103-654: The Huancas , Wancas , or Wankas are a Quechua people living in the Junín Region of central Peru , in and around the Mantaro Valley . The southern branch of Huanca people are called the Wanka Waylla Quechua and Southern Huancayo Quechua. The Jauja Wanka are also called Wanka Jauja Quechua and Shawsha Wanka Quechua people. They gave their name to the Peruvian football team Deportivo Wanka . After fierce fighting,
206-421: A chumpi which protects the lower back when working in the fields is also worn. Men's fine dress includes a woolen waistcoat, similar to a sleeveless juyuna as worn by women but referred to as a chaleco , and often richly decorated. The most distinctive part of men's clothing is the handwoven poncho . Nearly every Quechua man and boy has a poncho, generally red decorated with intricate designs. Each district has
309-528: A Quechua word for a pit cooking technique used in Peru, includes several types of meat such as chicken, beef, pork, lamb, and/or mutton; tubers such as potatoes, sweet potatoes, yucca , uqa / ok’a ( oca in Spanish), and mashwa ; other vegetables such as maize/corn and fava beans; seasonings; and sometimes cheese in a small pot and/or tamales . Guinea pigs are also raised for meat. Other foods and crops include
412-472: A distinctive pattern. In some communities such as Huilloc, Patacancha, and many villages in the Lares Valley ponchos are worn as daily attire. However, most men use their ponchos on special occasions such as festivals, village meetings, weddings, etc. As with the women, ajotas, sandals made from recycled tires, are the standard footwear. They are cheap and durable. A ch'ullu , a knitted hat with earflaps,
515-553: A facilitated transition into a monolingual Spanish environment and less focused in the long-term maintenance of individuals’ mother tongues. Freeland concludes in her ethnography that the IBE programs implemented in the various communities of the Nicaraguan Caribbean coast are effective as long as the people whom they serve have agency over these and can achieve whatever linguistic and cultural goals they desire (2003, 254). The moment
618-431: A family to accomplish a large private project, for example, house construction, and in turn can expect to be similarly helped later with a project of their own. In almost all Quechua ethnic groups, many traditional handicrafts are an important aspect of material culture . This includes a tradition of weaving handed down from Inca times or earlier, using cotton, wool (from llamas , alpacas , guanacos , and vicuñas ), and
721-776: A few hundred in Brazil. They have an only slight sense of common identity. The various Quechua dialects are in some cases so different that mutual understanding is not possible. Quechua was spoken not only by the Incas , but also by long-term enemies of the Inca Empire , including the Huanca ( Wanka is a Quechua dialect spoken today in the Huancayo area ) and the Chanka (the Chanca dialect of Ayacucho ) of Peru, and
824-512: A heavier dependence on Navajo in the earlier years. Despite this program, Navajo has fewer and fewer children entering kindergarten fluent each year, which may suggest the need for future programs. After the annexation of Hawai'i by the United States in 1898, the government banned the use of the Hawaiian language in education. Prior to this ban, Hawaiian been the medium for public education. By
927-515: A key role in supporting the creation of experimental bilingual education programs both at the primary school level and at the university level in Peru and Ecuador in cohesion with local governments in the late 1970s into the 1990s. More specifically, GTZ helped in the development of these programs at the level of training for primary school teachers, which supported a bilingual project with Spanish and Quechua or Aymara. In Guatemala between 1995 and 2005, an indigenous teacher training program supported
1030-466: A loss of both ethnic identity and the Quechua language. This is also a result of steady migration to large cities (especially Lima ), which has resulted in acculturation by Hispanic society there. Quechua people cultivate and eat a variety of foods. They domesticated potatoes, which originated in the region, and cultivated thousands of potato varieties, which are used for food and medicine. Climate change
1133-478: A loss of indigenous knowledge due to the prestige placed on "white people's knowledge". They faced many challenges such as internalized views of prestige of native culture and language by the children themselves as well as the typical challenges of bilingual education such as language domains. Colonization that gives rise to systems of language inequality is not exclusive to Latin America and various other areas around
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#17328449874661236-517: A multitude of natural dyes , and incorporating numerous woven patterns ( pallay ). Houses are usually constructed using air-dried clay bricks ( tika , or in Spanish adobe ), or branches and clay mortar (" wattle and daub "), with the roofs being covered with straw, reeds, or puna grass ( ichu ). The disintegration of the traditional economy, for example, regionally through mining activities and accompanying proletarian social structures, has usually led to
1339-474: A naturalistic environment by children (that is to say, learned at home through immersion with family and community). Many of these minority languages are part of the various Native American tribes which, through the history of reservation creation and racism by the dominant society, have come close to extinction. Similarly to the case with the Hispanicization of Latin America, the prevailing idea that English
1442-556: A phonetic-based writing system proved to be a challenge but resulted in a successful biliteracy program and helped the children to acquire English reading proficiency as well. The Navajo language has the most speakers of any indigenous language in the U.S. The Rock Point school was created in an attempt to improve student achievement among the Navajo people in Rock Point, New Mexico as well as improve self-image of individuals who did not speak
1545-620: A pilot program of the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos in a Quechua -speaking area in the Quinua District ( Ayacucho Region , Peru ). The university work encouraged the government of General Juan Velasco Alvarado to include bilingual education in its educational reform in 1972. Peru, under Velasco, Peru in 1975 was the first country of the Americas to declare an indigenous language, Quechua, as an official language. Quechua
1648-1134: A political movement asserting space for indigenous languages and culture in the education system. IBE is designed to address the educational needs of indigenous communities, and consists of various bilingual curriculum designs. Since the late 20th century, IBE has become an important, more or less successful instrument of governmental language planning in several Latin American countries. These include bilingual education in Mayan languages in Guatemala , and Quechua in Peru , and Maya in Mexico. As language planning became more intentional due to indigenous rights movements, theorists adopted standard terminology to classify different types multilingual educational programs. Terminology from bilingual education models, such as Colin Baker 's model, has been employed in IBE policy and parallels future models on intercultural bilingual education. Below are
1751-403: A religious significance, but this belief is not uniform across communities. Quinine , which is found naturally in the bark of the cinchona tree, is known to be used by Quechuas people for malaria -like symptoms. When chewed, coca acts as a mild stimulant and suppresses hunger, thirst, pain, and fatigue; it is also used to alleviate altitude sickness . Coca leaves are chewed during work in
1854-597: A social disadvantage, so many people stopped speaking these languages, but had sub-standard Spanish. Because of such language issues, for instance among indigenous peoples who moved to cities, they became uprooted, belonging fully neither to the indigenous or to the dominant culture. Since the 1980s, many countries have passed laws recognizing linguistic and cultural rights. In countries such as Argentina , Bolivia, Brazil , Colombia , Ecuador , and Mexico, constitutional reforms were realized that recognized indigenous languages and cultures. In most Latin American countries, IBE
1957-625: A song about a bloody river. In their myth of Wiraquchapampa , the Q'ero people describe the victory of the Apus over the Spaniards. Of the myths still alive today, the Inkarrí myth common in southern Peru is especially interesting; it forms a cultural element linking the Quechua groups throughout the region from Ayacucho to Cusco . Some Quechuas consider classic products of the region such as corn beer , chicha , coca leaves , and local potatoes as having
2060-547: A special emphasis in Latin America. One of the main debates around Intercultural Bilingual Education (IBE) is that multilingual, inter-ethnic societies challenge the western ideology stating that societies are “internally homogeneous” entities that have sharp divisions between each other based on linguistic and cultural markers. Since the IBE model in Nicaragua was largely designed on this ideology, its design and implementation by
2163-740: A static, romanticized view of indigenous societies that strongly contrasts with the realities indigenous peoples currently live. At the end of the AIDESEP IBE program, another negative outcome was an ethnocentrism towards other indigenous peoples by several students based on the preservation and performance of specific cultural traits—on the basis of these cultural traits, they created categories of “real indigenous peoples” as opposition to more “urbanized” peoples. Indigenous organizations like CONAIE (Confederation of Indigenous Nations of Ecuador or Confederación de Naciones Indígenas del Ecuador in Spanish ) and indigenous political figures have greatly pressed for
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#17328449874662266-515: A total of about 270,000 (and 22,000 men) according to official figures. The sterilization program lasted for over five years between 1996 and 2001. During this period, women were coerced into forced sterilization. Sterilizations were often performed under dangerous and unsanitary conditions, as the doctors were pressured to perform operations under unrealistic government quotas, which made it impossible to properly inform women and receive their consent. The Bolivian film director Jorge Sanjinés dealt with
2369-455: A two-way IBE for the whole population. Under such proposals, all Spanish-speaking pupils and students are to learn at least one indigenous language. Compared to other countries in the region the indigenous population in Chile is relatively small. This leads to different obstacles when establishing an IBE model in the country. IBE became a significant model in the educational policies since Law 19.253
2472-489: A very high level of monolingualism among the indigenous population. Intercultural bilingual education in Guatemala is specifically mandated for regions with high numbers of indigenous peoples. Since the Mexican Revolution in the early 1900s strong nationalist movements have enveloped the country until the late 1980s and early 1990s when the indigenous communities of Mexico received more recognition and amendments to
2575-588: A way to challenge racism and validate indigenous identities. Children in IBE programs that encouraged multilingualism in Bolivia were found to develop a higher self-esteem on average than children in submersion programs. Submersion and transition programs are associated with the highest drop-out rates. In contrast, immersion, enrichment and maintenance models seek to cultivate bilingual and biliterate students. Immersion and maintenance schools seek to value and teach in both indigenous and national culture, and they exhibit
2678-597: Is a mixture of styles from Pre-Spanish days and Spanish Colonial peasant dress. Starting at puberty, Quechua girls begin wearing multiple layers of petticoats and skirts, showing off the family's wealth and making her a more desirable bride. Married women also wear multiple layers of petticoats and skirts. Younger Quechua men generally wear Western-style clothing, the most popular being synthetic football shirts and tracksuit trousers. In certain regions, women also generally wear Western-style clothing. Older men still wear dark wool knee-length handwoven bayeta pants. A woven belt called
2781-549: Is a prestige language associated with opportunity and literacy led to an ambivalence towards sustaining various tribal languages—despite the important role they play in tribal community and ethnic identity. One attempt to integrate non-prestige culture and language into education systems can be found in the program in Peach Springs, Arizona called The Hualapai Bilingual Academic Excellence Program (HBAEP). The Hualapai tribe lives in northwestern Arizona and their language, Hualapai,
2884-763: Is an ongoing challenge, as discussed below. Beyond this disconnect between the ideal model and its implementation, IBE also assumes that children are monolingual when they enter the education system. In areas such as the Mosquito Coast, children often are acquiring multiple languages before school begins as discussed in Intercultural Bilingual Education in Latin America: Political Debates and Criticisms by Countries . IBE's lack of power divisions between minority languages, and focus on bilingualism when more languages are present, may not serve
2987-550: Is frequently worn. The first ch'ullu that a child receives is traditionally knitted by their father. In the Ausangate region, chullos are often ornately adorned with white beads and large tassels called t'ikas. Men sometimes wear a felt hat called a sombrero over the top of the ch'ullu decorated with centillo , finely decorated hat bands. Since ancient times men have worn small woven pouches called ch'uspa used to carry their coca leaves. The following list of Quechua ethnic groups
3090-549: Is implemented pedagogically and politically. For example, teachers may have been personally educated in a submersion or transition model, as these are the oldest models, and may carry these elements into immersion or maintenance education. Additionally, some researchers question whether some IBE teachers have access to training in intercultural teaching or communicative-focused L2 instruction. While many Latin American universities have designed and support certification programs, training of IBE teachers in immersion or maintenance models
3193-477: Is only a selection and delimitations vary. In some cases, these are village communities of just a few hundred people, in other cases ethnic groups of over a million. Dixon, Melissa, "Against all odds: UM grad charts new course with $ 90,000 fellowship" Intercultural bilingual education Intercultural bilingual education (Educación bilingüe intercultural) is a language-planning model employed throughout Latin America in public education, and it arose as
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3296-459: Is the most important effort made in the professional development of Indigenous teachers and Ministry of Education officers of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. Like in many other Latin American countries the movement towards IBE didn't gain momentum in Argentina until the 1980s and 1990s especially considering the political environment it was in (see Dirty War ). After democracy
3399-587: Is threatening their potato and other traditional crops but they are undertaking conservation and adaptation efforts. Quinoa is another staple crop grown by the Quechua people. Ch’arki (the origin of the English word jerky ) is a dried (and sometimes salted) meat. It was traditionally made from llama meat that was sun- and freeze-dried in the Andean sun and cold nights, but is now also often made from horse and beef, with variation among countries. Pachamanca ,
3502-479: Is under control of the Ministry of Education. In most countries, such bilingual/cultural education does not reach the majority of the indigenous population, who often live outside the major cities, or in more isolated urban communities; in addition, it is applied only in primary education. Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Mexico have passed laws directing such education of all indigenous speakers, and Paraguay intends for
3605-525: The Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) or the United States Agency for International Development (US-AID). In the 20th century, governments' attempts to educate the whole population in each country was based on a goal of assimilation, or increasing attempts to offer school education to the whole population had the explicit goal of hispanization (castellanización) of
3708-663: The Indigenous peoples of South America who speak the Quechua languages , which originated among the Indigenous people of Peru . Although most Quechua speakers are native to Peru, there are some significant populations in Ecuador , Bolivia , Chile , Colombia , and Argentina . The most common Quechua dialect is Southern Quechua . The Kichwa people of Ecuador speak the Kichwa dialect ; in Colombia,
3811-592: The Inga people speak Inga Kichwa . The Quechua word for a Quechua speaker is runa or nuna ("person"); the plural is runakuna or nunakuna ("people"). "Quechua speakers call themselves Runa -- simply translated, "the people". Some historical Quechua people are: The speakers of Quechua total some 5.1 million people in Peru, 1.8 million in Bolivia, 2.5 million in Ecuador (Hornberger and King, 2001), and according to Ethnologue (2006) 33,800 in Chile, 55,500 in Argentina, and
3914-741: The Kañari (Cañari) in Ecuador. Quechua was spoken by some of these people, for example, the Wanka, before the Incas of Cusco , while other people, especially in Bolivia but also in Ecuador, adopted Quechua only in Inca times or afterward. Quechua became Peru's second official language in 1969 under the military dictatorship of Juan Velasco Alvarado . There have been later tendencies toward nation-building among Quechua speakers, particularly in Ecuador (Kichwa) but also in Bolivia, where there are only slight linguistic differences from
4017-542: The Puna . The typical Andean community extends over several altitude ranges and thus includes the cultivation of a variety of arable crops and/or livestock. The land is usually owned by the local community ( ayllu ) and is either cultivated jointly or redistributed annually. Beginning with the colonial era and intensifying after the South American states had gained their independence, large landowners appropriated all or most of
4120-399: The mestizo population speaking Spanish or Portuguese. The bilingual programs were all developed to be transitional , in order to prepare pupils for unilingual secondary and higher education in the dominant language. They contributed to a more widespread use of Spanish as common language. These were experimental projects of limited extension and duration, enabled by international aid, such as
4223-498: The 1980s there were only around 50 Hawaiian speakers outside of Ni'ihau, and in 1983 Hawaiians started the first Pūnana Leo, language nest immersion preschool. In 1986, the ban on the Hawaiian language in schools was lifted, and in 1987 the first immersion school began in the islands. Similar to IBE, there is an emphasis on training immersion teachers not just as educators, but as mauli ola Hawai'i or teachers of Hawaiian identity. Today,
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4326-503: The 1980s, bilingual intercultural education was being developed in Latin America. After the nation states gained independence in Latin America at the beginning of the 19th century, the elites imposed a model of unification based on the Criollo culture and Spanish or Portuguese language as used by the colonial rulers. This system reached only the privileged classes and those parts of
4429-669: The Education Council of the Quechua Nation ( Consejo Educativo de la Nación Quechua , CENAQ), which is responsible for Quechua instruction or bilingual intercultural schools in the Quechua-speaking regions of Bolivia. Some Quechua speakers say that if nation-states in Latin America had been built following the European pattern, they should be a single, independent nation. Despite their ethnic diversity and linguistic distinctions,
4532-803: The Huanca people were conquered by Pachacuti in the 15th century and incorporated into Tawantinsuyu , the Inca Empire. The Huanca helped the Spaniards during the conquest of Peru . They provided supplies and men to the Spanish army. The Huanca people speak Jauja Wanka Quechua and Waylla Wanka Quechua , both Quechua I languages. These languages differ significantly from the Incas' Quechua of Cusco . (see Mantaro Valley ) Quechua people Quechua people ( / ˈ k ɛ tʃ u ə / , US also / ˈ k ɛ tʃ w ɑː / ; Spanish: [ˈketʃwa] ) , Quichua people or Kichwa people may refer to any of
4635-532: The IBE path as the levels progress with no official source of higher education within the IBE category. A goal of the National Revolution in Bolivia in 1952 was to end discrimination of the indigenous people by integrating them into the majority society. Education in schools was emphasized, to be adapted to the linguistic situation. The government of Víctor Paz Estenssoro assigned education and hispanization in
4738-600: The IBE program in the Peruvian Amazonian Low Basin in conjunction with AIDESEP (Inter-ethnic Association for the Development of the Peruvian Rainforest or Asociación Interétnica de Desarrollo de la Selva Peruana in Spanish), explains that this program promotes the inclusion of indigenous knowledge in schools, languages and cosmovisions, and at the same time it incorporates indigenous realities of perceiving
4841-435: The IBE, whether directed by the state or an NGO, is imposed on a community by disregarding their goals, it becomes objectified. In this sense, the members of the communities are rather seen as objects that serve as a means to a fixed, constraining end and not as individuals with collective and individual aspirations hoping to get the best out of IBE programs. Lucy Trapnell (2003), a linguistic anthropologist and co-designer of
4944-458: The Ministry of Education in 2004, gave the impression to some that these education policies were not seen as important to core instruction for the nations which undermines the struggles that indigenous populations have experienced in attaining educational policies that are tailored to their needs. In 2007, IBE was reassigned to the National Office of Curricular Management and Teacher Training at
5047-618: The Ministry of Education starting in 2011 reinforced the application of EIB in Peru and significantly increased the national budget, trained teachers, produced educational materials and implemented a national teachers' mentoring system to secure the adequate implementation of EIB in over 20.000 schools in the Amazonian Basin and the Andes. On the other hand, the Peruvian indigenous teachers’ association Asociación Nacional de Maestros de Educación Bilingüe Intercultural [ es ] criticizes
5150-402: The Ministry of Education, which for many within the country is promising to the future of IBE although there is yet to be any data that would support any claims of improvement. Further concerns arose about education; especially from those in IBE when there was a decentralization of education in the nation, meaning provinces now help control the education sector. However, for many this only widened
5253-531: The Nicaraguan state (and NGOs) does not accommodate communities that are “mother tongue bi-multilingual”, for it constrains people living in inter-ethnic multilingual societies to choose a limited set of cultural and linguistic-identity markers. Freeland (2003) explains that the IBE program in Nicaragua constitutes a remarkable improvement in contrast to the cruel assimilationist Spanish-monolingual schooling model applied to indigenous populations. It also has enhanced
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#17328449874665356-502: The University of Hilo supports various post-graduate studies in Hawaiian language, literature, teaching and language revitalization, and students can publish their dissertations in Hawaiian in some circumstances. Today, the US census reports that there are 24,000 speakers, and Hawaiian immersion programs are growing. In this section of the article, four specific case studies will be described and
5459-560: The case of the community of Sarayaku has become well known among the Kichwa of the lowlands, who after years of struggle were able to successfully resist expropriation and exploitation of the rain forest for petroleum recovery . A distinction is made between two primary types of joint work. In the case of mink'a , people work together for projects of common interest (such as the construction of communal facilities). Ayni is, in contrast, reciprocal assistance, whereby members of an ayllu help
5562-431: The co-existence of different ethnic groups in a single community and their use of two or more languages as mother tongues. Furthermore, it produces various inequalities regarding the fulfillment of language rights by different groups: some of them are able to achieve their rights through the program but many others are not. In addition, the IBE program in Nicaragua is largely based on an early-transitional model designed for
5665-415: The community's needs appropriately. The immense linguistic diversity in Latin America is what in part gave rise to demand for programs that would integrate indigenous languages into educational policy. Brazil, for example, has the largest number of indigenous languages with approximately 180. Additionally, in some nations, the majority of speakers natively speak one or more indigenous languages that are not
5768-709: The constitution stated that these communities had the right to learn and maintain their language and culture through education. Large indigenous Communities in the Yucatán Peninsula and in the State of Chiapas were the first to begin implementing an IBE model during this time period. The General Directorate for Education of the Indigenous (DGEI) in Mexico was created in 1973, scheduling the use of 56 officially recognized indigenous languages. The Federal Education Law of 1973 ascertained that instruction in Spanish must not take place at
5871-417: The cost of cultural and linguistic identity of indigenous Spanish-learners. Throughout the 1970s, there was a shift from merely bilingual educational programs to intercultural bilingual programs. Additionally the government pushed that all children needed to participate in interculturalism—not merely those who were part of an indigenous people group. In this case the demand for an IBE program came mostly from
5974-534: The early 1990s various national NGOs, although with international financial support, assumed intercultural bilingual education as one of their main activities particularly in the Andean Southern region between Ayacucho and Puno. As a result of and intervention of the Peruvian Ombudsman (Defesoría del Pueblo) that in 2010 published a specific report on the situation of the education of Indigenous populations,
6077-446: The eastern lowlands to the SIL, granting them at the same time the right to evangelize. Instruction in the first two grades of primary school took place in the indigenous languages to facilitate acquisition by students of Spanish. By the beginning of secondary school, the only language of instruction was Spanish. In the early 21st century, Bolivia and some other countries have begun to promote
6180-404: The education and achievement gap because federal spending decreased across the board and funding came from the individual province. This meant that IBE schools and programs received much less funding overall because they tended to be situated in less economically powerful provinces given that the indigenous populations of Argentina are among the poorest in the nation. Argentina has also encountered
6283-485: The education they receive is tailored to their cultural or linguistic needs. This is also problematic considering that the majority of schools were commissioned in rural areas. The system of IBE in Ecuador was more of a 'bottom-up' approach in that it was initiated by indigenous persons. Unlike many other countries, IBE in Ecuador has been administered by indigenous organizations that are members of ECUARUNARI and CONAIE since 1988. This followed an agreement between
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#17328449874666386-710: The entire student population to receive bilingual training. Many Non-government organizations aided in the development of intercultural bilingual programs throughout Latin America with varying levels of involvement and different motives. These included the Summer Institute of Linguistics and the German Agency for Technical Cooperation (GTZ) as well as USAID and the World Bank's PEIA. The Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL), an evangelical institution based in Dallas , Texas,
6489-468: The ethnic divisiveness the country experienced before and during the political unrest of the 1970s. It was presented as a method and education policy that would do away with stereotypes and help appreciate and tend to the sociocultural diversity of the nation. However the placement of IBE under the supervision of the National Office of Compensatory Programs at the Department of Equity and Quality, and not under
6592-524: The fields as well as during breaks in construction projects in Quechua provinces. Coca leaves are the raw material from which cocaine , one of Peru's most historically important exports, is chemically extracted. Many Indigenous women wear colorful traditional attire, complete with bowler-style hats . The hat has been worn by Quechua and Aymara women since the 1920s when it was brought to the country by British railway workers. They are still commonly worn today. The traditional dress worn by Quechua women today
6695-447: The five main types of Intercultural Bilingual Education. Submersion models prioritize teaching in the majority language and conduct all instruction in the majority language, although the students speak a minority language as their native language. These schools prohibit or discourage students from communicating in their first language during class hours and have traditionally employed school-wide policies punishing children for speaking in
6798-411: The gain of prestige of Coastal minority languages (Miskitu, Sumu/Mayangna, English Creole: Garifuna, Rama) through educational programs and production of educational material and research in these languages. Nonetheless, Freeland also points to significant flaws in the IBE program in Nicaragua. The first flaw is that the program applies a “one-size-fits-all” policy, which ignores social dynamics based on
6901-456: The government and the indigenous movement, leading to the establishment of the national IBE directorate DINEIB (Dirección Nacional de Educacion Intercultural Bilingue). Indigenous representatives appointed teachers and school directors, designed curricula, and wrote text books. Guatemala has one of the most extensive systems of intercultural bilingual education with one of the highest percentages of indigenous peoples in Latin America at 39.9% and
7004-414: The government rather than large scale demand by indigenous persons. IBE programs focused on creating bi-literacy and bilingualism in indigenous languages and Spanish. These programs extend beyond basic education and are now leading to the creation of bilingual/bicultural universities in Mexico. The first education programs without the explicit goal of hispanisation were developed in the 1960s, among them
7107-459: The greater population. It is important to recognize the widespread yet false belief that any minority language heritage language instruction will detract from learning and communication in majority language. Studies from the early twentieth century that purported to find an academic disadvantage for bilingual children often lacked controls for socioeconomic class and fluency during testing. With this observation in mind, IBE models plan not just
7210-542: The highest graduation rates out of the four models. Immersion programs generally seek to strengthen the minority language in communities where it may be disappearing, whereas maintenance programs serve minority-language speakers. In a 2008 paper, cited by a POEIBE working paper, Mejía instead groups maintenance and immersion systems together as they are not in widespread use, and excludes them from their typologies; however, there are some immersion schools in use. While theoretically immersion and maintenance schools correspond to
7313-591: The implementation of IBE in Peru as a bridge to castellanization and monoculturalization. It has said that the education of indigenous people should be under their own control and that of their communities. In the early 1980s, AIDESEP, an indigenous rights group in Peru, got involved with ISPL, another group, and the University of Iquitos to create a research project related to creating a model for intercultural bilingual education. The program had 2 primary concerns: improving mastery of Spanish for those who spoke other languages at home, and to revitalize what they viewed as
7416-509: The incorporation of indigenous knowledges in communities’ schools. Furthermore, one of the most relevant aspects of the AIDESEP project is that it serves not only as an IBE program but also as a political platform through which indigenous peoples of Peru voice their claims of rights to their lands, culture, and sovereignty. Nonetheless, negative outcomes are also reported in Trapnell's study based on
7519-426: The indigenous peoples. Spanish was used as a language of instruction for learner groups although few among more isolated indigenous communities understood it. Students did not have much success in learning, and there were high rates of class repetition or dropouts. The speakers of indigenous languages left school as illiterate and stigmatized as uneducated indios. The use or even knowledge of an indigenous language became
7622-424: The issue of forced sterilization in 1969 in his Quechua-language feature film Yawar Mallku . Quechuas have been left out of their nation's regional economic growth in recent years. The World Bank has identified eight countries on the continent to have some of the highest inequality rates in the world. The Quechuas have been subject to these severe inequalities, as many of them have a much lower life expectancy than
7725-476: The land and forced the Native population into bondage (known in Ecuador as Huasipungo , from Kichwa wasipunku , "front door"). Harsh conditions of exploitation repeatedly led to revolts by the Indigenous farmers, which were forcibly suppressed. The largest of these revolts occurred in 1780–1781 under the leadership of Husiy Qawriyil Kunturkanki . Some Indigenous farmers re-occupied their ancestors' lands and expelled
7828-493: The landlords during the takeover of governments by dictatorships in the middle of the 20th century, such as in 1952 in Bolivia ( Víctor Paz Estenssoro ) and 1968 in Peru ( Juan Velasco Alvarado ). The agrarian reforms included the expropriation of large landowners. In Bolivia, there was a redistribution of the land to the Indigenous population as their private property. This disrupted traditional Quechua and Aymara culture based on communal ownership, but ayllus has been retained up to
7931-477: The linguistic input in the student's education, but also the cultural input. Intercultural education presents different “systems of knowledge, civilizational patterns, cultures and languages … in complementary distribution.” Immersion, maintenance, and enrichment models promote this method of learning. Submersion and transition models intend to assimilate indigenous communities into the mainstream culture. There are disconnects between this theoretical model and how it
8034-640: The meat of llamas and alpacas as well as beans, barley, hot peppers, coriander, and peanuts. Up to the present time, Quechuas continue to be victims of political conflicts and ethnic persecution. In the internal conflict in Peru in the 1980s between the government and Sendero Luminoso about three-quarters of the estimated 70,000 death toll were Quechuas, whereas the war parties were without exception whites and mestizos (people with mixed descent from both Natives and Spaniards). The forced sterilization policy under Peruvian president Alberto Fujimori affected almost exclusively Quechua and Aymara women,
8137-475: The minority language during the school day between each other. Transition models, in contrast, do use the student's first language initially as a bridge to monolingual instruction, but ultimately also seek to shift the state to a monolingual and monocultural society. Proponents of these models claim that children may be stigmatized for speaking an indigenous language and that Spanish provides more upward mobility. However, educators in IBE see intercultural education as
8240-404: The mountain spirits ( apu ) as well as lesser local deities ( wak'a ), who are still venerated especially in southern Peru. The Quechuas came to terms with their repeated historical experience of tragedy in the form of various myths. These include the figure of Nak'aq or Pishtaco ("butcher"), the white murderer who sucks out the fat from the bodies of the Indigenous peoples he kills, and
8343-480: The national reform of pre-service and in-service teacher training. The Puno bilingual education project (1979-1990) was one of the most important contributions of the German Technical Cooperation Agency to the development of indigenous intercultural bilingual education in Peru and PROEIB Andes (Programa de Formnación en Educación Intercultural Bilingüe para los Países Andinos), that started in 1996
8446-468: The opinions of the students and faculty participating in the program. Students report having spent an excessive part of their training (70%) in the theoretical reconstructing of past ideal societies but reported that they did not have sufficient ethnographic skills to understand the present reality of their own communities. By the same token, there is a disproportionate focus on the socio-historic past of indigenous communities, something about which students in
8549-456: The original Peruvian version. An indication of this effort is the umbrella organization of the Kichwa people in Ecuador, ECUARUNARI ( Ecuador Runakunapak Rikcharimuy ). Some Christian organizations also refer to a "Quechua people", such as the Christian shortwave radio station HCJB , "The Voice of the Andes" ( La Voz de los Andes ). The term "Quechua Nation" occurs in such contexts as the name of
8652-399: The overthrow of the dictatorship and the reestablishment of democracy in the country, these indigenous populations in theory should have gained more agency and representation when legislation created during this time recognized their existence within the country and outlined the rights they had as citizens of it. The implementation of the IBE program has been portrayed as one that would combat
8755-592: The parliamentary officer Carlos Torres Caro refused their acceptance. Practically all Quechuas in the Andes have been nominally Catholic since colonial times. Nevertheless, traditional religious forms persist in many regions, blended with Christian elements – a fully integrated syncretism . Quechua ethnic groups also share traditional religions with other Andean peoples, particularly belief in Mother Earth ( Pachamama ), who grants fertility and to whom burnt offerings and libations are regularly made. Also important are
8858-491: The political debates turning around them will be presented. The four case studies will constitute four countries: Nicaragua, Peru, Ecuador, and Chile. For each of these countries, only one source by one specific author will be used. Although the implementation of one author only may seem biased, it is important to remember that the purpose of this article is to simply provide a general introduction to Intercultural Bilingual Education as an educational model and political movement with
8961-529: The present time in remote regions, such as in the Peruvian Quechua community of Q'ero . The struggle for land rights continues up to the present time to be a political focal point of everyday Quechua life. The Kichwa ethnic groups of Ecuador which are part of the ECUARUNARI association were recently able to regain communal land titles or the return of estates—in some cases through militant activity. Especially
9064-408: The prestige language. With the rise of indigenous activism in the 1970s, and controversy about multilingualism and previous bilingual education projects, a new education model of language maintenance and development emerged. This included an embrace of cultural aspects that were not exclusively linguistic: teaching aspects of everyday life culture, traditions, and world concepts. From the beginning of
9167-406: The prestige language. Navajo is the primary language spoken by the majority of people in this area and children were not doing well due to low English proficiency, which in turn resulted in low reading and math scores. In the late 1960s and early 1970s there was a bilingual-bicultural program created for kindergarten through 6th grade. The classroom time was jointly taught in English and Navajo with
9270-499: The problem of providing sufficient education and levels of education consistent with the IBE method. The Argentinian education system is structured with four levels: preschool, elementary, high school, and higher education. Among those levels it also offers categories under which a student can study. For example, students can choose artistic education, rural education, special education and IBE along with other options. However, there are fewer and fewer options and opportunities for those on
9373-463: The program complained. Ironically, their complaints were dismissed as “self-rejection” of students’ own past. Another present criticism that Trapnell emphasizes about traditional IBE programs in Latin America is that such programs may focus excessively on cultural aspects of a society based on tradition. Too often, this approach runs the risk of objectifying and commodifying culture and language revitalization efforts. Furthermore, it ultimately leads to
9476-438: The recognition and enforcement of indigenous language rights in Ecuador by framing these rights’ legitimacy through the category of “collective” or group rights. For instance, the right of indigenous peoples to speak their languages in public and official acts and their use of public services in their languages have been promoted. CONAIE created an “administrative structure” that served as an extension whose responsibility involved
9579-485: The regional average, and many communities lack access to basic health services. Perceived ethnic discrimination continues to play a role at the parliamentary level. When the newly elected Peruvian members of parliament Hilaria Supa Huamán and María Sumire swore their oath of office in Quechua—for the first time in the history of Peru in an Indigenous language—the Peruvian parliamentary president Martha Hildebrandt and
9682-410: The students' first language, in practice this distinction may not be as clear in communities that are undergoing language shift. Such communities may have both children who are bilingual before school, as well as those who speak only the majority or minority language. Mejía also distinguishes enrichment education as a distinct category of IBE in which bilingualism is sought beyond indigenous communities in
9785-466: The various Quechua ethnic groups have numerous cultural characteristics in common. They also share many of these with the Aymara or other Indigenous peoples of the central Andes . Traditionally, Quechua identity is locally oriented and inseparably linked in each case with the established economic system. It is based on agriculture in the lower altitude regions, and on pastoral farming in the higher regions of
9888-517: The world have attempted to implement similar programs to the Intercultural Bilingual Education model. These programs would allow non-prestige languages to be taught in the school system alongside a majority language. These programs did not reach the scope of implementation that IBE did in Latin America. In the U.S. and Canada there are an estimated 184 living indigenous languages—however, only 20 of these 184 are currently learned in
9991-410: The world. Therefore, the AIDESEP IBE program opts to focus on the aspect of self-determination of indigenous peoples about their identity. On this basis, self-determination is based on “cultural heritage”, and it allows people to have agency over the shaping of their communities instead of clinging to a romanticized past. By the same token, Trapnell argues that the AIDESEP IBE program avoids falling into
10094-610: The “Myth of the Noble Savage” fallacy, which portrays indigenous cultures as pristine, static, and isolated, by treating “cultural heritage” as a socio-historic aspect and by providing a greater importance to society over culture. Trapnell argues that, unlike the Peruvian national curriculum, AIDESEP recognizes the importance of addressing the pervasive assimilationist agenda of national education towards indigenous peoples. By training community teachers to be culturally sensitive and have more effective pedagogical methods, AIDESEP empowers
10197-426: Was an oral language with no formal writing system prior to the creation of the bilingual school program in 1975. The school was founded by Lucille Watahomigie who was herself Hualapai. The goals of the program were to create biliteracy in both Hualapai and English as well as encourage equality for the indigenous language and teach cultural tribal history in addition to typical American English curriculum. The creation of
10300-675: Was introduced in schools as a foreign or second language in Lima , but prejudices meant that few ethnic European or mestizo students studied it. Little changed for the Quechua and Aymara speakers in the Andes, as Velasco was overthrown in 1975. Other relevant intercultural bilingual education projects were carried out in Alto-Napo with Amazonian Kichwa population, in Cuzco with Quechua students (1975-1980), and in Puno (1979-1990) with Aymara and Quechua students. As of
10403-509: Was passed in 1993 and established IBE in Chile. Due to the small populations and the low number of qualified teachers to implement the IBE model, Chile has had some difficulties in establishing a successful long term program equipped with not only enough teachers but also enough students. For example, the Mapuche people of Chile now exist as a mostly urban population. Although this could provide better opportunity for education this does not mean that
10506-441: Was restored in the country, there was a new initiative within the country to make ethnic minorities more visible which led to the development and implementation of IBE. According to their last census, Argentina possess 20 indigenous groups with 14 indigenous languages. The total indigenous population however is a small percentage of the total population especially in comparison to surrounding countries as it sits at less than 10%. After
10609-469: Was the first institution to introduce bilingual education in Latin America for indigenous peoples. It had goals both of evangelization and aiding in the creation of intercultural bilingual programs. The first bilingual education programs of SIL started in Mexico and Guatemala in the 1930s, in Ecuador and Peru in the 1940s, and in Bolivia in 1955. The German Agency for technical cooperation (GTZ) played
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