produced by the Neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century in Italy , France and Germany . It became one of the most prominent architectural styles in the Western world . The prevailing styles of architecture in most of Europe for the previous two centuries, Renaissance architecture and Baroque architecture , already represented partial revivals of

2976-520: Is an outstanding example of the many Protestant churches that were built in the first half of the 19th century. This was the time of the first iron structures in Hungarian architecture, the most important of which is the Széchenyi Chain Bridge by William Tierney Clark . Although not a western country, due to Western influence Japan has had neoclassical architecture produced in it. This includes

3100-575: Is best known were finished after his return to London ; he received a salary from the Admiralty for the purposes of completing them. These paintings depicted a stronger light and shadow than had been usual in European landscape tradition. Contemporary art critics complained that his use of light and colour contrasts gave his paintings a rough and unfinished appearance. Hodges also produced many valuable portrait sketches of Pacific islanders and scenes from

3224-525: Is expressed in the Louis XV style of architect Ange-Jacques Gabriel ( Petit Trianon , 1762–1768); the second phase, in the styles called Directoire and Empire , might be characterized by Jean Chalgrin 's severe astylar Arc de Triomphe (designed in 1806). In England the two phases might be characterized first by the structures of Robert Adam , the second by those of Sir John Soane . The interior style in France

3348-707: Is reputed to have returned a rich man, and settled in Queen Street, Mayfair, where he built himself a studio. He brought home with him a son, James. Hodges’ mother looked after her new grandson in a house in Tunbridge Wells, which Hodges purchased. William Hodges began preparing a collection, "Select Views in India in the Years 1780–1783", that included a series of forty-eight aquatints adapted from sketches drawn in India. On 16 October 1784, again at St George's, Hanover Square, Hodges married his second wife, Lydia Wright. Lydia

3472-701: The goût grec ("Greek taste"), not a court style; when Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774, Marie Antoinette , his fashion-loving Queen, brought the Louis XVI style to court. However, there was no real attempt to employ the basic forms of Roman furniture until around the turn of the century, and furniture-makers were more likely to borrow from ancient architecture, just as silversmiths were more likely to take from ancient pottery and stone-carving than metalwork: "Designers and craftsmen [...] seem to have taken an almost perverse pleasure in transferring motifs from one medium to another". A new phase in neoclassical design

3596-456: The Baroque , or the most "Roman" rooms of William Kent were based on basilica and temple exterior architecture turned outside in, hence their often bombastic appearance to modern eyes: pedimented window frames turned into gilded mirrors, fireplaces topped with temple fronts. The new interiors sought to recreate an authentically Roman and genuinely interior vocabulary. Techniques employed in

3720-631: The Basilica Cathedral of Arequipa built between 1540–1844 by Lucas Poblete . Brazil , which became the seat of the court of the Portuguese monarchy , gaining independence from its metropolis as the Empire of Brazil , also used the resources of architecture for the glorification of political power, and it was decided to resort to architects trained in the Académie royale d'architecture . To this period belong

3844-474: The Beaux-Arts architecture sparked by the return of massive number of architectural students to the islands from the western schools. It also became a symbol of democracy and the approaching republic during the commonwealth . The centre of Polish-Lithuanian Neoclassicism was Warsaw and Vilnius under the rule of the last Polish king and Lithuanian grand duke, Stanisław August Poniatowski . Vilnius University

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3968-551: The Classical architecture of ancient Rome and ancient Greek architecture , but the Neoclassical movement aimed to strip away the excesses of Late Baroque and return to a purer, more complete, and more authentic classical style, adapted to modern purposes. The development of archaeology and published accurate records of surviving classical buildings was crucial in the emergence of Neoclassical architecture. In many countries, there

4092-624: The National Library of Greece (1888), the third building of the trilogy being the National and Capodistrian University of Athens (1843), which was designed by his brother Christian Hansen . Also he designed the Zappeion Hall (1888). Ernst Ziller also designed many private mansions in the centre of Athens which gradually became public, usually through donations, such the mansion of Heinrich Schliemann , Iliou Melathron (1880). The city of Nauplio

4216-537: The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were Dominik Merlini , Jan Chrystian Kamsetzer , Szymon Bogumił Zug , Jakub Kubicki , Antonio Corazzi , Efraim Szreger , Chrystian Piotr Aigner and Bertel Thorvaldsen . In the Russian Empire at the end of the 19th century, neoclassical architecture was equal to Saint Petersburg architecture because this style was specific for a huge number of buildings in

4340-569: The Venetian Republic , building one of the first lapidariums in Europe in Verona , in the Doric style (1738). During the same period, neoclassical elements were introduced to Tuscany by architect Jean Nicolas Jadot de Ville-Issey , the court architect of Francis Stephen of Lorraine . On Jadot's lead, an original neoclassical style was developed by Gaspare Maria Paoletti , transforming Florence into

4464-458: The formation of Malaysia in 1963, remaining well-cared for on their prime city sites, many re-purposed as their original functions are now carried out in more modern buildings elsewhere. William Hodges William Hodges RA (28 October 1744 – 6 March 1797) was an English painter . He was a member of James Cook 's second voyage to the Pacific Ocean , and is best known for

4588-808: The restoration of the Republic and the subsequent stability of the Pax Porfiriana that Mexico saw a significant number of new neoclassical buildings. The Academy of San Carlos saw a renewal of neoclassicism ideals under director Francesco Saverio Cavallari . During the Porfiriato, the predominant architectural taste favored Eclecticism . Buildings such as the Teatro Juárez , Museo Nacional de Arte and Palacio de Bellas Artes , are eclectic buildings that combine different architectural styles and are not solely neoclassical. An important unfinished neoclassical building

4712-410: The "Farrington Diaries", written daily as events unfolded. Joseph Farrington RA (1747–1821) studied as a pupil under Richard Wilson R.A. at the same time as Hodges and later both became fellow Royal Academicians. They appear to have remained lifelong friends. An entry relating to the disposal of some of Hodges' personal possessions was written some years later on 3 October 1809, when Farrington

4836-506: The "Indo-") was first used for the architecture of Muslim Spain , the most familiar Islamic architecture to most early 19th-century writers in English. With a number of exceptions from earlier, most Indo-Saracenic public buildings were constructed by parts of the British Raj government of India, in place between 1858 and 1947, with the peak period beginning around 1880. They partly reflected

4960-577: The 1750s. It first gained influence in England and France; in England, Sir William Hamilton 's excavations at Pompeii and other sites, the influence of the Grand Tour , and the work of William Chambers and Robert Adam , were pivotal in this regard. In France, the movement was propelled by a generation of French art students trained in Rome, and was influenced by the writings of Johann Joachim Winckelmann . The style

5084-748: The 1760s. Also the work of a French architect, Jean-Charles-Alexandre Moreau , is the garden façade of the Esterházy Palace (1797–1805) in Kismarton (today Eisenstadt in Austria). The two principal architects of Neoclassicism in Hungary were Mihály Pollack and József Hild . Pollack's major work is the Hungarian National Museum (1837–1844). Hild is famous for his designs for the Cathedral of Eger and Esztergom . The Reformed Great Church of Debrecen

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5208-633: The 18th century in Germany, in what was then Prussia . Karl Friedrich Schinkel built many notable buildings in this style, including the Altes Museum in Berlin. While the city remained dominated by Baroque city planning, his architecture and functional style provided the city with a distinctly neoclassical center. Schinkel's work is very comparable to Neoclassical architecture in Britain since he drew much of his inspiration from that country. He made trips to observe

5332-685: The 20th century, such as the Domvs Romana museum (1922), and the Courts of Justice building (Valletta) (1965–1971). Neoclassical architecture in Mexico had two main eras, the first was toward the end of Spanish colonial rule and the second phase was during independent Mexico beginning in the mid-19th century. As part of the Spanish Enlightenment 's cultural impact on the Kingdom of New Spain (Mexico),

5456-433: The Americas, is Moorish Revival architecture , which tends to use specific South Asian features less, and instead those characteristic of the Arabic-speaking countries; Neo-Mudéjar is the equivalent style in Spain. In India there had been an earlier inversion of the style in Lucknow before the British takeover in 1856, where Indian architects rather "randomly grafted European stylistic elements, as details and motifs, on to

5580-536: The Americas. Structures built in Indo-Saracenic style in India and in certain nearby countries were predominantly grand public edifices, such as clock towers and courthouses . Likewise, civic as well as municipal and governmental colleges along with town halls counted this style among its top-ranked and most-prized structures to this day; ironically, in Britain itself, for example, King George IV's Royal Pavilion at Brighton , (which twice in its lifetime has been threatened with being torn-down, denigrated by some as

5704-565: The British aspiration for an "Imperial style" of their own, rendered on an intentionally grand scale, reflecting and promoting a notion of an unassailable and invincible British Empire , The style has been described as "part of a 19th-century movement to project themselves as the natural successors of the Mughals". At the same time they were built for modern functions such as railway stations, government offices for an increasingly wide-reaching bureaucracy, and law courts. They often incorporated modern construction methods and facilities. While stone

5828-416: The Burns Monument at Alloway (1818) and the Royal High School, Edinburgh (1823–1829). At the same time the Empire style in France was a more grandiose wave of neoclassicism in architecture and the decorative arts. Mainly based on Imperial Roman styles, it originated in, and took its name from, the rule of Napoleon I in the First French Empire , where it was intended to idealize Napoleon's leadership and

5952-411: The Dartmouth Bank and incorporated the Arms of Dartmouth on a shield on its notes. In October, 1795, new partners were added, probably to inject new capital into the bank. They were John Seale, a local landowner, and William Tult. John Seale was a very influential person in Dartmouth at the time, holding extensive property and land both in and around Dartmouth. Thomas Gretton was a practising attorney in

6076-546: The EIC dissolved soon after. In 1861, the new British colonial administration established the Archaeological Survey of India , gradually restoring several important Indian monuments (such as the Taj Mahal ) over the following decades. To usher in a new era, the British "Raj", a new architectural tradition was sought, marrying the existing styles of India with imported styles from the West, such as Gothic (with its sub styles of French gothic , Venetian-Moorish), Neoclassical and, later, new styles such as Art Deco . This produced

6200-427: The French state. The style corresponds to the more bourgeois Biedermeier style in the German-speaking lands, Federal style in the United States, the Regency style in Britain, and the Napoleonstil in Sweden. According to the art historian Hugh Honour "so far from being, as is sometimes supposed, the culmination of the Neo-classical movement, the Empire marks its rapid decline and transformation back once more into

6324-419: The Indian public. The main building of Mayo College , completed in 1885, was built in the Indo-Saracenic style. Examples in Chennai include the Victoria Public Hall , Madras High Court , Senate House of the University of Madras, and the Chennai Central railway station . The building of New Delhi as the new imperial capital, which mostly took place between 1918 and 1931, led by Sir Edwin Lutyens , brought

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6448-613: The Indian subcontinent, introduced new concepts in the architecture of India. The prevailing style of architecture was trabeate , employing pillars, beams and lintels , with less emphasis on arches and domes used during earlier Buddhist periods. The Turkic invaders brought in the arcuate style of construction, with more emphasis on arches and beams, which flourished with Mughal and Taluqdars by building and incorporating Indian architecture, especially Rajasthani temple architecture and Imperial Indian palace/fort/urban architecture as well. Local influences also led to different 'orders' of

6572-417: The Indo-Islamic style. After the disintegration of the Turkic Delhi Sultanate , rulers of individual states established their own rule and hence their own architectural styles which were imitations of local/regional Indian architectural schools. Examples of these are the 'Bengal' and the 'Gujarat' schools. Motifs such as chhajja (a sunshade or eave laid on cantilever brackets fixed into and projecting from

6696-403: The Pacific as the expedition's artist. Some of his expedition paintings have a marked resemblance in terms of epic scope and sweep of the Hudson River School of Art. Many of his sketches and wash paintings were adapted as engravings in the original published edition of Cook's journals from the voyage. Most of the large-scale landscape oil paintings from his Pacific travels for which Hodges

6820-682: The Palladian architecture of Georgian Britain and Ireland . The name refers to the designs of the 16th-century Venetian architect Andrea Palladio . The Baroque style had never truly been to the English taste. Four influential books were published in the first quarter of the 18th century which highlighted the simplicity and purity of classical architecture: Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell (1715), Palladio's I quattro libri dell'architettura ( The Four Books of Architecture , 1715), De re aedificatoria by Leon Battista Alberti (first published in 1452) and The Designs of Inigo Jones... with Some Additional Designs (1727). The most popular

6944-536: The Years 1780, 1781, 1782 and 1783 , illustrated with plates derived from his drawings. In December 1794, Hodges held a private exhibition of 25 of his pictures in old Bond Street, London. Remarkably, it received no subscription, and made no sales, forcing Hodges to close it by 26 January 1795. Totally disillusioned, Hodges retired from his profession, sold his London property, and moved himself and his family, in July, 1795, to Brixham and Dartmouth in South Devon. There, he attempted to restore his fortunes by becoming

7068-510: The adaptation to the local architectural language, which during previous centuries had made a synthesis or syncretism of European and pre-Columbian elements in the so-called Colonial Baroque. Two more Classical criteria belong, in Chile , the La Moneda Palace (1784–1805) and the Santiago Metropolitan Cathedral (1748–1899), both works by the Italian architect Joaquín Toesca . In Ecuador, the Quito's Palacio de Carondelet (Ecuador's Government Palace) built between 1611–1801 by Antonio García. At

7192-405: The age of 34 in 1893 to take a public appointment in Malaysia, include Kuala Lumpur's Sultan Abdul Samad Building (originally the "Government Offices", 1894), in a free Islamic style, perhaps more Egyptian than Mughal, and with many horseshoe arches. After moving to private practice in Singapore , Bidwell designed the thoroughly European Raffles Hotel (1899). In Singapore European styles had been

7316-442: The architecture. However, a style of its own was not conceived, but the Classical canon was introduced, not in the form of a replica of buildings from Antiquity, but with a classical predominance and a lot of influence from French Classicism ; which lasted until the 20th century. Like most western tradition, it arrived in the Pacific Archipelagos via rule from New Spain (Mexico) during the period of governance by Mexico City as one of

7440-432: The area throughout the 19th century. Hodges died at 10.00am on Monday, 6 March 1797. The cause of death, as rumoured locally, was through an overdose of laudanum , which Hodges used as medication to treat his stomach gout. Whether the overdose was accidental or deliberate we shall probably never know for certain. However, we do know that he was under severe stress at the time caused by his own parlous financial situation and

7564-422: The best preferred architecture in the Spanish East Indies , manifested in churches, civic buildings and one of the popular architectural ornament for newer styled Bahay na bato and Bahay kubo . When the power over the archipelago was transferred from Spain to the United States of America, the style became more popular and developed from slightly simple approach during the Spanish era, to a more ornamented style of

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7688-486: The buildings and develop his functional style. From the middle of the 18th century, exploration and publication changed the course of British architecture from the Palladian architecture towards a purer vision of the Ancient Greco-Roman ideal. James 'Athenian' Stuart 's work The Antiquities of Athens and Other Monuments of Greece was very influential in this regard, as were Robert Wood 's Palmyra and Baalbec . A combination of simple forms and high levels of enrichment

7812-425: The classical architectural vocabulary. In form, Neoclassical architecture emphasizes the wall rather than chiaroscuro and maintains separate identities to each of its parts. The style is manifested both in its details as a reaction against the Rococo style of naturalistic ornament, and in its architectural formulae as an outgrowth of some classicizing features of the Late Baroque architectural tradition. Therefore,

7936-411: The construction of major neoclassical buildings came to an end as a result of interruptions to the operation of the Academy of San Carlos and economic turmoil caused by the War of Independence. The economic slump was worsened by a succession of wars, including the Spanish reconquest attempts , First French Intervention , First American Intervention and Reform War . It was not until the late 1860s, with

8060-428: The crown established the Academy of San Carlos in 1785 to train painters, sculptors, and architects in New Spain, under the direction of the peninsular Gerónimo Antonio Gil . The academy emphasized neoclassicism, which drew on the inspiration of the clean lines of Greek and Roman architecture, but also, for some monuments, from the Aztec and Maya architectural traditions. The preeminent Neoclassical architect in Mexico

8184-429: The dawn of the independence of Hispanic America, constructive programs were developed in the new republics. Neoclassicism was introduced in New Granada by Marcelino Pérez de Arroyo . Later, in Colombia , the Capitolio Nacional was built in Bogotá between 1848–1926 by Thomas Reed , trained at the Berlin Bauakademie ; the Primatial Cathedral of Bogotá (1807–1823), designed by Friar Domingo de Petrés ; and in Peru

8308-446: The decorative arts, neoclassicism is exemplified in French furniture of the Empire style; the English furniture of Chippendale , George Hepplewhite and Robert Adam , Wedgwood 's bas reliefs and "black basaltes" vases , and the Biedermeier furniture of Austria. The Scottish architect Charles Cameron created palatial Italianate interiors for the German-born Catherine the Great in Saint Petersburg . Indoors, neoclassicism made

8432-437: The diminutive renditions of the Indo-Saracenic style, built originally for lesser budgets, finding their nonetheless romantic expression in the occasional and serenely beautiful garden pavilion outbuildings, throughout the world, especially, in India and England. Confluence of different architectural styles had been attempted before during the mainly Turkic , Delhi Sultanate and Mughal periods. Turkic and Mughal incursions in

8556-436: The eternality of the universe. There are links between Boullée's ideas and Edmund Burke 's conception of the sublime . Ledoux addressed the concept of architectural character, maintaining that a building should immediately communicate its function to the viewer: taken literally, such ideas give rise to architecture parlante ("speaking architecture"). From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through

8680-418: The exhibition was visited by Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany , the second son of King George III . The Duke took offence at the political nature of Hodges' paintings and ordered the exhibition closed; this royal censure effectively ended Hodges' career as a painter. Many of his works were then sold by auction but produced only an inconsiderable sum. Hodges retired to Devon and became involved with

8804-511: The exterior. Projections and recessions and their effects of light and shade were more flat; sculptural bas-reliefs were flat and tended to be framed by friezes, tablets or panels. This was the first "stripped down" classical architecture, and appeared to be modern in the context of the Revolutionary period in Europe. At its most elemental, as in the work of Etienne-Louis Boullée , it was highly abstract and geometrically pure. Neoclassicism also influenced city planning. The ancient Romans had used

8928-680: The final years of Hospitaller rule . Early examples include the Bibliotheca (1786), the De Rohan Arch (1798) and the Hompesch Gate (1801). However, neoclassical architecture only became popular in Malta following the establishment of British rule in the early 19th century. In 1814, a neoclassical portico decorated with the British coat of arms was added to the Main Guard building so as to serve as

9052-553: The first Greek building in England, the garden temple at Hagley Hall (1758–59). A number of British architects in the second half of the century took up the expressive challenge of the Doric from their aristocratic patrons, including Joseph Bonomi the Elder and John Soane , but it was to remain the private enthusiasm of connoisseurs up to the first decade of the 19th century. Seen in its wider social context, Greek Revival architecture sounded

9176-646: The first major British commission in Malaya, and Bidwell had proposed a European style, but was over-ruled by C. E. Spooner , then State Engineer of the Public Works Department, a military engineer with many years experience in Ceylon , who told those assembled for the opening ceremony "I then decided on the Mahametan style". He did not design buildings himself, but was a key figure in approving designs. The commission brought together Spooner, A.C. Norman , Bidwell, and

9300-756: The forefront of the new school of design was the aristocratic "architect earl", Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington ; in 1729, he and William Kent designed Chiswick House . This house was a reinterpretation of Palladio's Villa Capra "La Rotonda" , but purified of 16th-century elements and ornament. This severe lack of ornamentation was to be a feature of Palladianism. In 1734, William Kent and Lord Burlington designed one of England's finest examples of Palladian architecture, Holkham Hall in Norfolk . The main block of this house followed Palladio's dictates quite closely, but Palladio's low, often detached, wings of farm buildings were elevated in significance. This classicizing vein

9424-541: The form of New Classical architecture and even in Gentrification and Historicism Architecture , the Neoclassical architecture or its important elements are still being used, even when Postmodern architecture is dominant throughout the world. A return to more classical architectural forms as a reaction to the Rococo style can be detected in some European architecture of the earlier 18th century, most vividly represented in

9548-605: The guardian of Ann Mary's brother, John, later a famous travel writer. They had two daughters and three sons together. Hodges was elected a member of the Royal Academy in 1789, and continued to exhibit there until 1794. After experiencing financial difficulties, he made an unsuccessful trip to seek patronage in Russia in 1792. On his return, in February, 1793, Hodges published his account of his time in India, entitled Travels in India in

9672-496: The impending collapse of the bank, both of which appeared intertwined. The Burial Register of St. Mary's Church, Brixham records William Hodges, burial 13 March 1797. No headstone has been found. In spite of his financial problems, he nevertheless appeared to be liked and well respected, both locally and farther afield. As a young man, both Cook and Wales enjoyed his company during the three years that he spent on HMS Resolution on Cook's second epic voyage, and Cook greatly admired

9796-540: The importance of public buildings. Many of these urban planning patterns found their way into the first modern planned cities of the 18th century. Exceptional examples include Karlsruhe , Washington, D.C., Saint Petersburg, Buenos Aires, Havana, and Barcelona. Contrasting models may be found in Modernist designs exemplified by Brasília , the Garden city movement , and levittowns . The first phase of neoclassicism in France

9920-426: The last flowering of the style, using a deeper understanding of Indian architecture. The Rashtrapati Bhavan (Viceroy's, then President's Palace) uses elements from Buddhist-era Indian architecture as well as those from later periods. This can be seen in the capitals of the columns and the screen around the drum below the main dome, drawing on the railings placed around ancient stupas . According to Thomas R. Metcalf,

10044-419: The local railway stations , museums and art galleries . The cost involved in the construction of buildings of this style was high, including all their inherent customization, ornament and minutia decoration, the artisans' ingenious skills (stone and wood carving, as well as the exquisite lapidary/inlaid work) and usual accessibility to requisite raw materials, hence the style was executed only on buildings of

10168-692: The main centres of the Raj administration, saw many buildings constructed in the style, although Calcutta was also a bastion of European Neo-Classical architecture fused with Indic architectural elements. Most major buildings are now classified under the Heritage buildings category as laid down by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), and protected. The style enjoyed a degree of popularity outside British India, where architects often mixed Islamic and European elements from various areas and periods with boldness, in

10292-796: The mansions of wealthy Indians tended to use versions of European Neoclassical architecture . Madras (now Chennai) was a particular centre of the style, but still tended to use details from Mughal architecture, which had barely ever reached Tamil Nadu before. This was partly because English authorities such as James Fergusson especially deprecated Dravidian architecture , which would also have been harder and more expensive to adapt to modern building functions. Typical elements found include: Chief proponents of this style of architecture included Robert Fellowes Chisholm , Sir Samuel Swinton Jacob , Charles Mant , Henry Irwin , William Emerson , George Wittet and Frederick Stevens , along with numerous other skilled professionals and artisans throughout Europe and

10416-483: The medium of etchings and engravings, gave a new impetus to neoclassicism that is called the Greek Revival . Although several European cities – notably Saint Petersburg , Athens , Berlin and Munich – were transformed into veritable museums of Greek revival architecture, the Greek Revival in France was never popular with either the state or the public. Neoclassical architecture became a symbol of national pride during

10540-703: The most important buildings of the era, including the Theatre Royal , Covent Garden (1808–1809), the General Post Office (1824–1829) and the British Museum (1823–1848), Wilkins University College London (1826–1830) and the National Gallery (1832–1838). In Scotland, Thomas Hamilton (1784–1858), in collaboration with the artists Andrew Wilson (1780–1848) and Hugh William Williams (1773–1829) created monuments and buildings of international significance;

10664-518: The most important centre of neoclassicism in the peninsula. In the second half of the century, Neoclassicism flourished also in Turin , Milan ( Giuseppe Piermarini ) and Trieste ( Matteo Pertsch ). In the latter two cities, just as in Tuscany, the sober neoclassical style was linked to the reformism of the ruling Habsburg enlightened monarchs. The shift to neoclassical architecture is conventionally dated to

10788-483: The newly arrived Hubback (from 1895). The building's construction inspired additional civic buildings in the vicinity to be built in a similar style, while the style's elements would see more limited adoption among private buildings in Malaya. However artificial a creation the Malayan British Islamic style is, it is noticeable that most major public buildings survive long after Malayan independence in 1957 and

10912-533: The norm since the first British public building there in 1827, both copying Calcutta and reflecting a smaller proportion of Muslim Malays in the population, and the role of the city as a military and trade base. Metcalf notes that despite a large Chinese population, neither in Singapore nor in Hong Kong were public buildings with influences from Chinese architecture built in this period. The Government Offices were

11036-584: The population was greatly expanded, mosques , such as the Jamek Mosque and Ubudiah Mosque . These were both designed by Arthur Benison Hubback , the leading architect in the style between his arrival in 1895 and retirement in 1917, during which it experienced its peak in popularity. The lack of local precedents allowed the English architects to create "an architecture defined purely by Orientalist fantasy", according to Metcalf, who says Hubback's Ubudiah Mosque ( Kuala Kangsar , 1913) "conjures up nothing less than

11160-645: The portal of the Imperial Academy of Fine Arts in Rio de Janeiro made in 1826 and the Imperial Palace of Petrópolis built between 1845–1862. Argentina is another of the countries that seeks to shed its colonial past, but in the context of the reorganization of the country after independence in 1810, an aspect of power was sought that transmitted the presence of the State, inspiring respect and devotion, including of course

11284-555: The preceding decades, to bring what they felt to be a lighter and more elegant feel to Georgian houses. The Works in Architecture illustrated the main buildings the Adam brothers had worked on and crucially documented the interiors, furniture and fittings, designed by the Adams. From about 1800 a fresh influx of Greek architectural examples, seen through the medium of etchings and engravings, gave

11408-569: The presence of an Indo-Saracenic structure, are still to be seen, generally, where in instances urban sprawl has not yet overcome them; often they are to be found in exclusive neighborhoods' (or surrounded, as cherished survivors, by enormous sky-scarpers, in more recently claimed urbanized areas throughout this "techno" driven, socio-economic revolutionary era marking India's recent decade's history), and are often locally referred to as "mini-palaces". Usually, their form-factors are these: townhouse, wings and/or porticoes. Additionally, more often seen are

11532-740: The prevailing climate of eclecticism in architecture . Among other British colonies and protectorates in the region, it was adopted by architects and engineers in British Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka ) and the Federated Malay States (present-day Malaysia ). The style was sometimes used, mostly for large houses, in the United Kingdom itself, for example at the royal Brighton Pavilion (1787–1823) and Sezincote House (1805) in Gloucestershire . The wider European version, also popular in

11656-567: The sketches and paintings of locations he visited on that voyage, including Table Bay , Tahiti , Easter Island , New Zealand , Dusky Sound and the Antarctic . Hodges was born on 28 October 1744 in London . He studied under William Shipley and afterwards in the studio of Richard Wilson , where he met Thomas Jones . During his early career, he made a living by painting theatrical scenery . Between 1772 and 1775 Hodges accompanied James Cook to

11780-408: The style included flatter, lighter motifs, sculpted in low frieze -like relief or painted in monotones en camaïeu ("like cameos"), isolated medallions or vases or busts or bucrania or other motifs, suspended on swags of laurel or ribbon, with slender arabesques against backgrounds, perhaps, of "Pompeiian red" or pale tints, or stone colours. The style in France was initially a Parisian style,

11904-558: The style is defined by symmetry, simple geometry, and social demands instead of ornament. In the 21st century, a version of the style continues, sometimes called New Classical architecture or New Classicism. Neoclassical architecture is a specific style and moment in the late 18th and early 19th centuries that was specifically associated with the Enlightenment , empiricism , and the study of sites by early archaeologists. Classical architecture after about 1840 must be classified as one of

12028-515: The time. It is particularly evident in Dublin , which is a largely neoclassical and Georgian city. After the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece in 1832, the architecture of Greece was mostly influenced by the Neoclassical architecture. For Athens, the first King of Greece, Otto I , commissioned the architects Stamatios Kleanthis and Eduard Schaubert to design a modern city plan. The Old Royal Palace

12152-669: The town. Not unlike many other banks of the period, there appear to have been problems from quite soon after the bank's inception. The ongoing war with France had severe effects on Dartmouth, and this, together with a stoppage of payments at the Bank of England, caused a run on the bank in March 1797. The Exeter Flying Post of 13 September 1798, has an official notice relating to Thomas Gretton's personal bankruptcy. John Seale, however, appears to have come out of this affair with his reputation unscathed as both he and his descendants remained very influential in

12276-531: The unique Hiko Shrine  [ ja ] which is a Shinto shrine based on Greek temples . It later developed into the Imperial Crown Style which contains elements of both Eastern and Western design Roofs are notably distinctly Asian in this style and it was used heavily by the Japanese Empire in its colonies. Neoclassical architecture was introduced in Malta in the late 18th century, during

12400-591: The voyage involving members of the expedition. In 1778, under the patronage of Warren Hastings , Hodges travelled to India , one of the first British professional landscape painters to visit that country. He remained there for six years, staying in Lucknow with Claude Martin in 1783. His painting of "Futtypoor Sicri" is in Sir John Soane's Museum . In 1794 Hodges published an illustrated book about his travels in India. Later Hodges travelled across Europe, including

12524-572: The walls), corbel brackets with richly carved "stalactite" pendentive decorations, balconies, kiosks or chhatris , and minars (tall towers) were characteristic of the imitation-Mughal architecture style, which was to become a lasting legacy of the nearly four hundred years of the Mughal presence in these areas. Mughal architecture developed the Indo-Islamic architecture of the Delhi Sultanate with

12648-460: The young painter's sea and landscapes of the voyage. The Gentleman's Magazine reported of his death in 1797 as follows: Of the gout in his stomach, William Hodges Esq. R. A. of Brixham, Devon; a man of varied and considerable knowledge in his art. If he did not rise to the summit of landscape painting, there were in general strength, correctness, and taste in his productions. His paintings and drawings of Asiatic scenery are deservedly admired. With

12772-866: Was Manuel Tolsá . Neoclassicism in Mexican architecture was directly linked to crown policies that sought to rein in the exuberance of the New Spanish Baroque , and to create public buildings of "good taste" funded by the crown, such as the Palacio de Minería in Mexico City, the Hospicio Cabañas in Guadalajara, and the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in Guanajuato , all built in the late colonial era. Following Independence ,

12896-449: Was Italy, especially Naples , where by the 1730s court architects such as Luigi Vanvitelli and Ferdinando Fuga were recovering classical, Palladian and Mannerist forms in their Baroque architecture. Following their lead, Giovanni Antonio Medrano began to build the first truly neoclassical structures in Italy in the 1730s. In the same period, Alessandro Pompei introduced neoclassicism to

13020-435: Was a native of Totnes (approximately eight miles from Brixham ) who for health reasons frequently travelled abroad and wrote books on his travels. As Hodges was employed by the Admiralty on Cook's second voyage, all paintings and drawings of the voyage belonged to them. However, he repeated some of them. Neoclassical architecture Neoclassical architecture , sometimes referred to as Classical Revival architecture,

13144-561: Was adopted by the majority of contemporary British architects and designers. The revolution begun by Stuart was soon to be eclipsed by the work of the Adam brothers , James Wyatt , Sir William Chambers , George Dance the Younger , James Gandon , and provincially based architects such as John Carr and Thomas Harrison of Chester . In Scotland and the north of England, where the Gothic Revival

13268-558: Was also adopted by progressive circles in other countries such as Sweden and Russia . International neoclassical architecture was exemplified in Karl Friedrich Schinkel 's buildings, especially the Altes Museum in Berlin, Sir John Soane 's Bank of England in London and the newly built White House and Capitol in Washington, D.C. of the nascent American Republic . The style was international. The Baltimore Basilica , which

13392-560: Was also detectable, to a lesser degree, in the Late Baroque architecture in Paris, such as in the Louvre Colonnade . This shift was even visible in Rome at the redesigned façade for Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran . By the mid-18th century, the movement broadened to incorporate a greater range of classical influences, including those from Ancient Greece . An early centre of neoclassicism

13516-496: Was an initial wave essentially drawing on Roman architecture, followed, from about the start of the 19th century, by a second wave of Greek Revival architecture . This followed increased understanding of Greek survivals. As the 19th century continued, the style tended to lose its original rather austere purity in variants like the French Empire style . The term "neoclassical" is often used very loosely for any building using some of

13640-536: Was another important centre of Neoclassical architecture in Europe, led by the notable professors of architecture Marcin Knackfus , Laurynas Gucevičius and Karol Podczaszyński . The style was expressed in the shape of main public buildings, such as the Vilnius University Astronomical Observatory , Vilnius Cathedral and the town hall . The best-known architects and artists, who worked in

13764-662: Was designed by Benjamin Henry Latrobe in 1806, is considered one of the finest examples of neoclassical architecture in the world . A second neoclassic wave, more severe, more studied and more consciously archaeological, is associated with the height of the First French Empire . In France, the first phase of neoclassicism was expressed in the Louis XVI style , and the second in the styles called Directoire and Empire . Its major proponents were Percier and Fontaine , court architects who specialized in interior decoration. In

13888-442: Was inaugurated by Robert and James Adam , who travelled in Italy and Dalmatia in the 1750s, observing the ruins of the classical world. On their return to Britain, they published a book entitled The Works in Architecture in installments between 1773 and 1779. This book of engraved designs made the Adam style available throughout Europe. The Adam brothers aimed to simplify the Rococo and Baroque styles which had been fashionable in

14012-547: Was initially a Parisian style, the " Goût grec " ("Greek style") not a court style. Only when the young King Louis XVI acceded to the throne in 1774 did Marie Antoinette , his fashion-loving Queen, bring the Louis XVI style to court. Many early 19th-century neoclassical architects were influenced by the drawings and projects of Étienne-Louis Boullée and Claude Nicolas Ledoux . The many graphite drawings of Boullée and his students depict spare geometrical architecture that emulates

14136-493: Was journeying through the West Country and visited Brixham: ___ told us that after his death there was a sale at his house and that many articles, particularly valuable books, were sold for almost nothing. But that she understood that the most valuable part of his drafts (drawings) as she called them were reserved by Mr. Carr (Sir John), and that though some were sold they were those of the least value. Sir John Carr (1772–1832)

14260-442: Was less strong, architects continued to develop the neoclassical style of William Henry Playfair . The works of Cuthbert Brodrick and Alexander Thomson show that by the end of the 19th century the results could be powerful and eccentric. In Ireland , where Gothic Revival was also less popular, a refined, restrained form of the neoclassical developed, and can be seen in the works of James Gandon and other architects working at

14384-556: Was marked by good sense, truth and simplicity. He has left to regret his loss a numerous train of friends and a widow, who is one of the most amicable and accomplished women in the kingdom, though the delicacy of her mind has chiefly confined the reputation of her merit and abilities within the sphere of domestic intercourse and enjoyment. Hodges left his wife and children in great want. However, many of his friends soon rallied around to try and ease their burden, and for this, and other information relating to events soon after his death, we have

14508-536: Was only a small settlement when in 1895 the British decided to make it the capital of their new Federated Malay States ; it needed a number of large public buildings. The British decided to use the Islamic style they were used to from India, despite its having little relationship to existing local architectural styles. Unlike in India, the British also built some palaces for the sultans of the several states into which modern Malaysia remains divided , and in some places where

14632-402: Was opened at Dartmouth in the county of Devon under the firm of J. Seale, Hodges, Gretton and Ful where business will be transacted with the greatest punctuality. Dartmouth, 24th August, 1795. Banknotes, dated 24 August 1795, exist, issued by Hodges and Thomas Gretton & Co., payable on demand in Dartmouth or at their London agents, Walwyn, Petrie, Ward and McGregor. The bank was soon known as

14756-544: Was the first important public building to be built, between 1836 and 1843. Later, in the mid- and late 19th century, Theophil Hansen and Ernst Ziller took part in the construction of many neoclassical buildings. Theophil Hansen designed his first building, the National Observatory of Athens , and two of the three contiguous buildings forming the so-called "Athens Classical Trilogy", namely the Academy of Athens (1859) and

14880-439: Was the four-volume Vitruvius Britannicus by Colen Campbell. The book contained architectural prints of famous British buildings that had been inspired by the great architects from Vitruvius to Palladio. At first the book mainly featured the work of Inigo Jones , but the later tomes contained drawings and plans by Campbell and other 18th-century architects. Palladian architecture became well established in 18th-century Britain. At

15004-409: Was the niece of John Whitehurst from Derby. Unfortunately, she too died after only a few months of marriage, possibly from alcoholism. In December 1785, Hodges married for a third time. It was to Ann Mary Carr, a talented pianist, and the oldest of the five children of Benjamin and Elizabeth Carr. Her parents were already deceased when she married Hodges. At about the same time, Hodges was listed as

15128-597: Was the planned Palacio Legislativo Federal by Émile Bénard . Construction was halted by the Mexican Revolution and it was eventually turned into the Monumento a la Revolución . The Neoclassical style arrived in the American empires of Spain and Portugal through projects designed in Europe or carried out locally by European or Criollo architects trained in the academies of the metropolis . There are also examples of

15252-512: Was typically used, at least as a facing, these included substructures composed of iron, steel and poured concrete , and later reinforced concrete and pre-cast concrete elements. The style has been said, by a native of Kolkata, to be most common in "Southern and Western India", and of the three main cities of the 19th-century Raj, it was and is much more evident in Mumbai and Chennai rather than Kolkata , where both public government buildings, and

15376-645: Was yet again challenged when in 1857 Indian soldiers in their employ , together with rebellious princes including Rani of Jhansi , launched the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . However, this uprising was suppressed within a year and marked the end of the Mughal Empire , which was formally dissolved by the British. After the rebellion, the EIC's territories in India were formally transferred by the British government to Crown rule ;

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