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179-655: The site has been used as a house of worship since the Iron Age , when the Arameans built on it a temple dedicated to their god of rain, Hadad . Under Roman rule, beginning in 64 CE, it was converted into the center of the imperial cult of Jupiter , the Roman god of rain, becoming one of the largest temples in Syria. When the empire in Syria transitioned to Christian Byzantine rule, Emperor Theodosius I ( r.  379–395 ) transformed it into

358-517: A Byzantine (Constantinopolitan) origin for the mosaics, while some, such as Creswell , have interpreted the story as a later embellishment of Muslim historians with a symbolic political significance. Art historian Finbarr Barry Flood notes that historical sources report many other apparent gifts of artisans and materials from the Byzantine emperors to the Umayyad caliphs and other rulers, probably reflecting

537-520: A Celtiberian stronghold against Roman invasions. İt dates more than 2500 years back. The site was researched by Francisco Martins Sarmento starting from 1874. A number of amphoras (containers usually for wine or olive oil), coins, fragments of pottery, weapons, pieces of jewelry, as well as ruins of a bath and its pedra formosa ( lit.   ' handsome stone ' ) revealed here. The Iron Age in Central Asia began when iron objects appear among

716-602: A cathedral and the seat of the second-highest ranking bishop in the Patriarchate of Antioch . After the Muslim conquest of Damascus in 634, part of the cathedral was designated as a small prayer house ( musalla ) for the Muslim conquerors. As the Muslim community grew, the Umayyad caliph al-Walid I ( r.  705–715 ) confiscated the rest of the cathedral for Muslim use, returning to

895-411: A central dome, provided a new aesthetic focus which may have been designed to emphasize the area originally reserved for the caliph during prayers, near the mihrab . There is some uncertainty as to whether the dome was originally directly in front of the mihrab (as in many later mosques) or in its current position mid-way along the central nave. Scholars have attributed the design of the mosque's plan to

1074-681: A combination of bivalve moulds of distinct southern tradition and the incorporation of piece mould technology from the Zhongyuan . The products of the combination of these two periods are bells, vessels, weapons and ornaments, and the sophisticated cast. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has been associated tentatively with the Zhang Zhung culture described by early Tibetan writings. In Japan, iron items, such as tools, weapons, and decorative objects, are postulated to have entered Japan during

1253-555: A family of Libyan-Punic origin. Severus had thus Italic and North African ( Punic ) ancestry. He was described as "Libyan by race", by the Roman historian and senator Cassius Dio . Due to his family background he is considered the first provincial emperor, as he was the first emperor not only born in the provinces but also into a provincial family of non-Italian origin. Severus' father, an obscure provincial, held no major political status, but he had two cousins, Publius Septimius Aper and Gaius Septimius Severus, who served as consuls under

1432-653: A few pieces kept for the National Archives in Damascus." It is the burial place of the first three officers of the Ottoman Aviation Squadrons who died on mission, in this case the Istanbul-Cairo expedition in 1914. They were Navy Lieutenant Fethi Bey and his navigator, Artillery First Lieutenant Sadık Bey and Artillery Second Lieutenant Nuri Bey. The Umayyad Mosque underwent major restorations in 1929 during

1611-579: A major influence on Mamluk architecture in Syria and Egypt. In 1285, the Hanbali scholar Ibn Taymiyya started teaching Qur'an exegesis in the mosque. When the Ilkhanid Mongols under Ghazan invaded the city in 1300, Ibn Taymiyya preached jihad , urging the citizens of Damascus to resist their occupation. The Mamluks under Sultan Qalawun drove out the Mongols later that year. When Qalawun's forces entered

1790-481: A military central reserve with the capability to be sent anywhere. At the beginning of Severus' reign, Trajan 's policy toward the Christians was still in force. That is, Christians were only to be punished if they refused to worship the emperor and the gods, but they were not to be sought out. Therefore, persecution was inconsistent, local and sporadic. Faced with internal dissidence and external threats, Severus felt

1969-483: A monumental water clock had been installed by the entrance in the western part of the southern wall of the mosque, which was consequently known as Bab al-Sa'a ('Gate of the Clock') at the time but is known today as Bab al-Ziyada. This clock seems to have stopped functioning by the middle of the 12th century. Abbasid rule over Syria began crumbling during the early 10th century, and in the decades that followed, it came under

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2148-526: A more ambitious campaign. The following year he led another, more successful campaign against the Parthian Empire , reportedly in retaliation for the support it had given to Pescennius Niger . His legions sacked the Parthian royal city of Ctesiphon and he annexed the northern half of Mesopotamia to the empire; Severus took the title Parthicus Maximus , following the example of Trajan . However, he

2327-503: A persecutor. However, the Christian apologist Tertullian stated that Severus was well disposed towards Christians, employed a Christian as his personal physician and had personally intervened to save several high-born Christians known to him from the mob. Some scholars think that Eusebius' description of Severus as a persecutor likely derives merely from the fact that numerous persecutions occurred during his reign, including those known in

2506-423: A relatively destructive effect on the centre of power. Plautianus' daughter Fulvia Plautilla was married to Severus' son Caracalla. Plautianus' excessive power came to an end in 204, when he was denounced by the emperor's dying brother. In January 205 Julia Domna and Caracalla accused Plautianus of plotting to kill him and Severus. The powerful prefect was executed while he was trying to defend his case in front of

2685-537: A response to the Second Temple in Jerusalem . The Temple of Jupiter would attain further additions during the early Roman period, mostly initiated by high priests who collected contributions from the wealthy citizens of Damascus. The eastern gateway of the courtyard was expanded during the reign of Septimius Severus ( r.  193–211 ). By the 4th century, the temple was especially renowned for its size and beauty. It

2864-519: A senior military appointment. Following the end of this term, Septimius Severus returned to Rome, taking up office as tribune of the plebs , a senior legislative position, with the distinction of being the candidatus of the emperor. About 175, Septimius Severus, in his early thirties at the time, contracted his first marriage, to Paccia Marciana , a woman from Leptis Magna. He probably met her during his tenure as legate under his uncle. Marciana's name suggests Punic or Libyan origin, but nothing else

3043-692: A short stay in Rome, Severus moved north to meet him. On 19   February 197 at the Battle of Lugdunum , with an army of about 75,000 men, mostly composed of Pannonian , Moesian and Dacian legions and a large number of auxiliaries, Severus defeated and killed Clodius Albinus, securing his full control over the empire. Upon returning to Rome, Septimus had 29 senators executed for treason over their support of Albinus, despite having previously taken an oath promising not to put any senators to death (a customary oath for emperors). In early 197 Severus left Rome and sailed to

3222-399: A time decisive, securing Nisibis and Singara for the empire and establishing a status quo of Roman dominance in the region until 251. His policy of an expanded and better-rewarded army was criticised by his contemporaries Cassius Dio and Herodianus : in particular, they pointed out the increasing burden, in the form of taxes and services, the civilian population had to bear to maintain

3401-467: A topographical representation of all the cities in the known world (or within the Umayyad world), some have interpreted them as a representation of Damascus itself and the Barada River , and other scholars interpret them as a depiction of Paradise . The earliest known interpretation of the mosaics is by the 10th-century geographer al-Muqaddasi , who suggested a topographical meaning, commenting that "there

3580-532: A universal "Bronze Age", and many areas transitioned directly from stone to iron. Some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed in sub-Saharan Africa independently from Eurasia and neighbouring parts of Northeast Africa as early as 2000 BC . The concept of the Iron Age ending with the beginning of the written historiographical record has not generalized well, as written language and steel use have developed at different times in different areas across

3759-504: A widespread admiration for Byzantine craftsmanship that continued in the early Islamic period. He notes that while Byzantine influence is indeed apparent in the mosque's mosaic imagery, there are multiple ways in which Byzantine mosaicists could have contributed to its production, including a collaboration with local craftsmen. Some scholars argue that the mosaic techniques in both the Dome of the Rock and

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3938-400: Is abundant naturally, temperatures above 1,250 °C (2,280 °F) are required to smelt it, impractical to achieve with the technology available commonly until the end of the second millennium BC. In contrast, the components of bronze—tin with a melting point of 231.9 °C (449.4 °F) and copper with a relatively moderate melting point of 1,085 °C (1,985 °F)—were within

4117-646: Is also speculated that Early Iron Age sites may exist in Kandarodai , Matota, Pilapitiya and Tissamaharama . The earliest undisputed deciphered epigraphy found in the Indian subcontinent are the Edicts of Ashoka of the 3rd century BC, in the Brahmi script . Several inscriptions were thought to be pre-Ashokan by earlier scholars; these include the Piprahwa relic casket inscription,

4296-522: Is considered to last from c.  1200 BC (the Bronze Age collapse ) to c.  550 BC (or 539 BC ), roughly the beginning of historiography with Herodotus , marking the end of the proto-historical period. In China , because writing was developed first, there is no recognizable prehistoric period characterized by ironworking, and the Bronze Age China transitions almost directly into

4475-534: Is divided into two periods based on the Hallstatt culture (early Iron Age) and La Tène (late Iron Age) cultures. Material cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène consist of 4 phases (A, B, C, D). The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of designs of weapons, implements, and utensils. These are no longer cast but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate and curvilinear rather than simple rectilinear;

4654-692: Is famously said to have given the advice to his sons: "Be harmonious, enrich the soldiers, scorn all others" before he died on 4 February 211. On his death, Severus was deified by the Senate and succeeded by his sons, Caracalla and Geta , who were advised by his wife Julia Domna . Severus was buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian in Rome. By the close of his reign the Roman Empire reached an extent of over 5 million square kilometres, which scholars like David L. Kennedy , Lukas De Blois, and Derrick Riley state expanded

4833-851: Is from Malhar and its surrounding area. This site is assumed as the center for smelted bloomer iron to this area due to its location in the Karamnasa River and Ganga River. This site shows agricultural technology as iron implements sickles, nails, clamps, spearheads, etc., by at least c. 1500 BC. Archaeological excavations in Hyderabad show an Iron Age burial site. The beginning of the 1st millennium BC saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy were achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. One ironworking centre in East India has been dated to

5012-543: Is hardly a tree or a notable town that has not been pictured on these walls." An early example of the Paradise interpretation dates from the writings of Ibn al-Najjar in the 12th century. This interpretation has been favoured by more recent scholarship. Some of the Qur'anic inscriptions that were originally present on the qibla wall of the mosque, mentioning the Day of Judgment and promising

5191-516: Is known of her. Septimius Severus does not mention her in his autobiography, though he commemorated her with statues when he became emperor. The unreliable Historia Augusta claims that Marciana and Severus had two daughters, but no other attestation of them has survived. It appears that the marriage produced no surviving children, despite lasting for more than ten years. Marciana died of natural causes around 186. Septimius Severus, now in his forties, childless and eager to remarry, began enquiring into

5370-474: Is likely that he served as a vigintivir in Rome, overseeing road maintenance in or near the city, and he may have appeared in court as an advocate. At the time of Marcus Aurelius, he was the State Attorney ( Advocatus fisci ). However, he omitted the military tribunate from the cursus honorum and had to delay his quaestorship until he had reached the required minimum age of 25. To make matters worse,

5549-540: Is likely that the use of ironware made of steel had already begun in the third millennium BC in Central Anatolia". Souckova-Siegolová (2001) shows that iron implements were made in Central Anatolia in very limited quantities about 1800 BC and were in general use by elites, though not by commoners, during the New Hittite Empire (≈1400–1200 BC). Similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron-working in

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5728-506: Is placed against its south wall. The architect recycled the columns and arcades of the church, dismantling and repositioning them in the new structure. Professor Alain George has re-examined the architecture and design of this first mosque on the site via three previously untranslated poems and the descriptions of medieval scholars. Besides its use as a large congregational mosque for the Damascenes,

5907-616: Is recorded to extend 10 ha (25 acres) by 800 BC and grew to 50 ha (120 acres) by 700–600 BC to become a town. The skeletal remains of an Early Iron Age chief were excavated in Anaikoddai, Jaffna . The name "Ko Veta" is engraved in Brahmi script on a seal buried with the skeleton and is assigned by the excavators to the 3rd century BC. Ko, meaning "King" in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan and Ko Putivira occurring in contemporary Brahmi inscriptions in south India. It

6086-506: Is singularly scarce in collections of Egyptian antiquities. Bronze remained the primary material there until the conquest by the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 671 BC. The explanation of this would seem to be that the relics are in most cases the paraphernalia of tombs, the funeral vessels and vases, and iron being considered an impure metal by the ancient Egyptians it was never used in their manufacture of these or for any religious purposes. It

6265-535: Is situated in the eastern half. According to the 9th-century Muslim engineer Musa ibn Shakir , the latter mihrab was built during the mosque's initial construction and it became the third niche-formed mihrab in Islam's history. The central dome of the mosque is known as the 'Dome of the Eagle' ( Qubbat an-Nisr ) and located atop the center of the prayer hall. The original wooden dome was replaced by one built of stone following

6444-636: Is the final epoch of the three historical Metal Ages , after the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age . It has also been considered as the final age of the three-age division starting with prehistory (before recorded history) and progressing to protohistory (before written history). In this usage, it is preceded by the Stone Age (subdivided into the Paleolithic , Mesolithic and Neolithic ) and Bronze Age. These concepts originated for describing Iron Age Europe and

6623-411: Is the mass production of tools and weapons made not just of found iron, but from smelted steel alloys with an added carbon content. Only with the capability of the production of carbon steel does ferrous metallurgy result in tools or weapons that are harder and lighter than bronze . Smelted iron appears sporadically in the archeological record from the middle Bronze Age . Whilst terrestrial iron

6802-723: The Limes Tripolitanus along the southern desert frontier of the empire. With his second wife, Julia Domna , Severus had two sons; the elder, Caracalla , was proclaimed Augustus , or co-emperor, in 198, and the younger, Geta , in 209. Severus travelled to Britain in 208, strengthening Hadrian's Wall and reoccupying the Antonine Wall . In 209 he invaded Caledonia (modern Scotland ) with an army of 50,000 men but his ambitions were cut short when he died of an infectious disease in early 211 at Eboracum (modern York ). His sons, advised by Julia Domna, succeeded him, thus founding

6981-533: The Roman Martyrology as the martyrs of Madauros , Charalambos and Perpetua and Felicity in Roman-ruled Africa . These were probably the result of local persecutions rather than empire-wide actions or decrees by Severus. In late 202 Severus launched a campaign in the province of Africa. The legatus legionis or commander of Legio III Augusta , Quintus Anicius Faustus , had been fighting against

7160-541: The Ancient Near East . The indigenous cultures of the New World did not develop an iron economy before 1500 . Although meteoric iron has been used for millennia in many regions, the beginning of the Iron Age is defined locally around the world by archaeological convention when the production of smelted iron (especially steel tools and weapons) replaces their bronze equivalents in common use. In Anatolia and

7339-580: The Antonine Plague swept through the capital in 166. With his career at a halt, Severus decided to temporarily return to Leptis, where the climate was healthier. According to the Historia Augusta , a usually unreliable source, he was prosecuted for adultery during this time but the case was ultimately dismissed. At the end of 169, Severus was of the required age to become a quaestor and journeyed back to Rome. On 5   December, he took office and

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7518-894: The Badli pillar inscription , the Bhattiprolu relic casket inscription, the Sohgaura copper plate inscription , the Mahasthangarh Brahmi inscription, the Eran coin legend, the Taxila coin legends, and the inscription on the silver coins of Sophytes . However, more recent scholars have dated them to later periods. Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details. Archaeology in Thailand at sites Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo yielding metallic, stone, and glass artifacts stylistically associated with

7697-640: The Caucasus , or Southeast Europe , the Iron Age began during the late 2nd millennium BC ( c. 1300 BC). In the Ancient Near East , this transition occurred simultaneously with the Late Bronze Age collapse , during the 12th century BC (1200–1100 BC). The technology soon spread throughout the Mediterranean Basin region and to South Asia between the 12th and 11th century BC. Its further spread to Central Asia , Eastern Europe , and Central Europe

7876-568: The French Mandate over Syria and in 1954 and 1963 under the Syrian Republic . In the 1980s and in the early 1990s, Syrian president Hafez al-Assad ordered a wide-scale renovation of the mosque. The methods and concepts of Assad's restoration project were heavily criticized by UNESCO , but the general approach in Syria was that the mosque was more of a symbolic monument rather than a historical one and thus, its renovation could only enhance

8055-655: The Ganges Valley in India have been dated tentatively to 1800 BC. Tewari (2003) concludes that "knowledge of iron smelting and manufacturing of iron artifacts was well known in the Eastern Vindhyas and iron had been in use in the Central Ganga Plain, at least from the early second millennium BC". By the Middle Bronze Age increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by

8234-570: The Garamantes along the Limes Tripolitanus for five years. He captured several settlements such as Cydamus , Gholaia, Garbia and their capital Garama —over 600 kilometres (370 mi) south of Leptis Magna . The province of Numidia was also enlarged: the empire annexed the settlements of Vescera , Castellum Dimmidi , Gemellae , Thabudeos and Thubunae . By 203 the entire southern frontier of Roman Africa had been dramatically expanded and re-fortified. Desert nomads could no longer safely raid

8413-534: The Geum River basin . The time that iron production begins is the same time that complex chiefdoms of Proto-historic Korea emerged. The complex chiefdoms were the precursors of early states such as Silla , Baekje , Goguryeo , and Gaya Iron ingots were an important mortuary item and indicated the wealth or prestige of the deceased during this period. Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details. The earliest evidence of iron smelting predates

8592-707: The Indo-European Saka in present-day Xinjiang (China) between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC, such as those found at the cemetery site of Chawuhukou. The Pazyryk culture is an Iron Age archaeological culture ( c.  6th to 3rd centuries BC) identified by excavated artifacts and mummified humans found in the Siberian permafrost in the Altay Mountains . Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details. In China, Chinese bronze inscriptions are found around 1200 BC, preceding

8771-501: The Mamluk sultans al-Mansur Qalawun and al-Nasir Muhammad in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as the richly-decorated mihrab of Qalawun's mausoleum in Cairo (completed in 1285). Scholars generally assume that the mihrab described by Ibn Jubayr dated from a restoration of the mosque in 1082. Another restoration occurred after 1401 and this version, which survived until another fire in 1893,

8950-701: The Orchid Island . Early evidence for iron technology in Sub-Saharan Africa can be found at sites such as KM2 and KM3 in northwest Tanzania and parts of Nigeria and the Central African Republic. Nubia was one of the relatively few places in Africa to have a sustained Bronze Age along with Egypt and much of the rest of North Africa . Archaeometallurgical scientific knowledge and technological development originated in numerous centers of Africa;

9129-412: The Patriarchate of Antioch after the patriarch himself. Damascus was captured by Muslim Arab forces led by Khalid ibn al-Walid in 634. In 661, the Islamic Caliphate came under the rule of the Umayyad dynasty , which chose Damascus to be the administrative capital of the Muslim world . The Byzantine cathedral had remained in use by the local Christians, but a prayer room ( musalla ) for Muslims

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9308-422: The Praetorian Guard , which had murdered Pertinax and had then auctioned the Roman Empire to Didius Julianus. Its members were stripped of their ceremonial armour and forbidden to come within 160 kilometres (99 mi) of the city on pain of death. Severus replaced the old guard with 10 new cohorts recruited from veterans of his Danubian legions. Around 197 he increased the number of legions from 30 to 33, with

9487-408: The Qin dynasty of imperial China. "Iron Age" in the context of China is used sometimes for the transitional period of c.  900 BC to 100 BC during which ferrous metallurgy was present even if not dominant. The Iron Age in the Ancient Near East is believed to have begun after the discovery of iron smelting and smithing techniques in Anatolia , the Caucasus or Southeast Europe during

9666-484: The Severan dynasty . It was the last dynasty of the Roman Empire before the Crisis of the Third Century . Born on 11 April 145 at Leptis Magna (in present-day Libya) as the son of Publius Septimius Geta and Fulvia Pia , Septimius Severus came from a wealthy and distinguished family of equestrian rank. On his mother's side, he descended from Roman immigrants (the Fulvii) who had intermarried with locals of Libyan origin. His father, Publius Septimius Geta, hailed from

9845-460: The Southern Uplands up to the Antonine Wall , which was also enhanced. Supported and supplied by a strong naval force, Severus then thrust north with his army across the wall into Caledonian territory. Retracing the steps of Agricola of over a century before, Severus rebuilt and garrisoned many abandoned Roman forts along the east coast, such as Carpow . Cassius Dio 's account of the invasion reads: Severus, accordingly, desiring to subjugate

10024-417: The Yangtse Valley toward the end of the 6th century BC. The few objects were found at Changsha and Nanjing . The mortuary evidence suggests that the initial use of iron in Lingnan belongs to the mid-to-late Warring States period (from about 350 BC). Important non-precious husi style metal finds include iron tools found at the tomb at Guwei-cun of the 4th century BC. The techniques used in Lingnan are

10203-406: The al-Azhar Mosque of Egypt, based on its model. Although the original structure has been altered several times due to fire, war damage, and repairs, it is one of the few mosques to maintain the same form and architectural features of its 8th-century construction, as well as its Umayyad character . The site of the Umayyad Mosque is attested for as a place of worship since the Iron Age . Damascus

10382-412: The toppling of the Umayyads in 750, the Abbasid dynasty came to power and moved the capital of the Caliphate to Baghdad . Apart from the attention given for strategic and commercial purposes, the Abbasids had no interest in Damascus. Thus, the Umayyad Mosque reportedly suffered under their rule, with little recorded building activity between the 8th and 10th centuries. However, the Abbasids did consider

10561-489: The 1069 fire. In 1082, his vizier, Abu Nasr Ahmad ibn Fadl , had the central dome restored in a more spectacular form; the two piers supporting it were reinforced and the original Umayyad mosaics of the northern inner façade were renewed. The northern riwaq ('portico') was rebuilt in 1089. The Seljuk atabeg of Damascus, Toghtekin ( r.  1104–1128 ), repaired the northern wall in 1110 and two inscribed panels located above its doorways were dedicated to him. In 1113,

10740-406: The 14th century. The Arab geographer al-Idrisi visited the mosque in 1154. Damascus witnessed the establishment of several religious institutions under the Ayyubids, but the Umayyad Mosque retained its place as the center of religious life in the city. Muslim traveler Ibn Jubayr described the mosque as containing many different zawaya (religious lodges) for religious and Quranic studies. In 1173,

10919-422: The 1893 fire. It receives its name because it is thought to resemble an eagle, with the dome itself being the eagle's head while the eastern and western flanks of the prayer hall represent the wings. With a height of 36 meters (118 ft), the dome rests on an octagonal substructure with two arched windows on each of its sides. It is supported by the central interior arcade and has openings along its parameter. In

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11098-405: The Bronze Age. In Central and Western Europe, the Roman conquests of the 1st century BC serve as marking the end of the Iron Age. The Germanic Iron Age of Scandinavia is considered to end c.  AD 800 , with the beginning of the Viking Age . The three-age method of Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages was first used for the archaeology of Europe during the first half of the 19th century, and by

11277-441: The Central Lowlands. This is evidenced by extensive Severan-era fortifications in the Central Lowlands. The Caledonians, short on supplies and feeling that their position was desperate, revolted later that year with the Maeatae . Severus prepared for another protracted campaign within Caledonia. He was now intent on exterminating the Caledonians, telling his soldiers: "Let no-one escape sheer destruction, no-one our hands, not even

11456-423: The Christians other properties in the city as compensation. The structure was largely demolished and a grand congregational mosque complex was built in its place. The new structure was built over nine years by thousands of laborers and artisans from across the Islamic and Byzantine empires at considerable expense and was funded by the war booty of Umayyad conquests and taxes on the Arab troops of Damascus . Unlike

11635-497: The Crusaders advanced towards Damascus in 1148, the city's residents heeded their calls; the Crusader army withdrew as a result of their resistance. In Damascus there is a mosque that has no equal in the world, not one with such fine proportion, nor one so solidly constructed, nor one vaulted so securely, nor one more marvelously laid out, nor one so admirably decorated in gold mosaics and diverse designs, with enameled tiles and polished marbles. — Muhammad al-Idrisi , 1154 During

11814-406: The Indian subcontinent began prior to the 3rd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila, Lahuradewa, Kosambi and Jhusi , Allahabad in present-day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period 1800–1200 BC. As the evidence from the sites Raja Nala ka tila, Malhar suggest the use of Iron in c. 1800/1700 BC. The extensive use of iron smelting

11993-592: The Indian subcontinent suggest Indianization of Southeast Asia beginning in the 4th to 2nd centuries BC during the late Iron Age. In Philippines and Vietnam , the Sa Huynh culture showed evidence of an extensive trade network. Sa Huynh beads were made from glass, carnelian, agate, olivine, zircon, gold and garnet; most of these materials were not local to the region and were most likely imported. Han-dynasty-style bronze mirrors were also found in Sa Huynh sites. Conversely, Sa Huynh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites in Central Thailand, as well as

12172-443: The Late Bronze Age continued into the Early Iron Age. Thus, there is a sociocultural continuity during this transitional period. In Iran, the earliest actual iron artifacts were unknown until the 9th century BC. For Iran, the best studied archaeological site during this time period is Teppe Hasanlu . In the Mesopotamian states of Sumer , Akkad and Assyria , the initial use of iron reaches far back, to perhaps 3000 BC. One of

12351-440: The Late Bronze Age. As part of the Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age, the Bronze Age collapse saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region. It was long believed that the success of the Hittite Empire during the Late Bronze Age had been based on the advantages entailed by the "monopoly" on ironworking at the time. Accordingly, the invading Sea Peoples would have been responsible for spreading

12530-510: The Muslim patron. Historical Arabic sources, often written in later centuries, suggest that both the craftsmen and the materials employed to create the mosque's mosaics were imported from the Byzantine capital of Constantinople . The 12th-century historian Ibn Asakir claimed that al-Walid pressured the Byzantine emperor into sending him 200 craftsmen by threatening to destroy all churches inside Umayyad territory if he refused. Many scholars, based on such evidence from Arabic sources, have accepted

12709-418: The Parthians, he erected the Arch of Septimius Severus in Rome. According to Cassius Dio, however, after 197 Severus fell heavily under the influence of his Praetorian prefect, Gaius Fulvius Plautianus , who came to have almost total control of the imperial administration. At the same time, a bloody power crisis erupted between Plautianus and Julia Domna , Severus' influential and powerful wife, which had

12888-469: The Praetorian Guard in early 193. In response to the murder of Pertinax, Severus' legion XIV Gemina acclaimed him emperor at Carnuntum on 9 April. Nearby legions, such as X Gemina at Vindobona , soon followed suit. Having assembled an army, Severus hurried to Italy. Pertinax's successor in Rome, Didius Julianus , had bought the emperorship in an auction. Julianus was condemned to death by

13067-520: The Qur'an and the earlier iconography of paradisal imagery in Late Antique art. According to Judith McKenzie, there is a similarity between certain architectural elements depicted in the Umayyad mosaics and those shown in Pompeian frescoes (such as broken pediments and tholoi with tented roofs and Corinthian columns), as well as some early Christian and Byzantine art, which are most likely depictions of

13246-595: The Romans, though ironworking remained the dominant technology until recent times. Elsewhere it may last until the early centuries AD, and either Christianization or a new conquest during the Migration Period . Iron working was introduced to Europe during the late 11th century BC, probably from the Caucasus , and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. The Iron Age did not start when iron first appeared in Europe but it began to replace bronze in

13425-637: The Seljuk atabeg of Mosul , Sharaf al-Din Mawdud ( r.  1109–1113 ), was assassinated in the Umayyad Mosque. As the conflict between Damascus and the Crusaders intensified in the mid-12th century, the mosque was used as a principal rallying point calling on Muslims to defend the city and return Jerusalem to Muslim hands. Prominent imams , including Ibn Asakir , preached a spiritual jihad ('struggle') and when

13604-501: The Senate and killed. Severus took possession of Rome without opposition. He executed Pertinax's murderers and dismissed the rest of the Praetorian Guard , filling its ranks with loyal troops from his own legions. The legions of Syria had proclaimed Pescennius Niger emperor. At the same time Severus felt it reasonable to offer Clodius Albinus , the powerful governor of Britannia , who had probably supported Didius against him,

13783-567: The Umayyad Mosque starting in 1661. The khatib (preacher) of the Umayyad Mosque was one of the three most influential religious officials in Ottoman Damascus, the other two being the Hanafi mufti and the naqib al-ashraf . He served as a link between the imperial government in Constantinople and the elites of Damascus and was a key shaper of public opinion in the city. By 1650 members of

13962-405: The Umayyad Mosque, including their distinctive colour scheme, are more clearly consistent with the craftsmanship of Syro-Palestinian or Egyptian mosaicists. Archeologist Judith McKenzie suggests that the mosaics could have been designed by local artisans who oversaw their production, while any mosaicists sent from Constantinople could have been working under their supervision. A recent 2022 study of

14141-557: The Umayyad realm as an idealized, earthly paradise. The original mihrab was one of the first concave mihrab s in the Islamic world, the second one known to exist after the one created in 706–707 during al-Walid's reconstruction of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina. The exact appearance of the mosque's original main mihrab is uncertain, due to the multiple repairs and restorations that took place over

14320-675: The Western Christian generals in the invasion, ordered Catholic Mass to be performed in the Umayyad Mosque. However, the Muslim Mamluks of Egypt, led by Sultan Qutuz and Baybars , wrested control of the city from the Mongols later in the same year, killing Kitbuqa in the Battle of Ain Jalut , and the purpose of the Mosque was returned from Christian to its original Islamic function. In 1270, Baybars, by now sultan, ordered extensive restorations to

14499-415: The advice of Quintus Aemilius Laetus , prefect of the Praetorian Guard , emperor Commodus appointed Severus as governor of Pannonia Superior . At around this time he is described by the classicist Kyle Harper as being "a middling senator of modest physical stature and unexceptional accomplishment". Commodus was assassinated the following year. Pertinax was acclaimed emperor, but he was then killed by

14678-457: The arcade is not consistent; when the northern wall was rebuilt the columns that were supporting it were not. The courtyard and its arcades contain the largest preserved remnants of the mosque's Umayyad-era mosaic decoration. Several domed pavilions stand in the courtyard. The Dome of the Treasury is an octagonal structure decorated with mosaics, standing on eight Roman columns in the western part of

14857-419: The arcades contain two levels. The first level consists of large semi-circular arches , while the second level is made up of double arches. This pattern is the same repeated by the arcades of the courtyard. The three interior arcades intersect in the center of the sanctuary with a larger, higher arcade that is perpendicular to the qibla wall and faces the mihrab and the minbar . The central transept divides

15036-509: The arcades into two halves each with eleven arches. The entire sanctuary measures 136 meters (446 ft) by 37 meters (121 ft) and takes up the southern half of the mosque complex. Four mihrabs line the sanctuary's rear wall, the main one being the Great Mihrab which is located roughly at the center of the wall. The Mihrab of the Sahaba, named after the sahaba ('companions of Muhammad')

15215-634: The archaeological record. For instance, in China, written history started before iron smelting began, so the term is used infrequently for the archaeology of China. For the Ancient Near East, the establishment of the Achaemenid Empire c.  550 BC is used traditionally and still usually as an end date; later dates are considered historical according to the record by Herodotus despite considerable written records now being known from well back into

15394-437: The architecture of Hellenistic Alexandria . In Roman and Late Antique art, Alexandrian and Egyptian landscapes had a paradisal connotation. McKenzie argues that the Umayyad mosaics, extending these traditions, can thus be understood as a depiction of Paradise. The possibility also remains that the mosaic scenes combine more than one of these meanings at the same time; for example, by using paradisal imagery to represent Damascus or

15573-460: The babe in the womb of the mother, if it be male; let it nevertheless not escape sheer destruction." Severus' campaign was cut short when he fell ill. He withdrew to Eboracum (York) and died there in 211. Although his son Caracalla continued campaigning the following year, he soon settled for peace. The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again. Shortly after this, the frontier was permanently withdrawn south to Hadrian's Wall. Severus

15752-590: The beginning of the Western Han dynasty . Yoon proposes that iron was first introduced to chiefdoms located along North Korean river valleys that flow into the Yellow Sea such as the Cheongcheon and Taedong Rivers. Iron production quickly followed during the 2nd century BC, and iron implements came to be used by farmers by the 1st century in southern Korea. The earliest known cast-iron axes in southern Korea are found in

15931-482: The capabilities of Neolithic kilns , which date back to 6000 BC and were able to produce temperatures greater than 900 °C (1,650 °F). In addition to specially designed furnaces, ancient iron production required the development of complex procedures for the removal of impurities, the regulation of the admixture of carbon, and the invention of hot-working to achieve a useful balance of hardness and strength in steel. The use of steel has also been regulated by

16110-862: The centers of origin were located in West Africa , Central Africa , and East Africa ; consequently, as these origin centers are located within inner Africa, these archaeometallurgical developments are thus native African technologies. Iron metallurgical development occurred 2631–2458 BC at Lejja, in Nigeria, 2136–1921 BC at Obui, in Central Africa Republic, 1895–1370 BC at Tchire Ouma 147, in Niger, and 1297–1051 BC at Dekpassanware, in Togo. Septimius Severus Lucius Septimius Severus ( Latin: [ˈɫuːkiʊs sɛpˈtɪmiʊs sɛˈweːrʊs] ; 11 April 145 – 4 February 211)

16289-452: The centuries. Ibn Jubayr , who visited the mosque in 1184, described the inside of the mihrab as filled with miniature blind arcades whose arches resembled "small mihrabs", each filled with inlaid mother-of-pearl mosaics and framed by spiral columns of marble. This mihrab was famed across the Islamic world for its beauty, as noted by other writers of the era. Its appearance may have been imitated by other surviving mihrabs built under

16468-482: The chemical composition of mosaic tesserae in the Umayyad Mosque concluded that the majority were produced in Egypt around the time of the mosque's construction, matching other recent studies of samples from the Dome of the Rock and Khirbat al-Majfar that came to the same conclusion. Scholars have long debated the meaning of the mosaic imagery. Some historical Muslim writers and some modern scholars have interpreted them as

16647-458: The city, and when the Roman Empire conquered Damascus in 64 BCE, they assimilated Hadad with their own god of thunder, Jupiter . Thus, they engaged in a project to reconfigure and expand the temple under the direction of Damascus-born architect Apollodorus , who created and executed the new design. The new Temple of Jupiter became the center of the imperial cult of Jupiter and was served as

16826-479: The city, the Mongols attempted to station several catapults in the Umayyad Mosque because the Mamluks had started fires around the citadel to prevent Mongol access to it. The attempt failed as the Mamluks burned the catapults before they were placed in the mosque. The Mamluk viceroy of Syria, Tankiz , carried out restoration work in the mosque in 1326–1328. He reassembled the mosaics on the qibla wall and replaced all

17005-648: The consolidation of his rule over the western provinces, Severus waged another brief, more successful war in the east against the Parthian Empire , sacking their capital Ctesiphon in 197 and expanding the eastern frontier to the Tigris . He then enlarged and fortified the Limes Arabicus in Arabia Petraea . In 202, he campaigned in Africa and Mauretania against the Garamantes , capturing their capital Garama and expanding

17184-399: The contemporary Umayyad mosaics in Damascus had the same intention. In this interpretation, the lack of human figures in these scenes possibly represents a Paradise that stands empty until the arrival of its human inhabitants at the end of time. Other motifs in the mosaics have been cited to support a paradisal meaning and the imagery has been compared with both the descriptions of Paradise in

17363-479: The control of autonomous realms who were only nominally under Abbasid authority. The Fatimids of Egypt , who adhered to Shia Islam , conquered Damascus in 970, but few recorded improvements of the mosque were undertaken by the new rulers. The Umayyad Mosque's prestige allowed the residents of Damascus to establish the city as a center for Sunni intellectualism, enabling them to maintain relative independence from Fatimid religious authority. In 1069, large sections of

17542-444: The corners of the temenos before the mosque's construction and were simply left intact and reused after construction. The mosque was richly decorated. A rich composition of marble paneling covered the lower walls, though only minor examples of the original marbles have survived today near the east gate. The walls of the prayer hall were raised above the level of the old temenos walls, which allowed for new windows to be inserted in

17721-453: The courtyard ( sahn ), the level of the stone pavement had become uneven over time due to several repairs throughout the mosque's history. Recent work on the courtyard has restored it to its consistent Umayyad-era levels. Arcades ( riwaq ) surround the courtyard supported by alternating stone columns and piers. There is one pier in between every two columns. Because the northern part of the courtyard had been destroyed in an earthquake in 1759 ,

17900-474: The courtyard. Its 8th-century mosaics were largely remade in the late 20th-century restoration. In a mirror position on the other side of the courtyard is the Dome of the Clock, another octagonal domed pavilion. Near the middle of the courtyard, sheltering an ablutions fountain at ground level, is a rectangular pavilion which is a modern reconstruction of a late Ottoman pavilion. Iron Age The Iron Age ( c.  1200  – c.  550 BC )

18079-401: The denarius again because of rising military expenditures. The silver purity decreased from 78.5% to 64.5%—the silver weight dropping from 2.46 grams to 1.98 grams. In 196 he reduced the purity and silver weight of the denarius again, to 54% and 1.82 grams, respectively. Severus' currency debasement was the largest since the reign of Nero , compromising the long-term strength of

18258-417: The development of iron metallurgy, which was known by the 9th century BC. The large seal script is identified with a group of characters from a book entitled Shǐ Zhòu Piān ( c. 800 BC). Therefore, in China prehistory had given way to history periodized by ruling dynasties by the start of iron use, so "Iron Age" is not used typically to describe a period of Chinese history. Iron metallurgy reached

18437-571: The earliest smelted iron artifacts known is a dagger with an iron blade found in a Hattic tomb in Anatolia , dating from 2500 BC. The widespread use of iron weapons which replaced bronze weapons rapidly disseminated throughout the Near East (North Africa, southwest Asia ) by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The development of iron smelting was once attributed to the Hittites of Anatolia during

18616-757: The east. He embarked at Brundisium and probably landed at the port of Aegeae in Cilicia , travelling on to Syria by land. He immediately gathered his army and crossed the Euphrates . Abgar IX , titular King of Osroene but essentially only the ruler of Edessa since the annexation of his kingdom as a Roman province, handed over his children as hostages and assisted Severus' expedition by providing archers. King Khosrov I of Armenia also sent hostages, money and gifts. Severus travelled on to Nisibis , which his general Julius Laetus had prevented from falling into Parthian hands. Afterwards Severus returned to Syria to plan

18795-490: The economics of the metallurgical advancements. The earliest tentative evidence for iron-making is a small number of iron fragments with the appropriate amounts of carbon admixture found in the Proto-Hittite layers at Kaman-Kalehöyük in modern-day Turkey, dated to 2200–2000 BC. Akanuma (2008) concludes that "The combination of carbon dating, archaeological context, and archaeometallurgical examination indicates that it

18974-604: The emergence of the Iron Age proper by several centuries. Iron was being used in Mundigak to manufacture some items in the 3rd millennium BC such as a small copper/bronze bell with an iron clapper, a copper/bronze rod with two iron decorative buttons, and a copper/bronze mirror handle with a decorative iron button. Artefacts including small knives and blades have been discovered in the Indian state of Telangana which have been dated between 2400 BC and 1800 BC. The history of metallurgy in

19153-589: The emperor Antoninus Pius r.  138–161 . His mother's ancestors had moved from Italy to North Africa; they belonged to the gens Fulvia , an Italian patrician family that originated in Tusculum . Septimius Severus had two siblings: an elder brother, Publius Septimius Geta ; and a younger sister, Septimia Octavilla. Severus' maternal cousin was the praetorian prefect and consul Gaius Fulvius Plautianus . Septimius Severus grew up in Leptis Magna. He spoke

19332-409: The empire to its greatest physical extent. Edward Gibbon famously levelled a harsh indictment of Septimius Severus as a principal agent in the empire's decline. "The contemporaries of Severus, in the enjoyment of the peace and glory of his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been introduced. Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his maxims and example, justly considered him as

19511-576: The end of the Bronze Age . The Iron Age in Europe is often considered as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East . Anthony Snodgrass suggests that a shortage of tin and trade disruptions in the Mediterranean about 1300 BC forced metalworkers to seek an alternative to bronze. Many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during that time, and more widespread use of iron resulted in improved steel-making technology and lower costs. When tin became readily available again, iron

19690-492: The excavation of Ugarit. A dagger with an iron blade found in Tutankhamun's tomb , 13th century BC, was examined recently and found to be of meteoric origin. In Europe, the Iron Age is the last stage of prehistoric Europe and the first of the protohistoric periods, which initially means descriptions of a particular area by Greek and Roman writers. For much of Europe, the period came to an abrupt local end after conquest by

19869-458: The first millennium BC. In Southern India (present-day Mysore ) iron appeared as early as 12th to 11th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country. The Indian Upanishads mention metallurgy. and the Indian Mauryan period saw advances in metallurgy. As early as 300 BC, certainly by 200 AD, high-quality steel

20048-537: The first significant protests related to the Syrian civil war began at the Umayyad Mosque when 40–50 worshipers gathered outside the complex and chanted pro-democracy slogans. Syrian security forces swiftly quelled the protests and have since cordoned off the area during Friday prayers to prevent large-scale demonstrations. The ground plan of the Umayyad Mosque is rectangular in shape and measures 97 meters (318 ft) by 156 meters (512 ft). A large courtyard occupies

20227-475: The forms and character of the ornamentation of the northern European weapons resemble in some respects Roman arms, while in other respects they are peculiar and evidently representative of northern art. Citânia de Briteiros , located in Guimarães , Portugal, is one of the examples of archaeological sites of the Iron Age. This settlement (fortified villages) covered an area of 3.8 hectares (9.4 acres), and served as

20406-768: The grandmother of the future emperors Elagabalus and Alexander Severus . Bassianus accepted Severus' marriage proposal in early 187, and in the summer the couple married in Lugdunum (modern-day Lyon , France), of which Severus was the governor. The marriage proved happy, and Severus cherished Julia and her political opinions. Julia built "the most splendid reputation" by applying herself to letters and philosophy. They had two sons, Lucius Septimius Bassianus (later nicknamed Caracalla, born 4   April 188 in Lugdunum) and Publius Septimius Geta (born 7   March 189 in Rome). In 191, on

20585-419: The help of the military, and he returned the sentiment. Severus ordered the execution of a large number of Senators on charges of corruption or conspiracy against him and replaced them with his favourites. Although his actions turned Rome more into a military dictatorship, he was popular with the citizens of Rome, having stamped out the rampant corruption of Commodus' reign. When he returned from his victory over

20764-410: The history of early Islamic architecture . The earliest mosques before this had been relatively plain hypostyle structures (a flat-roof hall supported by columns), but the new mosque in Damascus introduced a more basilical plan with three parallel aisles and a perpendicular central nave. The central nave, which leads from the main entrance to the mihrab ( niche in the qibla wall) and features

20943-511: The horoscopes of prospective brides. The Historia Augusta relates that he heard of a woman in Syria of whom it had been foretold that she would marry a king, and so Severus sought her as his wife. This woman was an Emesene Syrian named Julia Domna . Her father, Julius Bassianus , descended from the Arab Emesene dynasty and served as a high priest to the local cult of the sun god Elagabal . Domna's older sister, Julia Maesa , would become

21122-527: The incumbent emperor Didius Julianus , Severus fought his rival claimants, the Roman generals Pescennius Niger and Clodius Albinus . Niger was defeated in 194 at the Battle of Issus in Cilicia . Later that year Severus waged a short punitive campaign beyond the eastern frontier, annexing the Kingdom of Osroene as a new province. Severus defeated Albinus three years later at the Battle of Lugdunum in Gaul . Following

21301-518: The influences of Byzantine Christian basilicas in the region. Rafi Grafman and Myriam Rosen-Ayalon have argued that the first Umayyad Al-Aqsa Mosque built in Jerusalem, begun by Abd al-Malik (al-Walid's father) and now replaced by later constructions, had a layout very similar to the current Umayyad Mosque in Damascus and that it probably served as a model for the latter. The mosque initially had no minaret towers, as this feature of mosque architecture

21480-494: The introduction of the three new legions: I, II and III Parthica . He garrisoned Legio II Parthica at Albanum , only 20 kilometres (12 mi) from Rome. He gave his soldiers a donative of a thousand sesterces (250 denarii ) each, and raised the annual wage for a soldier in the legions from 300 to 400 denarii . Severus was the first Roman emperor to station some of the imperial army in Italy. He realized that Rome needed

21659-446: The knowledge through that region. The idea of such a "Hittite monopoly" has been examined more thoroughly and no longer represents a scholarly consensus. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places of the same time period; and only a small number of these objects are weapons. Dates are approximate; consult particular article for details. Iron metal

21838-561: The lack of nickel in the product) appeared in the Middle East , Southeast Asia and South Asia . African sites are revealing dates as early as 2000–1200 BC. However, some recent studies date the inception of iron metallurgy in Africa between 3000 and 2500 BC, with evidence existing for early iron metallurgy in parts of Nigeria, Cameroon, and Central Africa, from as early as around 2,000 BC. The Nok culture of Nigeria may have practiced iron smelting from as early as 1000 BC, while

22017-714: The largest in the world. Under Abbasid rule (750–860), new structures were added, including the Dome of the Treasury and the Minaret of the Bride, while the Mamluks (1260–1516) undertook major restoration efforts and added the Minaret of Qaytbay. The Umayyad Mosque innovated and influenced nascent Islamic architecture , with other major mosque complexes, including the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain and

22196-516: The late 2nd millennium BC ( c. 1300 BC). The earliest bloomery smelting of iron is found at Tell Hammeh , Jordan about 930 BC (determined from C dating ). The Early Iron Age in the Caucasus area is divided conventionally into two periods, Early Iron I, dated to about 1100 BC, and the Early Iron II phase from the tenth to ninth centuries BC. Many of the material culture traditions of

22375-538: The late Yayoi period ( c. 300 BC – 300 AD) or the succeeding Kofun period ( c. 250–538 AD), most likely from the Korean Peninsula and China. Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new pottery styles and the start of intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern Kyūshū to northern Honshū . The Kofun and

22554-501: The latter half of the 19th century, it had been extended to the archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Its name harks back to the mythological " Ages of Man " of Hesiod . As an archaeological era, it was first introduced to Scandinavia by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen during the 1830s. By the 1860s, it was embraced as a useful division of the "earliest history of mankind" in general and began to be applied in Assyriology . The development of

22733-532: The local Punic language fluently, but he was also educated in Latin and Greek, which he spoke with a slight accent. Little else is known of the young Severus' education but, according to Cassius Dio , the boy had been eager for more education than he actually received. Presumably, Severus received lessons in oratory : at the age of 17, he gave his first public speech. Severus sought a public career in Rome in around 162. At

22912-488: The local ulema (Muslim scholars). Although the awqaf (plural of " waqf ") were taxed, the waqf of the Umayyad Mosque was exempted from taxation. In 1518, the Ottoman governor of Damascus and supervisor of the mosque's waqf , Janbirdi al-Ghazali , had the mosque repaired and redecorated as part of his architectural reconstruction program for the city. The prominent Sufi scholar Abd al-Ghani al-Nabulsi taught regularly at

23091-501: The marble tiles in the prayer hall. Sultan al-Nasir Muhammad also undertook major restoration work for the mosque in 1328. He demolished and completely rebuilt the unstable qibla wall and moved the Bab al-Ziyadah gate to the east. Much of that work was damaged during a fire that burned the mosque in 1339. Islamic art expert, Finbarr Barry Flood, describes the Bahri Mamluks ' attitude towards

23270-596: The mercantile and scholarly Mahasini family held the position, retaining it for much of the 18th and early and mid-19th centuries, partly due to their links with the Shaykh al-Islam in the imperial capital. In the late 19th century, another Damascene family with connections in Constantinople, the Khatibs, vied for the position. After the death of the Mahasini preacher in 1869, a member of the Khatibs succeeded him. The mosque's prayer hall

23449-427: The mosque as an "obsessive interest" and their efforts at maintaining, repairing, and restoring the mosque were unparalleled in any other period of Muslim rule. The Arab astronomer Ibn al-Shatir worked as the chief muwaqqit ('religious timekeeper ') and the chief muezzin at the Umayyad Mosque from 1332 until he died in 1376. He erected a large sundial on the mosque's northern minaret in 1371, now lost. A replica

23628-467: The mosque to be a major symbol of Islam's triumph, and thus it was spared the systematic eradication of the Umayyad legacy in the city. In 789–90 the Abbasid governor of Damascus, al-Fadl ibn Salih ibn Ali , constructed the Dome of the Treasury with the purpose of housing the mosque's funds. The so-called Dome of the Clock, standing in the eastern part of the courtyard, may have also been erected originally by

23807-461: The mosque's symbolism. In 1990s, Mohammed Burhanuddin constructed a zarih of the martyrs of the Battle of Karbala , whose heads were brought to the Mosque after their defeat at the hands of the then Umayyad caliph, Yazid I . In 2001, Pope John Paul II visited the mosque, primarily to visit the relics of John the Baptist. It was the first time a pope paid a visit to a mosque. On March 15, 2011,

23986-403: The mosque, particularly its marble, mosaics and gildings. According to Baybars' biographer, Ibn Shaddad , the restorations cost the sultan 20,000 dinars. Among the largest mosaic fragments restored was a 34.5 by 7.3 metres (113 by 24 ft) segment in the western portico called the "Barada panel". The mosaics that decorated the mosque were a specific target of the restoration project and they had

24165-511: The mosque, particularly the northern wall, were destroyed in a fire as a result of an uprising by the city's residents against the Fatimids' Berber army who were garrisoned there. The Sunni Muslim Seljuk Turks gained control of the city in 1078 and restored the nominal rule of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Seljuk ruler Tutush ( r.  1079–1095 ) initiated the repair of damage caused by

24344-475: The most common motif, but those of the Damascus mosque are more naturalistic. In addition to the large landscape depictions, a mosaic frieze with an intricate vine motif (referred to as the karma in Arabic historical sources) once ran around the walls of the prayer hall, above the level of the mihrab . The only notable omission is the absence of human and animal figures, which was likely a new restriction imposed by

24523-521: The nearby Djenné-Djenno culture of the Niger Valley in Mali shows evidence of iron production from c. 250 BC. Iron technology across much of sub-Saharan Africa has an African origin dating to before 2000 BC. These findings confirm the independent invention of iron smelting in sub-Saharan Africa. Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of large-scale global iron production about 1200 BC, marking

24702-498: The need to promote religious harmony by promoting syncretism . He possibly issued an edict that punished conversion to Judaism and Christianity. A number of persecutions of Christians occurred in the Roman Empire during his reign and were traditionally attributed to Severus by the early Christian community. A decree by Severus against the Christians is mentioned in the Historia Augusta , an unreliable mix of fact and fiction. Early church historian Eusebius described Severus as

24881-475: The new and better-paid army. The large and ongoing increase in military expenditure caused problems for all of his successors. To maintain his enlarged military, he debased the Roman currency . Upon his accession he decreased the silver purity of the denarius from 81.5% to 78.5%, although the silver weight actually increased, rising from 2.40 grams to 2.46 grams. Nevertheless, the following year he debased

25060-499: The new house of worship was meant as a tribute to the city. In response to Christian protest at the move, al-Walid ordered all the other confiscated churches in the city to be returned to the Christians as compensation. The mosque was completed in 711, or in 715, shortly after al-Walid's death, by his successor, Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik ( r.  715–717 ). According to 10th-century Persian historian Ibn al-Faqih , somewhere between 600,000 and 1,000,000 gold dinars were spent on

25239-664: The nights in summer and winter, respectively. Having thus been conveyed through practically the whole of the hostile country (for he actually was conveyed in a covered litter most of the way, on account of his infirmity), he returned to the friendly portion, after he had forced the Britons to come to terms, on the condition that they should abandon a large part of their territory. By 210 Severus' campaigning had made significant gains, despite Caledonian guerrilla tactics and purportedly heavy Roman casualties. The Caledonians sued for peace, which Severus granted on condition they relinquish control of

25418-433: The northern part of the mosque complex, while the prayer hall or haram ('sanctuary') covers the southern part. The mosque is enclosed by four exterior walls which were part of the temenos of the original Roman temple. Three arcades make up the interior space of the sanctuary. They are parallel to the direction of prayer which is towards Mecca . The arcades are supported by two rows of stone Corinthian columns . Each of

25597-544: The northern wall of the mosque was damaged again by the fire and was rebuilt by the Ayyubid sultan, Saladin (r. 1174–1193), along with the Minaret of the Bride, which had been destroyed in the 1069 fire. During the internal feuds between later Ayyubid princes, the city was dealt a great deal of damage, and the mosque's eastern minaret—known as the 'Minaret of Jesus'—was destroyed at the hands of as-Salih Ayyub of Egypt while besieging as-Salih Ismail of Damascus in 1245. The minaret

25776-534: The now-conventional periodization in the archaeology of the Ancient Near East was developed during the 1920s and 1930s. Meteoric iron, a natural iron–nickel alloy , was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. The earliest-known meteoric iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 3200 BC , which were found in burials at Gerzeh in Lower Egypt , having been shaped by careful hammering. The characteristic of an Iron Age culture

25955-458: The original decoration. The central mihrab was replaced and the dome was rebuilt in a contemporary Ottoman style. The rubble and damaged elements from the fire, including some of the original pillars and mosaic remains, were simply disposed of. Until 1899 the mosque's library included the "very old" Qubbat al-Khazna collection; "most of its holdings were given to the German emperor Wilhelm II and only

26134-566: The preparation of tools and weapons. It did not happen at the same time throughout Europe; local cultural developments played a role in the transition to the Iron Age. For example, the Iron Age of Prehistoric Ireland begins about 500 BC (when the Greek Iron Age had already ended) and finishes about 400 AD. The widespread use of the technology of iron was implemented in Europe simultaneously with Asia. The prehistoric Iron Age in Central Europe

26313-463: The principal author of the decline of the Roman empire." According to Gibbon, "his daring ambition [...] was never diverted from its steady course by the allurements of pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or the feelings of humanity." His enlargement of the Limes Tripolitanus secured Africa , the agricultural base of the empire where he was born. His victory over the Parthian Empire was for

26492-464: The project and had most of the cathedral, including the musalla , demolished. The construction of the mosque completely altered the layout of the building, though it preserved the outer walls of the temenos (sanctuary or inner enclosure) of the Roman-era temple. While the church (and the temples before it) had the main building located at the centre of the rectangular enclosure, the mosque's prayer hall

26671-432: The project. The historian Khalid Yahya Blankinship notes that the field army of Damascus , numbering some 45,000 soldiers, were taxed a quarter of their salaries for nine years to pay for its construction. Coptic craftsmen as well as Persian, Indian , Greek , and Moroccan laborers provided the bulk of the labor force which consisted of 12,000 people. The plan of the new mosque was innovative and highly influential in

26850-561: The rank of Caesar , which implied some claim to the succession. With his rear safe, he moved to the East and crushed Niger's forces at the Battle of Issus (194). While campaigning against Byzantium , he ordered that the tomb of his fellow-Carthaginian Hannibal be covered with fine marble. He devoted the following year to suppressing Mesopotamia and other Parthian vassals who had backed Niger. Afterwards, Severus declared his son Caracalla as his successor, which caused Albinus to be hailed emperor by his troops and to invade Gaul. After

27029-400: The recommendation of his relative Gaius Septimius Severus, the emperor Marcus Aurelius ( r.  161–180 ) granted him entry into the senatorial ranks. Membership in the senatorial order was a prerequisite to attain positions within the cursus honorum and to gain entry into the Roman Senate. Nevertheless, it appears that Severus' career during the 160s met with some difficulties. It

27208-441: The region's interior and escape back into the Sahara . In 208 Severus travelled to Britain with the intention of conquering Caledonia . Modern archaeological discoveries illuminate the scope and direction of his northern campaign. Severus probably arrived in Britain with an army of over 40,000, considering some of the camps constructed during his campaign could house this number. He strengthened Hadrian's Wall and reconquered

27387-432: The reign of the Zengid ruler Nur ad-Din Zangi , which began in 1154, a second monumental clock, the Jayrun Water Clock , was built on his personal orders. It was constructed outside the eastern entrance to the mosque, called Bab Jayrun, by the architect Muhammad al-Sa'ati, was rebuilt by al-Sa'ati following a fire in 1167, and was eventually repaired by his son, Ridwan , in the early 13th century. It may have survived into

27566-422: The reward of a heavenly garden ( al-janna ), may support this interpretation. Another clue is an account by historian Ibn Zabala in 814, which reports that one of the mosaicists who worked for al-Walid's reconstruction of the Prophet's Mosque in Medina (contemporary with the construction in Damascus) directly explained the mosaics there as a reproduction of the trees and palaces of Paradise, which suggests that

27745-412: The same Abbasid governor in 780. The 10th-century Jerusalemite geographer al-Muqaddasi credited the Abbasids for building the northern minaret (Madhanat al-Arous, meaning 'Minaret of the Bride') of the mosque in 831 during the reign of Caliph al-Ma'mun ( r.  813–833 ). This was accompanied by al-Ma'mun's removal and replacement of Umayyad inscriptions in the mosque. By the early 10th century,

27924-417: The simpler mosques of the time, the Umayyad Mosque had a large basilical plan with three parallel aisles and a perpendicular central nave leading from the mosque's entrance to the world's second concave mihrab (prayer niche). The mosque was noted for its rich compositions of marble paneling and its extensive gold mosaics of vegetal motifs, covering some 4,000 square metres (43,000 sq ft), likely

28103-403: The subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes referred to collectively as the Yamato period ; The word kofun is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating from that era. Iron objects were introduced to the Korean peninsula through trade with chiefdoms and state-level societies in the Yellow Sea area during the 4th century BC, just at the end of the Warring States Period but prior to

28282-463: The two emperors. One of the two following praefecti was the famous jurist Papinian . Executions of senators did not stop: Cassius Dio records that many of them were put to death, some after being formally tried. After the assassination of Gaius Fulvius Plautianus in the rest of his reign, he relied more on the advice of his clever and educated wife, Julia Domna , in the administration of the empire. Upon his arrival at Rome in 193, Severus discharged

28461-429: The upper walls. The windows had ornately carved grilles that foreshadowed the styles of windows in later Islamic architecture. The most celebrated decorative element of all was the revetment of mosaics , which originally covered much of the courtyard and the interior hall. The best-preserved remains are still visible in the courtyard today. By some estimates, the original mosque had the largest area of gold mosaics in

28640-400: The water caused great suffering to the Romans, and when they became scattered, they would be attacked. Then, unable to walk, they would be slain by their own men, in order to avoid capture, so that a full fifty thousand died. But Severus did not desist until he approached the extremity of the island. Here he observed most accurately the variation of the sun's motion and the length of the days and

28819-445: The whole of it, invaded Caledonia. But as he advanced through the country he experienced countless hardships in cutting down the forests, levelling the heights, filling up the swamps, and bridging the rivers; but he fought no battle and beheld no enemy in battle array. The enemy purposely put sheep and cattle in front of the soldiers for them to seize, in order that they might be lured on still further until they were worn out; for in fact,

28998-458: The world, covering approximately 4,000 square metres (43,000 sq ft). The mosaics depict landscapes and buildings in a characteristic late Roman style. They reflected a wide variety of artistic styles used by mosaicists and painters since the 1st century CE, but the combined use of all these different styles in the same place was innovative at the time. Similar to the Dome of the Rock , built earlier by Abd al-Malik, vegetation and plants were

29177-427: Was Roman emperor from 193 to 211. He was born in Leptis Magna (present-day Al-Khums , Libya) in the Roman province of Africa . As a young man he advanced through the customary succession of offices under the reigns of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus . Severus was the final contender to seize power after the death of the emperor Pertinax in 193 during the Year of the Five Emperors . After deposing and killing

29356-545: Was conquered from the Mamluks by the Ottoman Empire under Sultan Selim I in 1516. The first Friday prayer performed in Selim's name in the Umayyad Mosque was attended by the sultan himself. The Ottomans used an endowment system ( waqf ) for religious sites as a means to link the local population with the central authority. The waqf of the Umayyad Mosque was the largest in the city, employing 596 people. Supervisory and clerical positions were reserved for Ottoman officials while religious offices were held mostly by members of

29535-480: Was able to leave Africa, Mauri tribesmen invaded southern Spain. Control of the province was handed over to the emperor, while the Senate gained temporary control of Sardinia as compensation . Thus, Septimius Severus spent the remainder of his second term as quaestor on the island of Sardinia. In 173, Severus' cousin Gaius Septimius Severus was appointed proconsul of the province of Africa Proconsularis and chose Severus as one of his two legati pro praetore ,

29714-452: Was again decorated with miniature arcades, while its semi-dome was filled with coffering similar to Roman architecture . Finbarr Barry Flood has suggested that the perpetuation of the mihrab 's arcaded decoration across several restorations indicates that the medieval restorations were aimed at preserving at least some of the original mihrab 's appearance, and therefore the 8th-century Umayyad mihrab may have had these features. Following

29893-426: Was attributed to Seth, the spirit of evil who according to Egyptian tradition governed the central deserts of Africa. In the Black Pyramid of Abusir , dating before 2000 BC, Gaston Maspero found some pieces of iron. In the funeral text of Pepi I , the metal is mentioned. A sword bearing the name of pharaoh Merneptah as well as a battle axe with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze shaft were both found in

30072-400: Was cheaper, stronger and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently. In Central and Western Europe, the Iron Age lasted from c.  800 BC to c.  1 BC , beginning in pre-Roman Iron Age Northern Europe in c.  600 BC , and reaching Northern Scandinavian Europe about c.  500 BC . The Iron Age in the Ancient Near East

30251-414: Was constructed on the southeastern part of the building. The musalla did not have the capacity to house the rapidly growing number of Muslim worshippers in Damascus. The city otherwise lacked sufficient free space for a large congregational mosque . The sixth Umayyad caliph , al-Walid I (r. 705–715), resolved to construct such a mosque on the site of the cathedral in 706. Al-Walid personally supervised

30430-469: Was installed in its place in the modern period. The Minaret of Jesus was burnt down in a fire in 1392. The Mongol conqueror Timur besieged Damascus in 1400. He ordered the burning of the city on 17 March 1401, and the fire ravaged the Umayyad Mosque. The eastern minaret was reduced to rubble, and the central dome collapsed. A southwestern minaret was added to the mosque in 1488 during the reign of Mamluk sultan Qaytbay ( r.  1468–1496 ). Damascus

30609-459: Was later rebuilt with little decoration. Saladin, along with many of his successors, were buried around the Umayyad Mosque (see Mausoleum of Saladin ). The Mongols, under the leadership of the Nestorian Christian Kitbuqa , with the help of some submitted Western Christian forces , captured Damascus from the Ayyubids in 1260 while Kitbuqa's superior Hulagu Khan had returned to the Mongol Empire for other business. Bohemond VI of Antioch , one of

30788-500: Was not established until later. However, at least two of the corners of the mosque's outer wall had short towers, platforms, or roof shelters which were used by the muezzin to issue the call to prayer ( adhān ), constituting a type of proto-minaret. These features were referred to as a mi'd͟hana ("place of the adhān ") or as a ṣawma῾a ("monk's cell", due to their small size) in historical Arabic sources. Arabic sources indicated that they were former Roman towers which already stood at

30967-475: Was officially enrolled in the Roman Senate . Between 170 and 180 his activities went largely unrecorded, in spite of the fact that he occupied an impressive number of posts in quick succession. The Antonine Plague had thinned the senatorial ranks and, with capable men now in short supply, Severus' career advanced more steadily than it otherwise might have. The sudden death of his father necessitated another return to Leptis Magna to settle family affairs. Before he

31146-443: Was once again ravaged and partly destroyed by fire in 1893. A laborer engaging in repair work accidentally started the fire when he was smoking his nargila (water pipe). The fire destroyed the inner fabric of the prayer hall and caused the collapse of the mosque's central dome. The Ottomans fully restored the mosque, largely maintaining the original layout. The restoration process, which lasted nine years, did not attempt to reproduce

31325-449: Was produced in southern India, by what would later be called the crucible technique . In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. The protohistoric Early Iron Age in Sri Lanka lasted from 1000 BC to 600 BC. Radiocarbon evidence has been collected from Anuradhapura and Aligala shelter in Sigiriya . The Anuradhapura settlement

31504-427: Was separated from the city by two sets of walls. The first, wider wall spanned a wide area that included a market, and the second wall surrounded the actual sanctuary of Jupiter. It was the largest temple in Roman Syria . In 391, the Temple of Jupiter was converted into a cathedral by the Christian emperor Theodosius I ( r.  379–395 ). It served as the seat of the Bishop of Damascus, who ranked second within

31683-458: Was somewhat delayed, and Northern Europe was not reached until about the start of the 5th century BC (500 BC). The Iron Age in India is stated as beginning with the ironworking Painted Grey Ware culture , dating from the 15th century BC , through to the reign of Ashoka in the 3rd century BC . The term "Iron Age" in the archaeology of South, East, and Southeast Asia is more recent and less common than for Western Eurasia. Africa did not have

31862-409: Was the capital of the Aramaean state Aram-Damascus and a large temple was dedicated to Hadad-Ramman , the god of thunderstorms and rain, and was erected at the site of the present-day mosque. One stone remains from the Aramaean temple, dated to the rule of King Hazael , and is currently on display in the National Museum of Damascus . The Temple of Hadad-Ramman continued to serve a central role in

32041-421: Was unable to capture the fortress of Hatra , even after two lengthy sieges—just like Trajan, who had tried nearly a century before. During his time in the east, though, Severus also expanded the Limes Arabicus , building new fortifications in the Arabian Desert from Basie to Dumatha . Severus' relations with the Senate were never good. He was unpopular with them from the outset, having seized power with

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