Marble is a metamorphic rock consisting of carbonate minerals (most commonly calcite (CaCO 3 ) or dolomite (CaMg(CO 3 ) 2 ) that have recrystallized under the influence of heat and pressure. It has a crystalline texture, and is typically not foliated ( layered ), although there are exceptions.
145-519: The Taj Mahal ( / ˌ t ɑː dʒ m ə ˈ h ɑː l , ˌ t ɑː ʒ -/ TAHJ mə- HAHL , TAHZH - , Hindi: [taːdʒ ˈmɛɦ(ɛ)l] ; lit. ' Crown of the Palace ' ) is an ivory-white marble mausoleum on the right bank of the river Yamuna in Agra , Uttar Pradesh , India. It was commissioned in 1631 by the fifth Mughal emperor , Shah Jahan ( r. 1628–1658 ) to house
290-768: A UNESCO World Heritage Site . These show other distinctive features, such as a multiplicity of doors and mihrab s; the Sixty Dome Mosque has 26 doors (11 at the front, 7 on each side, and one in the rear). These increased the light and ventilation. Further mosques include the Baro Shona Masjid ; the Pathrail Mosque , the Bagha Mosque , the Darasbari Mosque , and the Kusumba Mosque . Single-domed mosques include
435-534: A building material . The word "marble" derives from the Ancient Greek μάρμαρον ( mármaron ), from μάρμαρος ( mármaros ), "crystalline rock, shining stone", perhaps from the verb μαρμαίρω ( marmaírō ), "to flash, sparkle, gleam"; R. S. P. Beekes has suggested that a " Pre-Greek origin is probable". This stem is also the ancestor of the English word "marmoreal", meaning "marble-like." While
580-572: A mausoleum to be built in black marble as a Black Taj Mahal across the Yamuna river. The idea originates from fanciful writings of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier , a European traveler and gem merchant, who visited Agra in 1665. It was suggested that his son Aurangzeb overthrew Shah Jahan before it could be built. Ruins of blackened marble across the river in the Mehtab Bagh seeming to support the argument were, however, proven false after excavations carried out in
725-476: A recommended exposure limit (REL) of 10 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. Dust, debris and temperature fluctuations from working marble can endanger the eye health of employees. For the staff involved in marble processing, it is necessary to provide eye protection equipment, and it is recommended to improve the education of all workers on occupational health risks and strengthen preventive measures. As
870-600: A Hindu temple have been inspired by P. N. Oak's 1989 book Taj Mahal: The True Story , in which he claimed it was built in 1155 AD and not in the 17th century. In November 2015, the Union Minister of Culture stated in the Indian Parliament that there was no evidence that it was ever a temple. In August 2017, the Archaeological Survey of India declared that there was no evidence to suggest the monument ever housed
1015-491: A border. The building has many lattice windows or jalis with interlocking hexagonal patterns. The gateway arches are bordered by Arabic calligraphy with passages from the Qur'an . Much of the calligraphy is composed of florid thuluth script made of jasper or black marble inlaid in white marble panels. Higher panels are written with slightly larger script to reduce the skewing effect when viewed from below. The calligraphy on
1160-471: A cautious approach to the new technology, with very thick walls and a shallow dome, only visible from a certain distance or height. Bold contrasting colours of masonry, with red sandstone and white marble , introduce what was to become a common feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, substituting for the polychrome tiles used in Persia and Central Asia. The pointed arches come together slightly at their base, giving
1305-536: A central spring or mountain, separating the garden into north, west, south and east. While most gardens of the era are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the centre, the Taj gardens is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh ("Moonlight Garden") on the other side of the Yamuna river, the Archaeological Survey of India has hypothesised that
1450-551: A couple of decades later. In these the central arch is taller, in imitation of an iwan . At Ajmer the smaller screen arches are tentatively cusped , for the first time in India. By around 1300 true domes and arches with voussoirs were being built; the ruined Tomb of Balban (d. 1287) in Delhi may be the earliest survival. The Alai Darwaza gatehouse at the Qutb complex, from 1311, still shows
1595-606: A fort Akbar designed at Agra exhibits the Assyrian gryphon, Indian elephants, and birds. During the Mughal era design elements of Islamic-Persian architecture were fused with and often produced playful forms of the Hindustani art. Lahore , occasional residence of Mughal rulers, exhibits a multiplicity of important buildings from the empire, among them the Badshahi mosque (built 1673–1674),
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#17328375831751740-560: A growth of 12% annually for the 2000–2006 period, compared to 10.5% annually for the 2000–2005 period. The largest dimension marble application is tile. The stone and marble industry is one of the largest industries in Palestine, contributing 20-25% of its total industrial revenues, generating USD $ 400–$ 450 million in revenue annually. The industry employs 15,000–20,000 workers across the West Bank across 1200–1700 facilities, and amounts to 4.5% of
1885-447: A large Islamic state to India, using Central Asian styles. The important Qutb Complex in Delhi was begun under Muhammad of Ghor , by 1199, and continued under Qutb al-Din Aibak and later sultans. The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque , now a ruin, was the first structure. Like other early Islamic buildings it re-used elements such as columns from destroyed Hindu and Jain temples, including one on
2030-453: A large amount of waste not being land-filled, reducing environmental pollution, thereby realizing the sustainability of marble. Converting waste to generate economic income and restore degraded soil can improve the environment. The nature of marble is soft and porous, so it is easily stained by colored liquids and scratches easily. Maintenance and cleaning is particularly important. Indo-Islamic architecture Indo-Islamic architecture
2175-460: A large dome and finial . Each side of the iwan is framed with a 33-metre (108 ft) high pishtaq (vaulted archway) with two similarly shaped arched balconies stacked on either side. This motif of archways is replicated on a smaller scale on the chamfered corner areas, making the design completely symmetrical. At the southern side of the platform, facing the garden, there are two flights of stairs on either side which are partly covered and provide
2320-415: A large number of domestic and foreign visitors. About five million visitors visited Taj Mahal in the financial year 2022–23. A three-tier pricing system is in place, with a significantly lower entrance fee for Indian citizens and more expensive ones for foreigners. As of 2024, the fee for Indian citizens was ₹ 50, for citizens of SAARC and BIMSTEC countries, it was ₹ 540 and for other foreign tourists, it
2465-458: A large one above the mihrab and four lesser ones at the corners. The large interior has a central hypostyle space, and wide aisles with "transverse" arches springing from unusually low down (illustrated). This distinctive feature is found in other Bahmanid buildings, and probably reflects Iranian influence, which is seen in other features such as a four-iwan plan and glazed tiles, some actually imported from Iran, used elsewhere. The architect of
2610-532: A letter to his father about the tomb, the mosque and the assembly hall of the complex developing extensive leaks during the previous rainy season. In 1658, Shah Jahan was deposed by Aurangzeb and put under house arrest at the nearby Agra Fort from where he could see the Taj Mahal. Upon Shah Jahan's death in 1666, Aurangzeb buried him in the mausoleum next to his wife. In the 18th century, the Jat rulers of Bharatpur attacked
2755-498: A male tomb. The cenotaphs are aligned north–south, with the head towards the north and the bodies were laid in on their sides with the face turned towards the west, facing Mecca . The calligraphy found on the marble cenotaphs in the tomb is particularly detailed and delicate. While the cenotaphs are similar to the ones from the Mughal era, no other tombs from the era were adorned with such an exquisite decoration. On Mumtaz's sarcophagus on
2900-440: A mark on Indian architecture that was a mix of Islamic, Persian, Arabic, Central Asian and native Indian architecture. A major aspect of Mughal architecture is the symmetrical nature of buildings and courtyards. Akbar , who ruled in the 16th century, made major contributions to Mughal architecture . He systematically designed forts and towns in similar symmetrical styles that blended Indian styles with outside influences. The gate of
3045-495: A mild horseshoe arch effect, and their internal edges are not cusped but lined with conventionalized "spearhead" projections, possibly representing lotus buds. Jali , stone openwork screens, are introduced here; they already had been long used in temples. The tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam (built 1320 to 1324) in Multan , Pakistan is a large octagonal brick-built mausoleum with polychrome glazed decoration that remains much closer to
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#17328375831753190-667: A more comprehensive epitaph reading "This is the illumined grave and sacred resting place of the emperor, dignified as Rizwan, residing in Eternity, His Majesty, having his abode in [the celestial realm of] Illiyun, Dweller in Paradise (Firdaus Ashiyani) [posthumous title of Shah Jahan], the Second Sahib-i Qiran, Shah Jahan, Padshah Ghazi [Warrior for the Faith]; may it be sanctified and may Paradise become his abode. He travelled from this world to
3335-417: A place to rest. Staircases lead from the ground floor to the roof level, where there are corridors between the central hall and the two corner rooms in the south with a system of ventilation shafts. The interior walls are about 25 metres (82 ft) high and are topped by a "false" interior dome decorated with a sun motif. The inlay work is a lapidary of precious and semiprecious gemstones. Each chamber wall
3480-630: A potential hazard. Mitigations such as dust filters, or dust suppression are suggested, but more research needs to be carried out on the efficacy of safety measures. In the United States, the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) has set the legal limit ( permissible exposure limit ) for marble exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m total exposure and 5 mg/m respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has set
3625-636: A red octet for protection, excluding the exterior surfaces of domes. The white marble came from Makrana in Rajasthan, while the red sandstone was quarried from Fatehpur Sikri in Uttar Pradesh. Many precious and semi-precious stones, used for decoration, were imported from across the world, including jade and crystal from China, turquoise from Tibet , Lapis lazuli from Afghanistan , sapphire from Sri Lanka and carnelian from Arabia . In all, 28 types of precious and semi-precious stone were inlaid into
3770-404: A renowned symbol of love, the Taj Mahal is also a symbol of Shah Jahan's wealth and power, and the fact that the empire had prospered under his rule. Bilateral symmetry, dominated by a central axis, has historically been used by rulers as a symbol of a ruling force that brings balance and harmony, and Shah Jahan applied that concept in the making of the Taj Mahal. Additionally, the plan is aligned in
3915-418: A screen made of gold on the occasion of the second anniversary of Mumtaz Mahal's death in 1633, which was later replaced by the marble screen in 1643. Situated within the screen in the upper main chamber are the likenesses of the tombs of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan with the actual burials done below in the lower tomb chamber. From the southern main entrance room, a stairway leads to the lower tomb chamber which
4060-486: A single large space under a high dome, and completely avoid the figurative sculpture so important to Hindu temple architecture. Islamic buildings initially adapted the skills of a workforce trained in earlier Indian traditions to their own designs. Unlike most of the Islamic world , where brick tended to predominate, India had highly skilled builders well used to producing stone masonry of extremely high quality. Alongside
4205-437: A temple. Another such unsupported theory, that the Taj Mahal was designed by an Italian, Geronimo Vereneo, held sway for a brief period after it was first promoted by Henry George Keene in 1879. Keene went by a translation of a Spanish work, Itinerario ( The Travels of Fray Sebastian Manrique, 1629–1643 ). Another theory, that a Frenchman named Austin of Bordeaux designed the Taj, was promoted by William Henry Sleeman based on
4350-425: A typical process using magnesium fluorosilicate (MgSiF 6 ) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) taking place. The resulting calcium hexafluorosilicate (CaSiF 6 ) is bonded to the surface of the marble. This is harder, more glossy and stain resistant compared to the original surface. The other often used method of finishing marble is to polish with oxalic acid (H 2 C 2 O 4 ), an organic acid. The resulting reaction
4495-399: Is a rock composed of calcium and magnesium carbonate , mostly white and pink. Common marble varieties are granular limestone or dolomite . The hardness of marble is very high, because the internal structure of the rock is very uniform after long-term natural aging, and the internal stress disappears, so the marble will not be deformed due to temperature, and has strong wear resistance. It
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4640-495: Is a ruin, but parts are in fair condition. Some buildings from his reign take forms that had been rare or unknown in Islamic buildings. He was buried in the large Hauz Khas Complex in Delhi, with many other buildings from his period and the later Sultanate, including several small domed pavilions supported only by columns. By this time Islamic architecture in India had adopted some features of earlier Indian architecture, such as
4785-439: Is a very popular building material. The following table is a summary of the features of Marble. White marble has been prized for its use in sculptures since classical times . This preference has to do with its softness, which made it easier to carve, relative isotropy and homogeneity, and a relative resistance to shattering. Also, the low index of refraction of calcite allows light to penetrate 12.7 to 38 millimeters into
4930-424: Is a white marble structure standing on a 6-metre (20 ft) high square plinth with sides measuring 95.5 metres (313 ft) in length. The base structure is a large multi-chambered cube with chamfered corners forming an eight-sided structure that is approximately 57.3 metres (188 ft) long on each of the four long sides. The building has four identical sides with iwans (arch-shaped doorways), topped by
5075-458: Is an octagon with 7.3-metre (24 ft) sides, with the design allowing for entry from each face with the main door facing the garden to the south. Two tiers of eight pishtaq arches are located along the walls, similar to the exterior. The four central upper arches form balconies or viewing areas, and each balcony's exterior window has an intricate jali . The inner wall is open along the axes where jali screens are fitted which transmit light from
5220-533: Is as follows: In this case the calcium oxalate (CaC 2 O 4 ) formed in the reaction is washed away with the slurry, leaving a surface that has not been chemically changed. The haloalkaliphilic methylotrophic bacterium Methylophaga murata was isolated from deteriorating marble in the Kremlin . Bacterial and fungal degradation was detected in four samples of marble from Milan Cathedral ; black Cladosporium attacked dried acrylic resin using melanin. Marble
5365-529: Is covered with flowers and other scroll work without any inscriptions. The epitaph surrounded by red poppy flowers reads "This is the sacred grave of His Most Exalted Majesty, Dweller in Paradise (Firdaus Ashiyani), Second Lord of the Auspicious. Conjunction (Sahib-i Qiran-i Sani), Shah Jahan, Padshah; may it ever be fragrant! The year 1076 [AD 1666]". The original cenotaph of Shah Jahan is a more simply decorated version with similar red flowers and yellow plants with
5510-539: Is highly decorated with dado bas-relief , intricate lapidary inlay and refined calligraphy panels similar to the design elements seen throughout the exterior of the complex. The main chamber houses the false sarcophagi of Mumtaz Mahal and Shah Jahan, while the real ones are in the basement. Perforated marble jalis ( mahjar-i mushabbak ) border the cenotaphs and are made from eight marble panels carved through with intricate pierce work inlaid in delicate detail with semi-precious stones. The cenotaphs were originally covered by
5655-425: Is more austere, but impressive; like a Hindu temple, it is topped with a small amalaka and a round finial like a kalasha . Unlike the buildings mentioned previously, it completely lacks carved texts, and sits in a compound with high walls and battlements. Both these tombs have external walls sloping slightly inwards, by 25° in the Delhi tomb, like many fortifications including the ruined Tughlaqabad Fort opposite
5800-496: Is often taken to be the earliest surviving square single-domed Islamic building in Bengal, the standard form of smaller mosques and mausoleums. But there is a small mosque at Molla Simla, Hooghly district , that is possibly from 1375, earlier than the mausoleum. The Eklakhi Mausoleum is large and has several features that were to become common in the Bengal style, including a slightly curved cornice , large round decorative buttresses at
5945-414: Is rectangular in shape with walls laid with marble and an undecorated coved ceiling. The cenotaph of Mumtaz is located in the exact center of the chamber on a marble base of 1.5 by 2.5 metres (4 ft 11 in by 8 ft 2 in). Shah Jahan's cenotaph is situated on a larger base on the western side in an asymmetrical arrangement. On the top is a traditional sculpture of a small pen box denoting it as
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6090-404: Is surrounded by a walkway connecting all the quadrants. Halfway between the tomb and gateway in the centre of the garden is a raised marble water tank with five fountains and a reflecting pool positioned on a north–south axis to reflect the image of the mausoleum. The elevated marble water tank is called al Hawd al-Kawthar in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad . Elsewhere,
6235-501: Is the Taj Mahal . It was built as a mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal , the wife of Shah Jahan , who died in 1631. The main ideas and themes of garden tombs had already been explored by earlier Mughal emperors, and this was the culmination of all those previous works into a national landmark. The white tomb rises above a reflecting pool, within a large walled garden. The Red Fort in Delhi is also an important example of Mughal Architecture. It
6380-698: Is the architecture of the Indian subcontinent produced by and for Islamic patrons and purposes. Despite an initial Arab presence in Sindh , the development of Indo-Islamic architecture began in earnest with the establishment of Delhi as the capital of the Ghurid dynasty in 1193. Succeeding the Ghurids was the Delhi Sultanate , a series of Central Asian dynasties that consolidated much of North, East, and Central India, and later by
6525-430: Is the red sandstone side, meant for worldly markets. Only the mausoleum is white so as to represent the enlightenment, spirituality and faith of Mumtaz Mahal. Koch has deciphered that symbolic of Islamic teachings, the plan of the worldly side is a mirror image of the otherworldly side, and the grand gate in the middle represents the transition between the two worlds. The Taj Mahal is a major tourist attraction and attracts
6670-580: Is typically composed of an interlocking mosaic of carbonate crystals . Primary sedimentary textures and structures of the original carbonate rock ( protolith ) have typically been modified or destroyed. Pure white marble is the result of metamorphism of a very pure ( silicate -poor) limestone or dolomite protolith. The characteristic swirls and veins of many colored marble varieties, sometimes called striations , are usually due to various mineral impurities such as clay , silt , sand , iron oxides , or chert which were originally present as grains or layers in
6815-460: The Archaeological Survey of India has been responsible for the maintenance of the monument. During the India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, scaffolding was again erected to mislead bomber pilots. In 1983, the Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site for being "the jewel of Islamic art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage". Since
6960-610: The Asaf Jahi dynasty became exceedingly wealthy and were one of the richest royal families in the world by the mid-20th century. The Nizam commissioned construction of various public works and buildings in their state (often in Indo-Saracenic and Mughal style) such as the Telangana High Court , City College , Public Gardens , (formerly Bagh-e-Aaam ), Jubilee Hall , Asafia Library , The Assembly building , Niloufer Hospital ,
7105-811: The British East India Company , prosperous provinces of the Mughal Empire such as Awadh , Bengal, Hyderabad and Mysore emerged as powerful regional states independent of Delhi. In Awadh (encompassing modern eastern Uttar Pradesh ), Lucknow emerged as a centre of Ganga-Jamuni culture and Urdu/Hindustani literature. The Nawabs of Awadh sponsored the construction of architectural masterpieces such as Bara Imambara , Rumi Darwaza , Chota Imambara , Sikandar Bagh and Ghantaghar in Lucknow, as well as Gulab Bari and Bahu Begum ka Maqbara in Faizabad . In Hyderabad,
7250-667: The Firoz Minar was built in Gauda to commemorate Bengali military victories. The ruined Adina Mosque (1374–75) is very large, which is unusual in Bengal, with a barrel vaulted central hall flanked by hypostyle areas. It is said to be the largest mosque in the sub-continent, and modeled after the Ayvan-e Kasra of Ctesiphon, Iraq, as well as the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus. The heavy rainfall in Bengal necessitated large roofed spaces, and
7395-617: The Golconda Fort , tombs of the Qutb Shahis , Charminar , Char Kaman and Taramati Baradari . The Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576) normally used brick as the primary construction material of large buildings, as pre-Islamic buildings had done. Stone had to be imported to most of Bengal , whereas clay for bricks is plentiful. But stone was used for columns and prominent details, usually re-used from Hindu or Buddhist temples. The early 15th century Eklakhi Mausoleum at Pandua, Malda or Adina,
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#17328375831757540-551: The Gur-e Amir in Samarkand (the tomb of Timur , progenitor of the Mughal dynasty) and Humayun's Tomb in Delhi which inspired the Charbagh gardens and hasht-behesht plan of the site. The building complex employs symmetrical constructions with the usage of various shapes and symbols. While the mausoleum is constructed of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones , red sandstone
7685-556: The Indo-Saracenic Revivalism of the late British Raj . Both secular and religious buildings are influenced by Indo-Islamic architecture. The best-preserved example of a mosque from the days of the infancy of Islam in South Asia is the ruined mosque at Banbhore in Sindh , Pakistan, from the year 727, from which only the plan can be deduced. The start of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 under Qutb ud-Din Aibak introduced
7830-637: The Jama Mosque, Ahmedabad , which fell down in an earthquake in 1819 . This carving draws on the traditional skills of local stone-carvers, previously exercised on Hindu temples in the Māru-Gurjara and other local styles. Under the Gujarat Sultanate , independent between 1407 and 1543, Gujarat was a prosperous regional sultanate under the rule of the Muzaffarid dynasty , who built lavishly, particularly in
7975-1079: The Jamia Masjid , a large wooden congregational mosque that incorporates elements of Buddhist pagoda structure, as well as the wooden Khanqah-e-Moulah mosque. Also in Srinagar are the Aali Masjid and the Tomb of Zain-ul-Abidin. Two 14th-century wooden mosques in Gilgit-Baltistan are the Chaqchan Mosque in Khaplu (1370) and the Amburiq Mosque in Shigar . Both have stone-built cores with elaborately carved wooden exterior galleries, at Amburiq on two levels, in an adaptation of traditional local styles. The Mughal Empire , an Islamic empire that lasted in India from 1526 to 1857 left
8120-625: The Malwa and Jaunpur sultanates has also left some significant buildings. The Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan broke away from the Tughlaqs in 1347, and ruled from Gulbarga , Karnataka and then Bidar until overrun by the Mughals in 1527. The main mosque (1367) in the large Kalaburagi Fort or citadel is unusual in having no courtyard. There are a total of 75 domes, all small and shallow and small except for
8265-750: The Mughal Empire during the early 16th century. Both of these dynasties introduced Islamic architecture and art styles from West Asia into the Indian subcontinent. The types and forms of large buildings required by Muslim elites, with mosques and tombs much the most common, were very different from those previously built in India. The exteriors of both were very often topped by large domes , and made extensive use of arches . Both of these features were hardly used in Hindu temple architecture and other indigenous Indian styles. Both types of building essentially consist of
8410-508: The New Seven Wonders of the World , a poll conducted in 2007. Foreign dignitaries often visit the Taj Mahal on trips to India. Ever since its construction, the building has been the source of an admiration transcending culture and geography, and so personal and emotional responses have consistently eclipsed scholastic appraisals of the monument. A longstanding myth holds that Shah Jahan planned
8555-466: The Osmania Arts College and Osmania Medical College , as well as palaces like Hyderabad House and Chowmahalla Palace . The so-called Indo-Saracenic architecture , beginning in the late 18th century, but mainly developing from the 1840s until independence a century later, was mostly designed by British or other European architects, and adopted Islamic or specifically Indian features, usually as
8700-520: The Shah Mir dynasty established a sultanate encompassing the region of Kashmir (consisting of modern-day Gilgit-Baltistan , Azad Kashmir , Jammu and Kashmir , Ladakh , and Aksai Chin ), allowing for the gradual Islamization of the region and the hybridization of Persianate culture and architecture with the indigenous Buddhist styles of Kashmir. In the capital at Srinagar in modern Indian-administered Kashmir, Sikandar Shah Mir (died 1413) constructed
8845-612: The Singar Mosque , and the Shankarpasha Shahi Masjid . Both capitals of the Bengal Sultanate, first Pandua or Adina , then from 1450 Gauda or Gaur , started to be abandoned soon after the conquest of the sultanate by the Mughals in 1576, leaving many grand buildings, mostly religious. The materials from secular buildings were recycled by builders in later periods. While minarets are conspicuously absent in most mosques,
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#17328375831758990-485: The dimension stone trade, the term marble is used for any crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone. For example, Tennessee marble is really a dense granular fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician limestone, that geologists call the Holston Formation . Ashgabat , the capital city of Turkmenistan , was recorded in the 2013 Guinness Book of Records as having
9135-418: The fortress of Lahore (16th and 17th centuries) with the famous Alamgiri Gate , the colourful Wazir Khan Mosque , ( Lahore , 1634–1635) as well as numerous other mosques and mausoleums. The Shahjahan Mosque at Thatta , Sindh was built under, and probably largely by Shah Jahan , but strongly reflects Central Asian Islamic style, as the emperor had recently been campaigning near Samarkand . Singularly,
9280-757: The squinches again corbelled, is now missing, and the intricate carving has been described as having an "angular harshness", from carvers working in an unfamiliar tradition. Other elements were added to the complex over the next two centuries. Another very early mosque, begun in the 1190s, is the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer , Rajasthan , built for the same Delhi rulers, again with corbelled arches and domes. Here Hindu temple columns (and possibly some new ones) are piled up in threes to achieve extra height. Both mosques had large detached screens with pointed corbelled arches added in front of them, probably under Iltutmish
9425-461: The 12th anniversary of the death of Mumtaz Mahal. Construction of the mausoleum was completed in 1648, but work continued on other phases of the project for another five years. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at a cost estimated at the time to be around ₹ 5 million, which in 2023 would be approximately ₹ 35 billion ( US$ 77.8 million). In December 1652, Shah Jahan's son Aurangzeb wrote
9570-409: The 15th century, the Indo-Islamic style of Gujarat is especially notable for its inventive and elegant use of minarets . They are often in pairs flanking the main entrance, mostly rather thin and with elaborate carving at least at the lower levels. Some designs push out balconies at intervals up the shaft; the most extreme version of this was in the lost upper parts of the so-called "shaking minarets" at
9715-440: The 16th century capital of Gujarat Sultanate, documents the early Islamic and pre- Mughal city that has remained without any change. Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat presages many of the architectural elements later found in Mughal architecture , including ornate mihrabs and minarets, jali (perforated screens carved in stone), and chattris (pavilions topped with cupolas ). By 1339, Shams-ud-din Shah Mir of
9860-470: The 1990s found that they were discolored white stones that had turned black. A more credible theory for the origins of the black mausoleum was demonstrated in 2006 by archaeologists who reconstructed part of the pool in the Mehtab Bagh. A dark reflection of the white mausoleum could clearly be seen, befitting Shah Jahan's obsession with symmetry and the positioning of the pool itself. No concrete evidence exists for claims that describe, often in horrific detail,
10005-402: The 2020s, the Government of India has undertaken various restoration measures, including placing mud packs to restore the white color and replacing broken marble. Due to the global attention that it has received and the millions of visitors it attracts, the Taj Mahal has become a prominent image that is associated with India, and in this way has become a symbol of India itself. Along with being
10150-416: The English term "marble" resembles the French marbre , most other European languages (with words like "marmoreal") more closely resemble the original Ancient Greek. Marble is a rock resulting from metamorphism of sedimentary carbonate rocks , most commonly limestone or dolomite . Metamorphism causes variable re-crystallization of the original carbonate mineral grains. The resulting marble rock
10295-451: The Mughal Empire declined, the gardens were not maintained, and when the British Raj assumed management of the gardens, they changed the landscaping to resemble the formal lawns of London in the 19th century. The water supply for the gardens were derived from the Yamuna River, where a water channel transported the water into an underground reservoir along the eastern wall of a storage building containing multiple storage tanks. The water from
10440-498: The Music House interspersed between them. The main gateway, primarily built of marble, mirrors the tomb's architecture and incorporates intricate decorations like bas-relief and pietra dura inlays. At the far end of the complex stand two similar buildings built of red sandstone, one of which is designated as a mosque and the other as a jawab , a structure to provide architectural symmetry. The mosque's design resembles others built during
10585-538: The Supreme Architect. It is believed that more than 20,000 artisans, labourers, painters and others were involved in the construction of the building. Specialist sculptors from Bukhara , calligraphers from Syria and Persia , designers from southern India , stone cutters from Baluchistan and Italian artisans were employed. Workmen constructed a colossal brick scaffold that mirrored the tomb rather than wooden scaffolds. A 15 km (9.3 mi) long earthern ramp
10730-479: The Taj Mahal and auction off the marble. Bentinck's biographer John Rosselli says that the story arose from Bentinck's fund-raising sale of discarded marble from Agra Fort. Another myth suggests that beating the silhouette of the finial will cause water to come forth. To this day, officials find broken bangles surrounding the silhouette. Several myths, none of which are supported by the archaeological record, have appeared asserting that people other than Shah Jahan and
10875-472: The Taj Mahal while invading Agra and took away two chandeliers, one of agate and another of silver, which had hung over the main cenotaph and the gold and silver screen. Kanbo, a Mughal historian, said the gold shield which covered the 4.6-metre-high (15 ft) finial at the top of the main dome was also removed during the Jat despoliation. By the late 19th century, parts of the buildings had fallen into disrepair. At
11020-458: The Taj Mahal. According to contemporary historians Muhammad Amin Qazvini, Abdul Hamid Lahori and Muhammad Saleh Kamboh , Shah Jahan did not show the same level of affection for others as he had shown Mumtaz while she was alive. After her death, he avoided royal affairs for a week due to his grief and gave up listening to music and lavish dressing for two years. Shah Jahan was enamored by the beauty of
11165-477: The Yamuna river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one of the rivers of Paradise . Similarities in layout and architectural features with the Shalimar Gardens suggest that both gardens may have been designed by the same architect, Ali Mardan. Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of vegetation, including abundant roses , daffodils , and fruit trees . As
11310-516: The architecture developed in Delhi and prominent centres of Mughal culture such as Agra , Lahore and Allahabad , a variety of regional styles developed in regional kingdoms like the Bengal , Gujarat , Deccan , Jaunpur and Kashmir Sultanates . By the Mughal period, generally agreed to represent the peak of the style, aspects of Islamic style began to influence architecture made for Hindus, with even temples using scalloped arches, and later domes. This
11455-454: The banquet hall of eternity on the night of the twenty-sixth of the month of Rajab, in the year one thousand and seventy-six Hijri [31 January AD 1666]". The complex is set around a large 300 m (3,200 sq ft) charbagh or Mughal garden . The garden is divided by two main walkways ( khiyaban ) into four quadrants with further raised pathways that divide each of the four-quarters into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. The garden
11600-684: The capital, Ahmedabad . The sultanate commissioned mosques such as the Jami Masjid of Ahmedabad , Jama Masjid at Champaner , Jami Masjid at Khambhat , Qutbuddin Mosque , Rani Rupamati Mosque , Sarkhej Roza , Sidi Bashir Mosque , Kevada Mosque , Sidi Sayyed Mosque , Nagina Mosque and Pattharwali Masjid, as well as structures such as Teen Darwaza , Bhadra Fort and the Dada Harir Stepwell in Ahmedabad. The Champaner-Pavagadh Archaeological Park ,
11745-414: The cardinal north–south direction and the corners have been placed so that when seen from the centre of the plan, the sun can be seen rising and setting on the north and south corners on the summer and winter solstices respectively. This makes the Taj a symbolic horizon. The planning and structure of the Taj Mahal, from the building itself to the gardens and beyond, is symbolic of Mumtaz Mahal's mansion in
11890-545: The city the Ashtur tombs are a group of eight large domed royal tombs. These have domes which are slightly pulled in at the base, predating the onion domes of Mughal architecture. The Qutb Shahi dynasty of Hyderabad , not absorbed by the Mughals until 1687, greatly developed the city and its surrounding region, building many mosques such as the Mecca Masjid , Khairtabad Mosque , Hayat Bakshi Mosque and Toli Mosque, as well as
12035-551: The corners, and decoration in carved terracotta brick. These features are also seen in the Choto Sona Mosque (around 1500), which is in stone, unusually for Bengal, but shares the style and mixes domes and a curving "paddy" roof based on village house roofs made of vegetable thatch. Such roofs feature even more strongly in later Bengal Hindu temple architecture , with types such as the do-chala , jor-bangla , and char-chala . For larger mosques, Bengali architects multiplied
12180-422: The day, golden in the moonlight, and sometimes even a bluish hue under certain lighting conditions. This effect is due to the marble's surface reacting to light and moisture, creating a magical and ever-changing visual experience. The sky has not only been incorporated in the design through the reflecting pools but also through the surface of the building itself. This is another way to imply the presence of Allah at
12325-405: The deaths, dismemberment and mutilations which Shah Jahan supposedly inflicted on various architects and craftsmen associated with the tomb. Some stories claim that those involved in construction signed contracts committing themselves to have no part in any similar design. No evidence exists for claims that Lord William Bentinck , governor-general of India in the 1830s, supposedly planned to demolish
12470-514: The drop from the 9.47 m (31.1 ft) high walls created the necessary water for the fountains. The Taj Mahal complex is enclosed by crenellated red sandstone walls on three sides, with the side facing the Yamuna river left open. Outside the complex walls, there are other mausoleums dedicated to Shah Jahan's other wives, royals and favorite servants. The inner sides of the walls feature columned arcades typical of Hindu temples, adorned with domed cuppola like chattris and smaller structures like
12615-479: The drum and the dome is supplanted by an ornamental moulding with a twisted rope design. The main dome is surrounded by four smaller domes or chattris placed at its corners, which replicate the onion shape of the main dome. The smaller domes are supported by columns which stand on the top of the main structure and help bring light to the interior of the building. Tall spires called guldastas extend from edges of walls which serve as decorative elements. The main and
12760-487: The end of the century, British viceroy Lord Curzon ordered a restoration project, which was completed in 1908. He also commissioned the large lamp in the interior chamber and replaced the gardens with European-style lawns that are still in place today. In 1942, the government erected scaffolding to disguise the building in anticipation of air attacks by the Japanese Air Force . Since Indian independence in 1947,
12905-495: The era and the jawab has floors with inlaid patterns while lacking a mihrab. The land on which the Taj Mahal is situated was present to the south of the walled city of Agra which was given to Shah Jahan by Raja Jai Singh I in exchange for a large palace in the centre of Agra. The building was commissioned in 1631, and construction commenced in 1632. An area of roughly 1.2 hectares (3 acres) was excavated, filled with dirt to reduce seepage, and levelled at 50 metres (160 ft) above
13050-487: The excavated material will be waste, this is often then used as chips for flooring or wall finish, and uses for which high-calcium limestone is suitable. Marble sludge waste can be used as a mineral filler in water-based paints. Using ground calcium carbonate as a filler in paint production can improve the brightness, hiding power and application performance of paint, and can also replace expensive pigments such as titanium dioxide . Recycling of marble waste leads to
13195-457: The exquisite detailing of the carvings and the frames and archway spandrels are decorated with pietra dura inlays of stylised geometric pattern of vines, flowers and fruits. The domes and vaults of the sandstone buildings are worked with tracery of incised painting to create elaborate geometric forms. Herringbone inlays define the space between the adjoining elements. White inlays are used in sandstone buildings, and dark or black inlays on
13340-488: The exterior to the interior of the main chamber. Except the south side, other three sides consist of an open elongated room flanked by two square cells covered with decorated ceilings set on the platform. The central room has arched openings on three sides fitted with jalis filled with panes of glass and a small rectangular window cut into the central jali . The square cells which are reached through separate doors were probably originally used for visitors and Qur'an reciters as
13485-451: The favorite medium for Greek and Roman sculptors and architects (see classical sculpture ), marble has become a cultural symbol of tradition and refined taste. Its extremely varied and colorful patterns make it a favorite decorative material. Places named after the stone include Marblehead, Massachusetts ; Marblehead, Ohio ; Marble Arch , London; the Sea of Marmara ; India's Marble Rocks ; and
13630-437: The formation of "black-crust" (accumulation of calcium sulphate, nitrates and carbon particles). Vinegar and other acidic solutions should be avoided in the cleaning of marble products. Crystallization refers to a method of imparting a glossy, more durable finish on to a marble floor (CaCO 3 ). It involves polishing the surface with an acidic solution and a steel wool pad on a flooring machine. The chemical reaction below shows
13775-509: The garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains . In the north-western quadrant, is a place that marks the site where Mumtaz Mahal was first buried, before her body was moved to its final resting place inside the main chamber of the mausoleum. The charbagh garden , a design inspired by Persian gardens , was introduced to India by Babur , the first Mughal emperor and symbolises the Paradise garden ( Jannah ) with four rivers flowing from
13920-425: The garden of Paradise. The concept of gardens of paradise is extended into the building of the mausoleum as well. The structure is decorated with colorful relief and semi-precious stones using a technique called parchin kari , symbolizing grandeur. The building appears to slightly change colour depending on the time of day and the weather. The white marble reflects varying hues—pinkish in the morning, milky white during
14065-584: The innumerable Chaukhandi tombs are of eastern influence. Although constructed between 16th and 18th centuries, they do not possess any similarity to Mughal architecture. The stonemason works show rather typical Sindhi workmanship, probably from before Islamic times. Later Mughal architecture, built under Aurangzeb (ruled 1658–1707), include the Badshahi Mosque in Lahore and Bibi ka Maqbara in Aurangabad . By
14210-399: The land at the south side of Agra on which a mansion belonging to Raja Jai Singh I stood. He chose the place for the construction of Mumtaz's tomb after which Jai Singh agreed to donate it to the emperor. The Taj Mahal incorporates and expands on design traditions of Indo-Islamic and Mughal architecture . Inspirations for the building came from Timurid and Mughal buildings including
14355-536: The late 18th century the style was effectively over. However, by this time versions of Mughal style, often called "post-Mughal", had been widely adopted by the rulers of the princely states and other wealthy people of all religions for their palaces and, where appropriate, tombs. Hindu patrons often mixed aspects of Hindu temple architecture and traditional Hindu palace architecture with Mughal elements and, later, European ones. Major examples of Mughal architecture include: The best known example of Mughal architecture
14500-551: The late 20th century, the monument has been affected by environmental pollution which has turned the Taj Mahal yellow-brown. Acid rain and pollution affecting the Yamuna River including the presence of Mathura Oil Refinery , have contributed to the same. After directives by the Supreme Court of India , in 1997 the Indian government set up the "Taj Trapezium Zone (TTZ)", a 10,400-square-kilometre (4,000 sq mi) area around
14645-528: The late Lodi dynasty. The architecture of other regional Muslim states was often more impressive. Significant regional styles developed in the independent sultanates formed when the Tughlaq empire weakened in the mid-14th century, and lasted until most were absorbed into the Mughal Empire in the 16th century. The sultanates of the Deccan Plateau, Gujarat, Bengal and Kashmir are discussed below. The architecture of
14790-566: The limestone. Green coloration is often due to serpentine resulting from originally magnesium-rich limestone or dolomite with silica impurities. These various impurities have been mobilized and recrystallized by the intense pressure and heat of the metamorphism. Acids react with the calcium carbonate in marble, producing carbonic acid (which decomposes quickly to CO 2 and H 2 O) and other soluble salts : Outdoor marble statues, gravestones , or other marble structures are damaged by acid rain whether by carbonation , sulfation or
14935-637: The material from the towers would tend to fall away from the tomb. The external surfaces of the building are decorated with a number of delicate relief art adorned with various precious and semi-previous stones. The decorative elements were created by applying paint, stucco , stone inlays or carvings. In line with the Islamic prohibition against the use of anthropomorphic forms, the decorative elements can be grouped into either calligraphy , abstract forms or vegetative motifs. The white marble dados consist of ornamental bas relief depictions of nature and plant based elements. The marble has been polished to emphasise
15080-494: The mausoleum was an observance by Shah Jahan, on 6 February 1643, of the 12th anniversary of the death of Mumtaz Mahal. The Taj Mahal complex is believed to have been completed in its entirety in 1653 at a cost estimated at the time to be around ₹ 5 million, which in 2023 would be approximately ₹ 35 billion ( US$ 77.8 million). The building complex incorporates the design traditions of Indo-Islamic and Mughal architecture . It employs symmetrical constructions with
15225-410: The memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal , who died on 17 June that year while giving birth to their 14th child, Gauhara Begum . Construction started in 1632, and the mausoleum was completed in 1648, while the surrounding buildings and garden were finished five years later. The imperial court documenting Shah Jahan's grief after the death of Mumtaz Mahal illustrates the love story held as the inspiration for
15370-401: The monument where strict emissions standards are in place. Concerns for the tomb's structural integrity have recently been raised because of a decline in the groundwater level in the Yamuna river basin, with cracks appearing in parts of the tomb in 2010 and the minarets surrounding the monument showing signs of tilting. Minor damage was reported due to storms on 11 April 2018 and 31 May 2020. In
15515-586: The mosque is said to have been Persian. Some later Bahminid royal tombs are double, with two units of the usual rectangle-with-dome form combined, one for the ruler and the other for his family, as at the Haft Dombad ("Seven Domes") group of royal tombs outside Gulbarga. The Mahmud Gawan Madrasa (begun 1460s) is a large ruined madrasa "of wholly Iranian design" in Bidar founded by a chief minister, with parts decorated in glazed tiles imported by sea from Iran. Outside
15660-546: The nation's GDP. The vast majority of the industry's exports are to Israel. Marble in the geologic sense does not naturally outcrop in Palestine, and that the vast majority of commercially labeled marble produced in Palestine produced would be geologically considered limestone. Particulate air pollution exposure has been found to be elevated in the marble production industry. Exposure to the dust produced by cutting marble could impair lung function or cause lung disease in workers, such as silicosis . Skin and eye problems are also
15805-500: The nine-domed mosque, which allowed a large area to be covered, was more popular there than anywhere else. After the Islamic consolidation of Bengal was complete, some local features continued, especially in smaller buildings, but the Mughals used their usual style in imperial commissions. The distinctive Indo-Islamic architecture style of Gujarat drew micro-architectural elements from earlier Maru-Gurjara architecture and employed them in mihrab , roofs, doors, minarets and facades. In
15950-652: The numbers of domes, with a nine-domed formula (three rows of three) being one option, surviving in four examples, all 15th or 16th century and now in Bangladesh, although there were others with larger numbers of domes. Buildings in the style are the Nine Dome Mosque and the Sixty Dome Mosque (completed 1459) and several other buildings in the Mosque City of Bagerhat , an abandoned city in Bangladesh now featured as
16095-435: The only access from ground level up to the mausoleum building. The predominant feature of the mausoleum is the 23-metre (75 ft) high marble dome that surmounts the tomb. The onion shaped dome sits on a 12-metre (39 ft) high cylindrical drum with an inner diameter of 18.4 metres (60 ft). The dome is slightly asymmetrical and is topped by a 9.6-metre (31 ft) high gilded finial . The intermediate zone between
16240-608: The original architects were responsible for the construction of the Taj Mahal. For instance, in 2000, India's Supreme Court dismissed P. N. Oak 's petition to declare that a Hindu king built the Taj Mahal. In 2005, a similar petition brought by Amar Nath Mishra, a social worker and preacher claiming that the Taj Mahal was built by the Hindu king Paramardi in 1196, was dismissed by the Allahabad High Court . Several court cases and statements by right-wing politicians about Taj Mahal being
16385-417: The probable start of the Delhi tower. The surfaces of both are elaborately decorated with inscriptions and geometric patterns; in Delhi the shaft is fluted with "superb stalactite bracketing under the balconies" at the top of each stage. In general minarets were slow to be used in India, and are often detached from the main mosque where they exist. The Tomb of Iltutmish was added by 1236; its dome,
16530-421: The reservoir was lifted by means of a system of pulleys and wheels, turned by animals, to a tank that supplied an aqueduct which ran south carrying water up to the western wall before turning east. The water was later distributed throughout the garden through earthenware pipes embedded underground. The fountains in the central tank consisted of large vessels made of copper and inter-connected through copper pipes and
16675-475: The riverbank level. In the tomb area, piles were dug and filled with lime and stone to form the footings of the tomb. The platform above the ground was constructed of brick and mortar. The tomb complex was built mainly using brick and lime mortar. The external surface of the main tomb building and the interior of the main cenotaph chamber is veneered with white marble. The other interior surfaces and other accessory buildings are lined with red sandstone coated with
16820-409: The same design elements as the main dome with a finial. Steps lead to the top of the tower with rectangular openings below the domes providing light and air on the top. The minarets were designed similar to traditional elements of a mosque, which are used by the muezzin to call for prayer. The minarets were constructed slightly oriented towards the outside of the plinth so that in the event of collapse,
16965-458: The same site whose platform was reused. The style was Iranian, but the arches were still corbelled in the traditional Indian way. Beside it is the extremely tall Qutb Minar , a minaret or victory tower, whose original four stages reach 73 meters (with a final stage added later). Its closest comparator is the 62-metre all-brick Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan, of c.1190, a decade or so before
17110-423: The site instituted fines for visitors who stayed longer than three hours. The small town to the south of the Taj, known as Taj Ganji or Mumtazabad, was initially constructed with caravanserais , bazaars and markets to serve the needs of visitors and workers. Lists of recommended travel destinations often feature the Taj Mahal, which also appears in several listings of seven wonders of the modern world, including
17255-407: The site. According to Ebba Koch, art historian and international expert in the understanding and interpretation of Mughal architecture and the Taj Mahal, the planning of the entire compound symbolises earthly life and the afterlife, a subset of the symbolisation of the divine. The plan was split into two – one half is the white marble mausoleum itself and the gardens, and the other half
17400-399: The smaller domes are decorated with a design resembling a lotus flower . The domes are topped by decorative finials which uses Persian and Indian design elements. The main finial was originally made of gold but was replaced by a copy made of gilded bronze in the early 19th century. The finial is topped by a moon, a typical Islamic motif , whose horns point heavenward. Four minarets flank
17545-467: The southern gate roughly translates to "O Soul, thou art at rest. Return to the Lord at peace with Him, and He at peace with you." The calligraphy on the buildings were believed to have been created in 1609 by Abdul Haq , who was conferred the title of "Amanat Khan" by Shah Jahan. At the base of the interior dome is the inscription, "Written by the insignificant being, Amanat Khan Shirazi". The main inner chamber
17690-409: The stone before being scattered out, resulting in the characteristic waxy look which brings a lifelike luster to marble sculptures of any kind, which is why many sculptors preferred and still prefer marble for sculpting the human form. Construction marble is a stone which is composed of calcite, dolomite or serpentine that is capable of taking a polish. More generally in construction , specifically
17835-502: The styles of Iran and Afghanistan. Timber is also used internally. This was the earliest major monument of the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413), built during the unsustainable expansion of its massive territory. It was built for a Sufi saint rather than a sultan, and most of the many Tughlaq tombs are much less exuberant. The tomb of the founder of the dynasty, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (d. 1325)
17980-420: The tomb building, one at each corner of the plinth facing the chamfered corners. The four minarets, which are each more than 40 metres (130 ft) tall, are symmetrically arranged on the corners facing the chamfered corners of the main building. Each minaret is composed of three almost equal parts with balconies at the intersection of the portions. The towers are also surmounted by smaller chattris and incorporate
18125-431: The tomb of his beloved wife, Mumtaz Mahal ; it also houses the tomb of Shah Jahan himself. The tomb is the centrepiece of a 17-hectare (42-acre) complex, which includes a mosque and a guest house, and is set in formal gardens bounded on three sides by a crenellated wall. Construction of the mausoleum was completed in 1648, but work continued on other phases of the project for another five years. The first ceremony held at
18270-437: The tomb, intended as the new capital. The Tughlaqs had a corps of government architects and builders, and in this and other roles employed many Hindus. They left many buildings, and a standardized dynastic style. The third sultan, Firuz Shah (r. 1351–88) is said to have designed buildings himself, and was the longest ruler and greatest builder of the dynasty. His Firoz Shah Palace Complex (started 1354) at Hisar , Haryana
18415-414: The top, the decoration consists of natural plum fruits, buds and flower blossoms inlaid with Qur'anic inscriptions with the epitaph reading "The illumined grave of Arjumand Bano Begam, entided Mumtaz Mahal, who died in the year 1631". The original tomb in the lower level is largely undecorated, with Ninety Nine Names of God inscribed on the side. The false cenotaph of Shah Jahan has similar decorations and
18560-658: The towns of Marble, Minnesota ; Marble, Colorado ; Marble Falls, Texas , and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York . The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon in Athens that are on display in the British Museum . Total world quarrying production in 2019 was approximately 316 million tonnes; however, quarrying waste accounted for 53% of this total production. In the process of marble mining and processing, around half or
18705-410: The usage of various shapes and symbols. While the mausoleum is constructed of white marble inlaid with semi-precious stones , red sandstone was used for other buildings in the complex similar to the Mughal era buildings of the time. The Taj Mahal was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1983 for being "the jewel of Islamic art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of
18850-416: The use of a high plinth , and often mouldings around its edges, as well as columns and brackets and hypostyle halls. After the death of Firoz the Tughlaqs declined, and the following Delhi dynasties were weak. Most of the monumental buildings constructed were tombs, although the impressive Lodi Gardens in Delhi (adorned with fountains, charbagh gardens, ponds, tombs and mosques) were constructed by
18995-520: The white marble. The planning of Shah Jahan's buildings was carried out by a team of architects who worked under his close supervision. He held daily meetings with them, and, Abdul Hamid Lahori says, he made "appropriate alterations to whatever the skillful architects designed after many thoughts, and asked competent questions" The emperor's historians claim that most of the buildings were designed by his "precious self". The credit for his buildings, even for their overall concept, had to go to Shah Jahan as
19140-483: The white marbles. Contrasting colors have been used to create a complex array of different geometric patterns across the mortared areas of the buildings. The floors and walkways are laid with tiles or blocks with contrasting colors and consisting of various tessellation patterns. The plinth is differentiated from the paved surface of the main platform by an interlocking pattern of octagonal white marble pieces set into four pointed stars made of red sandstone, surrounded by
19285-642: The widespread exchange of marble objects, including building elements, sculptures, and sarcophagi . There was a significant increase in the distribution of white marble from the late 1st century BC to the end of the 2nd century AD. A gradual decline in distribution started in the third century AD. According to the United States Geological Survey , U.S. domestic marble production in 2006 was 46,400 tons valued at about $ 18.1 million, compared to 72,300 tons valued at $ 18.9 million in 2005. Crushed marble production (for aggregate and industrial uses) in 2006
19430-445: The words tāj mahall meaning "crown" ( tāj ) "palace" ( mahall ). Abdul Hamid Lahori , in his book from 1636 Padshahnama , refers to the Taj Mahal as rauza -i munawwara ( Perso-Arabic : روضه منواره , rawdah-i munawwarah ), meaning the illumined or illustrious tomb. The name "Taj" might have been derived from the corruption of the second syllable of "Mumtaz". The Taj Mahal was commissioned by Shah Jahan in 1631, to be built in
19575-399: The work of Jean-Baptiste Tavernier. These ideas were revived by Father Hosten and discussed again by E. B. Havell and served as the basis for subsequent theories and controversies. Marble In geology , the term marble refers to metamorphosed limestone , but its use in stonemasonry more broadly encompasses unmetamorphosed limestone. Marble is commonly used for sculpture and as
19720-449: The world's heritage". It is regarded as one of the best examples of Mughal architecture and a symbol of Indian history. The Taj Mahal is a major tourist attraction and attracts more than five million visitors a year. In 2007, it was declared a winner of the New 7 Wonders of the World initiative. The name "Taj Mahal" is of Urdu origin, and believed to be derived from Arabic and Persian , with
19865-415: The world's highest concentration of white marble buildings. The extraction of marble is performed by quarrying . Blocks are favoured for most purposes, and can be created through various techniques, including drilling and blasting, water jet and wedge methods. Limestones are often commercially and historically referred to as marble, which differs from the geological definition. In 1998, marble production
20010-719: Was China with a 64% market share, followed by India with 11% and Italy with 5%. White marbles throughout the Mediterranean basin were widely utilized during the Roman period. Extraction centers were unevenly distributed across the Italian Peninsula , mainland Greece , the Aegean Islands , Asia Minor , and smaller hubs like those in the Iberian Peninsula . The need for extensive trade arose due to this imbalance, leading to
20155-449: Was ₹ 1,100. Visitors are allowed through three gates and as polluting vehicles are not allowed near the complex, tourists must either walk or take electric buses from the designated parking areas. The complex is open on all days except on Friday from one hour before sunrise to 45 minutes before sunset. The complex is open for limited night viewing on the day of the full moon, excluding the month of Ramadan . In 2019, to address overtourism ,
20300-465: Was 11.8 million tons valued at $ 116 million, of which 6.5 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate . For comparison, 2005 crushed marble production was 7.76 million tons valued at $ 58.7 million, of which 4.8 million tons was finely ground calcium carbonate and the rest was construction aggregate. U.S. dimension marble demand is about 1.3 million tons. The DSAN World Demand for (finished) Marble Index has shown
20445-526: Was built during the zenith of the Mughal Empire under Shah Jahan . It was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007. As one of the largest forts in India, it served as the official residence of the emperor for nearly 200 years. Following the collapse of the Mughal Empire after the Mughal-Maratha Wars, the emergence of the Sikh Empire and the invasions of Nader Shah , Ahmad Shah Durrani and
20590-440: Was built to transport marble and materials to the construction site, hauled on specially constructed wagons by teams of oxen and elephants. An elaborate post-and-beam pulley system was used to raise the blocks into the desired position. Water was drawn from the river by a series of an animal-powered devices. When the structure was partially completed, the first ceremony was held at the mausoleum by Shah Jahan on 6 February 1643, of
20735-447: Was dominated by 4 countries that accounted for almost half of world production of marble and decorative stone. Italy and China were the world leaders, each representing 16% of world production, while Spain and India produced 9% and 8%, respectively. In 2018 Turkey was the world leader in marble export, with 42% share in global marble trade, followed by Italy with 18% and Greece with 10%. The largest importer of marble in 2018
20880-466: Was especially the case in palace architecture. Following the collapse of the Mughal Empire, regional nawabs such as in Lucknow , Hyderabad and Mysore continued to commission and patronize the construction of Mughal-style architecture in the princely states . Indo-Islamic architecture has left a large impact on modern Indian , Pakistani and Bangladeshi architecture , as in the case of its influence on
21025-402: Was used for other buildings in the complex similar to the Mughal era buildings of the time. The entire complex sits on platform measuring 300 metres (980 ft) in length and 8.7 metres (28.5 ft) in height on the banks of Yamuna river . The platform is built with varying patterns of dark and light colored sandstone. The mausoleum building is the central structure of the entire complex. It
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