An ideology is a set of beliefs or philosophies attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely epistemic , in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones". Formerly applied primarily to economic , political , or religious theories and policies, in a tradition going back to Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels , more recent use treats the term as mainly condemnatory.
122-554: The Révolution nationale ( French pronunciation: [ʁevɔlysjɔ̃ nɑsjɔnal] , National Revolution ) was the official ideological program promoted by the Vichy regime (the “French State”) which had been established in July 1940 and led by Marshal Philippe Pétain . Pétain's regime was characterized by anti-parliamentarism , personality cultism , xenophobia , state-sponsored anti-Semitism , promotion of traditional values , rejection of
244-453: A French Enlightenment aristocrat and philosopher , who conceived it in 1796 as the "science of ideas" to develop a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational impulses of the mob. In political science , the term is used in a descriptive sense to refer to political belief systems . The term ideology originates from French idéologie , itself deriving from combining Greek : idéā ( ἰδέα , 'notion, pattern'; close to
366-440: A feudal mode of production , religious ideology is the most prominent aspect of the superstructure, while in capitalist formations, ideologies such as liberalism and social democracy dominate. Hence the great importance of ideology justifies a society and politically confuses the alienated groups of society via false consciousness . Some explanations have been presented. Antonio Gramsci uses cultural hegemony to explain why
488-609: A "Manifesto of the Intellectuals", helping to define the meaning of the term " intellectual ", while the left and right were at loggerheads, mainly over the questions of militarism , nationalism , justice and human rights . Until then, nationalism was a Republican, left-wing ideology, related to the French Revolution and the Revolutionary Wars . It was a liberal nationalism , formulated by Ernest Renan 's definition of
610-603: A French Algeria activist, created in April 1966 a neo-Nazi group, the FANE ( Fédération d'action nationaliste et européenne , Nationalist and European Federation of Action). The FANE boasted at most a hundred activists, including members such as Luc Michel , now leader of the Parti communautaire national-européen (National European Communautary Party), Jacques Bastide , Michel Faci , Michel Caignet [ fr ] and Henri-Robert Petit ,
732-658: A branch in Argentina in the 1960s. Apart from the Action française , several far-right leagues were created during the Dreyfus affair. Mostly anti-Semitic, they also represented a new right-wing tendency, sharing common traits such as anti-parliamentarism , militarism, nationalism, and often engaged in street brawls. Thus, the nationalist poet Paul Déroulède created in 1882 the anti-semitic Ligue des patriotes (League of Patriots), which at first focused on advocating 'revanche' (revenge) for
854-405: A certain ideology very closely, while others may take broad inspiration from a group of related ideologies without specifically embracing any one of them. Each political ideology contains certain ideas on what it considers the best form of government (e.g., democracy , demagogy , theocracy , caliphate etc.), scope of government (e.g. authoritarianism , libertarianism , federalism , etc.) and
976-466: A form of ethnic nationalism , itself blended with anti-Semitism, xenophobia , anti-Protestantism and anti-Masonry . Charles Maurras (1868–1952), founder of " integralism " (or "integral nationalism"), created the term "Anti-France" to stigmatize "internal foreigners", or the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the far less polite métèques ). A few years later, Maurras would join
1098-669: A former member of the conservative Rally for the Republic , which he quit in 1984. Others members of the Club de l'horloge, such as Bruno Mégret , later joined the FN after a short time in the RPR. During the 1980s, the National Front managed to gather, under Jean-Marie Le Pen 's leadership, most rival far-right tendencies of France, following a succession of splits and alliances with other, minor parties, during
1220-587: A journal and later a political organization, was the matrix of a new type of counter-revolutionary right-wing, which continues to exist today. During the interwar period , the Action française and its youth militia, the Camelots du Roi , were very active. Far right leagues organized riots. After World War II , the Organisation armée secrète (OAS) was created in Madrid in 1961 by French military personnel opposed to
1342-559: A journalist and former Collaborationist who directed under the Vichy regime the newspaper Le Pilori . The FANE maintained international contacts with the British group the League of Saint George . The FANE rallied Jean-Marie Le Pen 's National Front in 1974, gathered around François Duprat and Alain Renault [ fr ] 's Revolutionary Nationalist Groups (GNR), which represented
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#17328484593701464-573: A mere representation, The Society of the Spectacle . The American philosopher Eric Hoffer identified several elements that unify followers of a particular ideology: Ronald Inglehart of the University of Michigan is author of the World Values Survey , which, since 1980, has mapped social attitudes in 100 countries representing 90% of global population. Results indicate that where people live
1586-410: A political ideology is a certain ethical set of ideals , principles , doctrines , myths , or symbols of a social movement , institution , class , or large group that explains how society should work, offering some political and cultural blueprint for a certain social order . Political ideologies are concerned with many different aspects of a society, including but not limited to: the economy ,
1708-484: A sole explanation of ideology is that it does not explain the differences between ideologies. Terror management theory posits that ideology is used as a defence mechanism against threats to their worldview which in turn protect and individuals sense of self-esteem and reduce their awareness of mortality. Evidence shows that priming individuals with an awareness of mortality does not cause individuals to respond in ways underpinned by any particular ideology, but rather
1830-488: A strong parliament and a weak presidency ; in place of this, nationalists favored a political system led by a strong ruler, originally a presidential republic , although some eventually came to support the idea of a restored monarchy . Across French society, there was also a common feeling of pride in the army and resentment about its defeat by the Germans. This defeat was blamed on the politicians who later became leaders of
1952-464: A term of abuse, which he often hurled against his liberal foes in Tracy's Institut national . According to Karl Mannheim 's historical reconstruction of the shifts in the meaning of ideology , the modern meaning of the word was born when Napoleon used it to describe his opponents as "the ideologues". Tracy's major book, The Elements of Ideology , was soon translated into the major languages of Europe. In
2074-528: Is "the imagined existence (or idea) of things as it relates to the real conditions of existence" and makes use of a lacunar discourse. A number of propositions, which are never untrue, suggest a number of other propositions, which are. In this way, the essence of the lacunar discourse is what is not told but is suggested. For example, the statement "All are equal before the law ", which is a theoretical groundwork of current legal systems, suggests that all people may be of equal worth or have equal opportunities. This
2196-620: Is Vichy, the Collaboration proud of itself, the Milice , the OAS". Jean-Marie Le Pen founded the Front National (FN) party in 1972, along with former Occident member Jacques Bompard , former Collaborationist Roland Gaucher , François Duprat , who introduced the negationist thesis to France, and others nostalgics of Vichy France , Catholic fundamentalists , etc. Le Pen presented himself for
2318-554: Is concerned with the causes, consequences and content of ideology, with humans being dubbed the "ideological animal" by Althusser. Many theories have tried to explain the existence of ideology in human societies. Jost, Ledgerwood, and Hardin (2008) propose that ideologies may function as prepackaged units of interpretation that spread because of basic human motives to understand the world, avoid existential threat , and maintain valued interpersonal relationships . The authors conclude that such motives may lead disproportionately to
2440-523: Is difficult, however, due to cultural relativity in definitions. For example, "what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism "; a conservatism in Finland would be labeled socialism in the United States . Philosopher Michael Oakeshott defines single-issue ideologies as "the formalized abridgment of the supposed sub-stratum of the rational truth contained in
2562-430: Is ecology, which studies the relationships among living things on Earth. Perceptual psychologist James J. Gibson believed that human perception of ecological relationships was the basis of self-awareness and cognition itself. Linguist George Lakoff has proposed a cognitive science of mathematics wherein even the most fundamental ideas of arithmetic would be seen as consequences or products of human perception—which
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#17328484593702684-512: Is illustrated by the "scandalous advice" of Pascal toward unbelievers: "Kneel and pray, and then you will believe." What is ultimately ideological for Althusser are not the subjective beliefs held in the conscious "minds" of human individuals, but rather discourses that produce these beliefs, the material institutions and rituals that individuals take part in without submitting it to conscious examination and so much more critical thinking . The French Marxist theorist Guy Debord , founding member of
2806-543: Is itself necessarily evolved within an ecology. Deep ecology and the modern ecology movement (and, to a lesser degree, Green parties ) appear to have adopted ecological sciences as a positive ideology. Some notable economically based ideologies include neoliberalism , monetarism , mercantilism , mixed economy , social Darwinism , communism , laissez-faire economics, and free trade . There are also current theories of safe trade and fair trade that can be seen as ideologies. A large amount of research in psychology
2928-499: Is likely to closely correlate with their ideological beliefs. In much of Africa, South Asia and the Middle East, people prefer traditional beliefs and are less tolerant of liberal values. Protestant Europe , at the other extreme, adheres more to secular beliefs and liberal values. Alone among high-income countries, the United States is exceptional in its adherence to traditional beliefs, in this case Christianity. In political science ,
3050-419: Is not true, according to Althusser, for the concept of private property and power over the means of production results in some people being able to own more than others. This power disparity contradicts the claim that all share both practical worth and future opportunity equally; for example, the rich can afford better legal representation, which practically privileges them before the law. Althusser proffered
3172-733: Is often associated with Francis Fukuyama 's writings on the end of history . Contrastly, Nienhueser (2011) sees research (in the field of human resource management ) as ongoingly "generating ideology". There are many proposed methods for the classification of political ideologies. Ideologies can identify themselves by their position on the political spectrum (e.g. left , center , or right ). They may also be distinguished by single issues around which they may be built (e.g. civil libertarianism , support or opposition to European integration , legalization of marijuana ). They may also be distinguished by political strategies (e.g. populism , personalism ). The classification of political ideology
3294-556: Is reiterated by J. William Fulbright , while a similar form occurs in Eric Hoffer 's The True Believer . The revolution thus becomes established as an ideocracy , though its rise is likely to be checked by a 'political midlife crisis.' Even when the challenging of existing beliefs is encouraged, as in scientific theories, the dominant paradigm or mindset can prevent certain challenges, theories, or experiments from being advanced. A special case of science that has inspired ideology
3416-593: Is the most generic term because the 'science of ideas' also contains the study of their expression and deduction. The coup d'état that overthrew Maximilien Robespierre allowed Tracy to pursue his work. Tracy reacted to the terroristic phase of the revolution (during the Napoleonic regime as part of the Napoleonic Wars ) by trying to work out a rational system of ideas to oppose the irrational mob impulses that had nearly destroyed him. A subsequent early source for
3538-553: Is too confined to verbal systems. ' Worldview ' is too metaphysical , ' propaganda ' too loaded. Despite or because of its contradictions, 'ideology' still plays a key role in semiotics oriented to social, political life. Authors such as Michael Freeden have also recently incorporated a semantic analysis to the study of ideologies. Sociologists define ideology as "cultural beliefs that justify particular social arrangements, including patterns of inequality". Dominant groups use these sets of cultural beliefs and practices to justify
3660-792: The Action française (AF) and its youth militia, the Camelots du Roi , were very active in Paris. Apart from the AF, various far-right leagues were formed and opposed both Cartel des gauches (Coalition of the left) governments. Pierre Taittinger thus formed the Jeunesses Patriotes in 1924, which imitated the style of the Fascists , although it remained a more traditional authoritarian movement. The following year, Georges Valois created Le Faisceau , heavily inspired by Benito Mussolini 's Fascism . In 1933,
3782-555: The Paquebot , in Saint-Cloud . Le Pen then announced, in 2008, that he would not compete again in presidential elections, leaving the way for contest for the leadership of the FN between his daughter, Marine Le Pen , whom he favoured, and Bruno Gollnisch . The latter had been condemned in January 2007 for Holocaust denial , while Marine Le Pen attempted to follow a slicker strategy to give
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3904-464: The 1984 European elections , the FN obtaining 10% of the votes. Two years later, the FN gained 35 deputies (nearly 10% of the votes) at the 1986 legislative elections , running under the label of " Rassemblement national ". Those elected included the monarchist Georges-Paul Wagner . Internal disputes continued however to divide the far-right. Following the 1986 elections, which brought Jacques Chirac to power as Prime Minister , some hardliners inside
4026-502: The 2015 regional elections with a historic result of just under 28% of the vote. By 2015, the FN had established itself as one of the largest political forces in France, unusually being both most popular and most controversial political party. For the 2012 presidential election , Le Pen came third in the first round, scoring 17.9% – the partys then best showing ever for the FN. For the 2017 presidential election , Le Pen came second in
4148-563: The Collaborationistes , advocates of a French fascism. Supporters of collaboration were not necessarily supporters of the National Revolution, and vice versa. Pierre Laval was a collaborationist but was dubious about the National Revolution, while others like Maxime Weygand opposed collaboration but supported the National Revolution because they believed that reforming France would help it avenge its defeat. Those who supported
4270-545: The Decembrists in Russia . Karl Marx adopted Napoleon's negative sense of the term, using it in his writings, in which he once described Tracy as a fischblütige Bourgeoisdoktrinär (a "fish-blooded bourgeois doctrinaire"). The term has since dropped some of its pejorative sting ( euphemism treadmill ), and has become a neutral term in the analysis of differing political opinions and views of social groups . While Marx situated
4392-548: The Dreyfus affair , a major political scandal that proved to be a turning point in the history of France. The modern "far right", or radical right, formed as a distinct political current during the Dreyfus affair. However, it had some antecedents in earlier years of the Third Republic. Many French nationalists came to oppose the Third Republic soon after its founding, believing that it had adopted an "English" constitution by creating
4514-529: The Dreyfus affair . In the 1880s, General Georges Boulanger , called "General Revenge" ( Général Revanche ), championed demands for military revenge against Imperial Germany as retribution for the defeat and fall of the Second French Empire during the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). This stance, known as revanchism , began to exert a strong influence on French nationalism . Soon thereafter,
4636-515: The Lockean sense of idea ) and -logíā ( -λογῐ́ᾱ , 'the study of'). The term ideology and the system of ideas associated with it was coined in 1796 by Antoine Destutt de Tracy while in prison pending trial during the Reign of Terror , where he read the works of Locke and Étienne Bonnot de Condillac . Hoping to form a secure foundation for the moral and political sciences , Tracy devised
4758-484: The National Republican Movement (MNR). However, with an eye to the 2007 legislative elections , he supported Le Pen's candidacy for the presidential election . During these presidential elections, Jean-Marie Le Pen only took 10.4% of the vote, compared to his 16.9% first round result in 2002 , qualifying him for the second round, where he achieved 17.79% against 82.21% for Jacques Chirac ( Rally for
4880-655: The Parti Populaire Francais or PPF, the largest pre-war right wing party. Other important figures of the 1930s include Xavier Vallat , who would become General Commissioner for Jewish Affairs under Vichy , members of the Cagoule terrorist group ( Eugène Deloncle , Eugène Schueller (the founder of L'Oréal cosmetic firm), Jacques Corrèze , Joseph Darnand , who later founded the Service d'ordre légionnaire militia during Vichy, etc.). To obtain arms from fascist Italy ,
5002-546: The Pioneer Fund , headed by J. Philippe Rushton , the author of Race, Evolution and Behavior (1995), which argues in favour of a biological conception of " race ". GRECE and the Pioneer Fund are actively involved in the race and intelligence debate , postulating that there is an identifiable link between levels of intelligence and distinct ethnic groups . The Club de l'horloge itself had been founded by Henry de Lesquen ,
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5124-507: The Situationist International , argued that when the commodity becomes the "essential category" of society, i.e. when the process of commodification has been consummated to its fullest extent, the image of society propagated by the commodity (as it describes all of life as constituted by notions and objects deriving their value only as commodities tradeable in terms of exchange value ), colonizes all of life and reduces society to
5246-582: The Union for a French Democracy (UDF). At the 1986 legislative elections , the FN managed to obtain 35 seats, with 10% of the votes. Meanwhile, other far-right tendencies gathered in Alain de Benoist 's Nouvelle Droite think-tank, heading a pro-European and neopagan line. Some radical members of the "national revolutionary" tendency quit the FN to form other minor parties ( Party of New Forces , PFN, and French and European Nationalist Party , PNFE). Mark Frederiksen ,
5368-556: The counter-revolutionary branch of the French far right , the oldest one being composed of Legitimists , monarchist members of the Action française (AF), etc. But the Vichy regime also received support from large sectors of the liberal Orleanists , in particular from its mouthpiece, Le Temps newspaper. The supporters were, however, in the minority. Although the Vichy government initially had substantial support from those who were glad that
5490-524: The government , the environment , education , health care , labor law , criminal law , the justice system , social security and welfare , public policy and administration , foreign policy , rights , freedoms and duties , citizenship , immigration , culture and national identity , military administration, and religion . Political ideologies have two dimensions: A political ideology largely concerns itself with how to allocate power and to what ends power should be used. Some parties follow
5612-489: The independence of Algeria . Jean-Marie Le Pen founded the Front National (FN) party in 1972. At the 1986 legislative elections , the FN managed to obtain 35 seats, with 10% of the votes. Mark Frederiksen , a French Algeria activist, created in April 1966 a neo-Nazi group, the FANE ( Fédération d'action nationaliste et européenne , Nationalist and European Federation of Action). However, in 1978, neo-Nazi members of
5734-518: The independence of Algeria . Many of its members would later join various anti-communist struggles around the world. Some, for example, joined the Cité catholique fundamentalist group and went to Argentina, where they were in contact with the Argentine Armed Forces . Jean Pierre Cherid , former OAS member, took part in the 1976 Montejurra massacre against left-wing Carlists. He was then part of
5856-753: The nationalist revolutionary tendency of the FN. But in 1978, neo-Nazi members of the GNR-FANE broke again with the FN, taking with them sections of the FN youth movement, the Front National de la Jeunesse . On the other hand, GNR activists closer to the Third Position (Jacques Bastide and Patrick Gorre) joined Jean-Gilles Malliarakis to found, on February 11, 1979, the Revolutionary Nationalist Movement [ fr ] ( Mouvement nationaliste révolutionnaire ), which became in 1985 Third Way ( Troisième Voie ). After this brief passage at
5978-430: The relations of production and modes of production , and superstructure denotes the dominant ideology (i.e. religious, legal, political systems). The economic base of production determines the political superstructure of a society. Ruling class-interests determine the superstructure and the nature of the justifying ideology—actions feasible because the ruling class control the means of production . For example, in
6100-523: The subjective ongoing choices that people make. These ideas serve as the seed around which further thought grows. The belief in an ideology can range from passive acceptance up to fervent advocacy. Definitions, such as by Manfred Steger and Paul James , emphasize both the issue of patterning and contingent claims to truth. They wrote: "Ideologies are patterned clusters of normatively imbued ideas and concepts, including particular representations of power relations. These conceptual maps help people navigate
6222-499: The working-class have a false ideological conception of what their best interests are. Marx argued: "The class which has the means of material production at its disposal has control at the same time over the means of mental production." The Marxist formulation of "ideology as an instrument of social reproduction" is conceptually important to the sociology of knowledge , viz. Karl Mannheim , Daniel Bell , and Jürgen Habermas et al. Moreover, Mannheim has developed and progressed from
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#17328484593706344-572: The "French race" (including a sports policy), although these policies never went as far as Nazi eugenics . The ideology of the French State (Vichy France) was an adaptation of the ideas of the French far-right (including monarchism and Charles Maurras ’ integralism ) by a crisis government that was a client state , born out of the defeat of France against Nazi Germany . It included: None of these changes were forced on France by Germany. The Vichy government instituted them voluntarily as part of
6466-451: The "blue line of the Vosges " (referring to Alsace-Lorraine), socialist Jean Jaurès and nationalist Maurice Barrès , against Moderate Republican Jules Ferry , republican Léon Gambetta and Eugène Etienne , the president of the parliamentary colonial group. However, in the midst of the Dreyfus affair, a new right emerged, and nationalism was appropriated by the far right who turned it into
6588-506: The "total" but "special" Marxist conception of ideology to a "general" and "total" ideological conception acknowledging that all ideology (including Marxism ) resulted from social life, an idea developed by the sociologist Pierre Bourdieu . Slavoj Žižek and the earlier Frankfurt School added to the "general theory" of ideology a psychoanalytic insight that ideologies do not include only conscious but also unconscious ideas. French Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser proposed that ideology
6710-663: The 1970s. One of those parties, the Party of New Forces (PFN, Parti des forces nouvelles ), was an offshoot of the National Front, formed from a 1973 split headed by Alain Robert and François Brigneau who first organised the Comité faire front which subsequently merged into the PFN. The PFN was formed mainly by former members of New Order ( Ordre nouveau , 1969–1973), who had refused to merge into
6832-572: The 1980s, Alain de Benoist became chief theorist of the Nouvelle Droite movement, creating the think-tank GRECE in 1968, some of whose members were involved with the formation of the Club de l'Horloge in 1974. They advocated an ethno-nationalist stance focused on European culture, which advocated a return of paganism . Members of the GRECE quit the think tank in the 1980s, such as Pierre Vial who joined
6954-416: The 500 signatures from mayors necessary to stand as candidates. François Mitterrand ( Socialist Party ) won those elections, competing against Jacques Chirac ( Rally for the Republic , RPR). These succeeding electoral defeats prompted the far-right to unify itself. In 1983, the FN managed to make its first electoral breakthrough, taking control of the town of Dreux : Jean-Pierre Stirbois obtained 17% of
7076-491: The Boulanger affair and later during the Dreyfus affair. The political coalitions originally built to support the army during these affairs, provided the foundations for the 20th century radical right. The "Boulanger Affair", which culminated in 1889, championed the vague demands of the former Minister of War, General Georges Boulanger . Boulanger had earlier attracted popular support by ordering lenient treatment of strikers when
7198-540: The Dreyfus affair provided one of the political division lines of France. French nationalism, which had been largely associated with left-wing and Republican ideologies before the Dreyfus affair, turned after that into a main trait of the right-wing and, moreover, of the far right. A new right emerged, and nationalism was reappropriated by the far-right who turned it into a form of ethnic nationalism , blended with anti-Semitism , xenophobia , anti-Protestantism and anti-Masonry . The Action française (AF), first founded as
7320-428: The FN a more "respectable" image. Since her election as the leader of the party in 2011, the popularity of the FN continued to grow apace as the party won several municipalities at the 2014 municipal elections ; it topped the poll in France at the 2014 European elections with 25% of the vote; and again won more votes than any other party in the 2015 departmental elections . The party once again came in first place in
7442-460: The FN at its 1972 creation. New Order, dissolved by Interior Minister Raymond Marcellin in 1973, was itself a successor to Occident (1964–1968) and of the Union Defense Group (GUD, Groupe union défense ). Close to the Third Position and supporting a "national-revolutionary" thesis, this tendency maintained links with the FN, despite some tensions. The GUD, in particular, had published
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#17328484593707564-616: The FN broke away to create the French and European Nationalist Party (PNFE, Parti Nationaliste Français et Européen), along with members of Mark Frederiksen 's Third Position FANE . Three former members of the PNFE were charged of having desecrated, in 1990, a Jewish cemetery in Carpentras . The PNFE was also implicated in the 1988 Cannes and Nice attacks . The most important split was headed by Bruno Mégret in 1999. Taking many FN elected representatives and party officials with him, he then created
7686-574: The FN, or Guillaume Faye who quit the organisation along with others members in 1986. Faye participated in 2006 in a conference in the US organised by American Renaissance , a white separatist magazine published by the New Century Foundation . Alain de Benoist occasionally contributed to the Mankind Quarterly review, which supports hereditarianism and is associated with the US think tank
7808-522: The Foundation was created by decree of the Vichy regime in 1941, and Carrel appointed as “regent”. Vichy's policy concerning sports found its origins in the conception of Georges Hébert (1875–1957), who denounced professional and spectacular competition, and like Pierre de Coubertin , founder of the Olympic Games was a supporter of amateurism. Vichy's sport policy followed the moral aim of "rebuilding
7930-724: The French defeat during the Franco-Prussian War . Along with Jules Guérin , the journalist Edouard Drumont created the Antisemitic League of France in 1889. Also anti-Masonic, the League became at the start of the 20th century the Grand Occident de France [ fr ] , a name chosen in reaction against the Masonic lodge of the Grand Orient de France . During the interwar period ,
8052-487: The GNR-FANE broke again with the FN. During the 1980s, the National Front managed to gather, under Jean-Marie Le Pen 's leadership, most rival far-right tendencies of France, following a succession of splits and alliances with other, minor parties, during the 1970s. The French Third Republic (1871–1940) was established after France's defeat in the 1870 Franco-Prussian War and the subsequent Paris Commune of 1871. From 1894 to 1906, French society became deeply divided by
8174-582: The June 2022 Assemblée Nationale election, the RN gained 89 seats in the national assembly, winning the party enough seats to form a parliamentary group for the first time since 1986. The result of the European election was a long-awaited result for Le Pen. Arriving ahead of all other parties, Jordan Bardella's party " La France revient! " ( lit. "France is coming back") cumulated 31,37% of votes. Turnout rate reached 51.49% and
8296-416: The National Front, Mark Fredriksen created the Faisceaux nationalistes européens ( FANE ) in July 1980. These would eventually merge with the Mouvement national et social ethniste in 1987, and then with the PNFE (French and European Nationalist Party) in January 1994, which also gathered former National Front members. Dissolved first in September 1980 by Raymond Barre 's government, Fredriksen's group
8418-412: The National Revolution, while Germany interfered little in internal French affairs for the first two years after the armistice as long as public order was maintained. It was suspicious of the aspects of the National Revolution that encouraged French patriotism, and banned Vichy veteran and youth groups from the Occupied Zone. "I have never known what the National Revolution was, it was never defined and it
8540-432: The Republic , RPR). With only 1.85% in the second round of the 2002 legislative elections , the FN failed to gain any seats in the National Assembly . In the 2007 presidential election , Le Pen finished fourth, behind Nicolas Sarkozy , Ségolène Royal and François Bayrou . Philippe de Villiers , the Catholic traditionalist candidate of the Movement for France (especially strong in the conservative Vendée region),
8662-575: The Republic in rooting out the clerics' influence: they would be completed by the 1905 law on the separation of Church and State . Action française , first founded as a review, was the matrix of a new type of counter-revolutionary right-wing, and continues to exist today. Action française was quite influential in the 1930s, in particular through its youth organization, the Camelots du Roi , founded in 1908, and which engaged in many street brawls. The Camelots du Roi included such figures as Catholic writer Georges Bernanos and Jean de Barrau , member of
8784-506: The Spanish GAL death squad, and participated in the 1978 assassination of Argala , one of the ETA members who had killed Franco 's Prime minister, Luis Carrero Blanco , in 1973. Jean-Louis Tixier-Vignancour was the far-right candidate at the 1965 presidential election . His campaign was organised by Jean-Marie Le Pen . Charles de Gaulle said of Tixier-Vignancourt: "Tixier-Vignancour, that
8906-432: The Third Republic, and there were increasing anti-Semitic tendencies that accused Jewish politicians and officers of disloyalty to the nation. For the nationalists, the army was "the people armed", the truest representative of the nation, and any criticism of the army was seen as an attack on France itself. Thus, they rallied to "defend the army" when they felt it was under threat from internal enemies, such as first during
9028-467: The adoption of system-justifying worldviews . Psychologists generally agree that personality traits , individual difference variables, needs, and ideological beliefs seem to have something in common. Just-world theory posits that people want to believe in a fair world for a sense of control and security and generate ideologies in order to maintain this belief, for example by justifiying inequality or unfortunate events. A critique of just world theory as
9150-457: The army was called upon to suppress strikes. He also rattled his saber against Germany, which pleased French patriots intent on taking revenge. But this alarmed the other ministers, who dropped Boulanger from the government. When his champions mounted an electoral campaign to have him elected to the Chamber of Deputies, the government reacted by forcing him out of the army. Violent agitation in Paris on
9272-524: The assets of, at least four uni-sport federations ( rugby league , table tennis , Jeu de paume and badminton ) and one multi-sport federation (the FSGT). In April 1942, they additionally prohibited the activities of the UFOLEP and USEP multi-sport federations, also seizing their goods which were to be transferred to the “National Council of Sports”. Ideology The term was coined by Antoine Destutt de Tracy ,
9394-434: The best economic system (e.g. capitalism , socialism , etc.). Sometimes the same word is used to identify both an ideology and one of its main ideas. For instance, socialism may refer to an economic system, or it may refer to an ideology that supports that economic system. Post 1991, many commentators claim that we are living in a post-ideological age, in which redemptive, all-encompassing ideologies have failed. This view
9516-568: The best showing ever for the RN. Eric Zemmour got 7.07%. Total Far Right vote was 32%, the highest vote ever in a French election. Marine Le Pen may have lost in the second round, but nonetheless her defeat had a taste of victory: the score of 41.46% was the best showing ever for the RN or for a Far Right candidate. The main reason of the success of the Rassemblement National lies with the political strategies of normalisation and dediabolisation led by Marine Le Pen and her fellow members of
9638-545: The century following Tracy, the term ideology moved back and forth between positive and negative connotations. During this next generation, when post-Napoleonic governments adopted a reactionary stance, influenced the Italian, Spanish and Russian thinkers who had begun to describe themselves as liberals and who attempted to reignite revolutionary activity in the early 1820s, including the Carbonari societies in France and Italy and
9760-482: The closely connected concerns of epistemology and history, defining ideology in terms of a system of presentations that explicitly or implicitly lay claim to absolute truth. Marx's analysis sees ideology as a system of false consciousness that arises from the economic relationships, reflecting and perpetuating the interests of the dominant class. In the Marxist base and superstructure model of society, base denotes
9882-587: The commitment to an existing one. Zizek calls this "a post-modernist trap". Peter Sloterdijk advanced the same idea already in 1988. Studies have shown that political ideology is somewhat genetically heritable . When a political ideology becomes a dominantly pervasive component within a government, one can speak of an ideocracy . Different forms of government use ideology in various ways, not always restricted to politics and society. Certain ideas and schools of thought become favored, or rejected, over others, depending on their compatibility with or use for
10004-497: The complexity of their political universe and carry claims to social truth." Studies of the concept of ideology itself (rather than specific ideologies) have been carried out under the name of systematic ideology in the works of George Walford and Harold Walsby, who attempt to explore the relationships between ideology and social systems . David W. Minar describes six different ways the word ideology has been used: For Willard A. Mullins, an ideology should be contrasted with
10126-415: The concept of the ideological state apparatus to explain his theory of ideology. His first thesis was " ideology has no history ": while individual ideolog ies have histories, interleaved with the general class struggle of society, the general form of ideology is external to history. For Althusser, beliefs and ideas are the products of social practices, not the reverse. His thesis that " ideas are material "
10248-516: The constitutional separation of powers , and corporatism , as well as opposition to the theory of class conflict . Despite its name, the ideological policies were reactionary rather than revolutionary as the program opposed almost every change introduced to French society by the French Revolution . As soon as it was established, Pétain's government took measures against the “undesirables”, namely Jews , métèques (foreigners), Freemasons , and Communists . The persecution of these four groups
10370-573: The creation of the French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems ( Fondation Française pour l’Etude des Problèmes Humains ), using connections to the Pétain cabinet (specifically, French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques Ménétrier). Charged with the "study, under all of its aspects, of measures aimed at safeguarding, improving and developing the French population in all of its activities,"
10492-756: The directing committee of the National Federation, and particular secretary of the duc d'Orléans (1869–1926), the son of the Orléanist count of Paris (1838–1894) and hence Orléanist heir to the throne of France. Many members of the OAS terrorist group during the Algerian War (1954–62) were part of the monarchist movement. Jean Ousset , Maurras' personal secretary, created the Catholic fundamentalist organization Cité catholique , which would include OAS members and founded
10614-429: The election night in 1889 convinced the government to prosecute Boulanger in order to remove him from the political scene. Instead of facing trumped up charges, Boulanger fled to Belgium. His supporters, called "Boulangists", afterward nursed an intense grievance against the Republic and reunited during the Dreyfus affair to oppose the Republic and "back the army" once again. In 1894, a Jewish officer, Alfred Dreyfus ,
10736-468: The family, education, and religion. As societies changed throughout history, so did the ideologies that justified systems of inequality. Sociological examples of ideologies include racism , sexism , heterosexism , ableism , and ethnocentrism . French fascism The far-right ( French : Extrême droite ) tradition in France finds its origins in the Third Republic with Boulangism and
10858-412: The first round, scoring 21.3% – the best showing ever for the FN. in the second round she came second with 33.9% a best for NF. In 2018, the National Front was renamed National Rally . Far right parties have never enjoyed such a big popularity as they have done since the results of the 2017 and 2022 elections. For the 2022 presidential election , Le Pen came second in the first round, scoring 23.15% –
10980-446: The first time in the 1974 presidential election , obtaining 0.74%. The electoral rise of the FN did not start until Jean-Pierre Stirbois 's victory, in 1983, in Dreux . The FN became stronger throughout the 1980s, managing to unite most far-right tendencies, passing electoral alliances with the right-wing Rally for the Republic (RPR), while some FN members quit the party to join the RPR or
11102-731: The group assassinated two Italian antifascists, the Rosselli brothers , on June 9, 1937, and sabotaged aeroplanes clandestinely supplied by the French government to the Second Spanish Republic . They also attempted a coup against the Popular Front government, elected in 1936, leading to arrests in 1937, ordered by Interior Minister Marx Dormoy , during which the police seized explosives and military weapons, including anti-tank guns. Far right leagues organised major riots on 6 February 1934 . The groups did not coordinate their efforts and
11224-453: The ideology of the National Revolution rather than the person of Pétain himself could be divided, in general, into three groups: the counter-revolutionary reactionaries; the supporters of a French fascism ; and the reformers who saw in the new regime in opportunity to modernize the state apparatus. The last current would include opportunists such as the journalist Jean Luchaire who saw in the new regime career opportunities. These were part of
11346-643: The ideology that they are currently aware of. System justification theory posits that people tend to defend existing society, even at times against their interest, which in turn causes people to create ideological explanations to justify the status quo. Jost, Fitzimmons and Kay argue that the motivation to protect a preexisting system is due to a desire for cognitive consistency (being able to think in similar ways over time), reducing uncertainty and reducing effort, illusion of control and fear of equality. According to system justification theory, ideologies reflect ( unconscious ) motivational processes , as opposed to
11468-414: The monarchist Action française , created by Maurice Pujo and Henri Vaugeois in 1898. Maurras, who was an agnostic, spearheaded a monarchist and Catholic revival. He pragmatically conceived of religion as an ideology useful to unify the nation. Most French Catholics were conservatives, a trait that continues today. On the other hand, most Protestants, Jews and atheists belonged to the left. Henceforth,
11590-538: The most ardent collaborationists during World War II. Another major player in France's right-wing world between the wars was Jacques Doriot . Doriot had been expelled by the French Communist Party after proposing a Popular Front with other leftist parties, which at that time was seen as heresy by his party's hierarchy. Personally hurt and embittered by his expulsion, Doriot would slowly change sides, eventually openly denouncing communism and going on to found
11712-441: The nation as a "daily plebiscite" and as formed by the subjective "will to live together". Related to "revanchism", the belligerent will to take revenge against Germany and retake control of Alsace-Lorraine , nationalism could then be sometimes opposed to imperialism . In the 1880s, a debate thus opposed those who opposed the " colonial lobby ", such as radical Georges Clemenceau , who declared that colonialism diverted France from
11834-612: The nation", was opposed to Léo Lagrange ’s sport policy during the Popular Front, and was specifically opposed to professional sport imported from the United Kingdom . They also were used to engrain the youth in various associations and federations, as done by the Hitler Youth or Mussolini's Balilla . On 7 August 1940, a Commissariat Général à l’Education Générale et Sportive (General Commissioner to General and Sport Education)
11956-653: The near-original meaning of ideology is Hippolyte Taine 's work on the Ancien Régime , Origins of Contemporary France I. He describes ideology as rather like teaching philosophy via the Socratic method , though without extending the vocabulary beyond what the general reader already possessed, and without the examples from observation that practical science would require. Taine identifies it not just with Tracy but also with his milieu , and includes Condillac as one of its precursors. Napoleon Bonaparte came to view ideology as
12078-597: The negative reaction many French conservatives had to Hitler's repression of dissident German conservatives and Catholics in 1933 and 1934. Apart from the leagues, a group of Neosocialists ( Marcel Déat , Pierre Renaudel , etc.) were excluded in November 1933 from the French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO, the socialist party) because of their revisionist stances and admiration for fascism. Déat would become one of
12200-533: The party, to rally votes of right wing centrists, and to sweep away the extremism her father had cast upon the party. However, the most radical fraction of the Rassemblement National accused Marine Le Pen of not being radical enough. In parallel, Éric Zemmour , a far-right pundit with no previous party affiliation or political experience, created his own party, Reconquête . His views, as a former journalist, in topics such as immigration are much more outspoken and radical than Le Pens. He even overtook Le Pen in one of
12322-544: The polls in the early days of the creation of his party. Le Pen's niece, Marion Maréchal Le Pen , former member of RN became a member of Reconquête in 2021 while arguing herself and her aunt had "ideological differences". She was excluded of the party on the 18th June, accused of high treason by the head-of-party Eric Zemmour after she showed support for the Central- Far Right coalition between Eric Ciotti's Party The Republicans (France) and Rassemblement National. In
12444-568: The reigning social order. In The Anatomy of Revolution , Crane Brinton said that new ideology spreads when there is discontent with an old regime. The may be repeated during revolutions itself; extremists such as Vladimir Lenin and Robespierre may thus overcome more moderate revolutionaries. This stage is soon followed by Thermidor , a reining back of revolutionary enthusiasm under pragmatists like Napoleon and Joseph Stalin , who bring " normalcy and equilibrium". Brinton's sequence ("men of ideas> fanatics >practical men of action")
12566-412: The related (but different) issues of utopia and historical myth . An ideology is composed of four basic characteristics: Terry Eagleton outlines (more or less in no particular order) some definitions of ideology: German philosopher Christian Duncker called for a "critical reflection of the ideology concept". In his work, he strove to bring the concept of ideology into the foreground, as well as
12688-448: The republicans' conception was, to the contrary, that only state secularism could peacefully bind together diverse religious and philosophical tendencies, and avoid any return to the Wars of Religion . Furthermore, Catholic priests were seen as a major reactionary force by the republicans, among whom anti-clericalism became common. The Ferry laws on public education had been a first step for
12810-425: The riots were suppressed by the police and military. Elements on the left were convinced that unity was essential to suppress fascism, and in 1936 they formed the Popular Front and dissolved the leagues. However the right-wing leagues promptly reorganized as political parties and continued vocal attacks on the left. The Organisation armée secrète (OAS) was created in Madrid by French military officers opposed to
12932-717: The satiric monthly Alternative with the Youth Front ( Front de la jeunesse ), the youth organisation of the FN. They also had attempted alliances with other far-right parties in Europe, with New Order organising the alliance "A Fatherland for Tomorrow" ( Une patrie pour demain ) with the Spanish Falange , the Italian Social Movement (MSI) and the German National Democratic Party . This European strategy
13054-401: The systems of inequality that maintain their group's social power over non-dominant groups. Ideologies use a society's symbol system to organize social relations in a hierarchy , with some social identities being superior to other social identities, which are considered inferior. The dominant ideology in a society is passed along through the society's major social institutions, such as the media,
13176-424: The term for a "science of ideas", basing such upon two things: (1) the sensations that people experience as they interact with the material world; and (2) the ideas that form in their minds due to those sensations. Tracy conceived ideology as a liberal philosophy that would defend individual liberty , property , free markets , and constitutional limits on state power. He argues that, among these aspects, ideology
13298-507: The term within class struggle and domination, others believed it was a necessary part of institutional functioning and social integration . There are many different kinds of ideologies, including political , social , epistemological , and ethical . Recent analysis tends to posit that ideology is a 'coherent system of ideas' that rely on a few basic assumptions about reality that may or may not have any factual basis. Through this system, ideas become coherent, repeated patterns through
13420-499: The tradition". Moreover, Charles Blattberg offers an account that distinguishes political ideologies from political philosophies . Slavoj Žižek argues how the very notion of post-ideology can enable the deepest, blindest form of ideology. A sort of false consciousness or false cynicism, engaged in for the purpose of lending one's point of view the respect of being objective, pretending neutral cynicism, without truly being so. Rather than help avoiding ideology, this lapse only deepens
13542-488: The view that political convictions always reflect independent and unbiased thinking. According to semiotician Bob Hodge : [Ideology] identifies a unitary object that incorporates complex sets of meanings with the social agents and processes that produced them. No other term captures this object as well as 'ideology'. Foucault 's ' episteme ' is too narrow and abstract, not social enough. His 'discourse', popular because it covers some of ideology's terrain with less baggage,
13664-526: The votes in the first round, for the FN municipal list. In the second round, he merged his list with Chirac's RPR list (headed by Jean Hieaux ), enabling the right to claim a victory against the left . Chirac supported the alliance with the far-right, claiming that the Socialist Party, allied with the Communist Party in government, had no lessons to give. This first electoral success was confirmed at
13786-420: The war was over and expected that Britain would soon surrender, and Pétain remained personally popular during the war, by late autumn 1940 most French hoped for a British victory and opposed collaboration with Germany. In 1941, Nobel Prize winner Alexis Carrel , who had been an early proponent of eugenics and euthanasia and was a member of Jacques Doriot 's French Popular Party (PPF), went on to advocate
13908-606: The year Adolf Hitler gained power in Germany, perfumer François Coty founded Solidarité française and Marcel Bucard formed the Francisme , which was subsidised by Mussolini. Another important league was François de la Rocque 's Croix de Feu , which formed the base for the Parti Social Français (PSF), the first mass party of the French right-wing. Mussolini was much more popular in right-wing circles than Hitler due to
14030-430: Was an expression that personally I never used [...] Everyone put his own desire, ideal and the regime that he saw into these words, but the National Revolution was never defined in any form at any time." Pierre Laval , speaking during his trial in 1945. The Révolution nationale was never fully defined by the Vichy regime although it was frequently invoked by its most enthusiastic supporters. Philippe Pétain himself
14152-534: Was arrested on accusations of treason and sharing intelligence with the German Empire. The Dreyfus affair provided one of the political fault lines of France. Before the Dreyfus affair, Nationalism had been a left-wing and Republican ideology; after, it became a main trait of the right-wing and, moreover, of the far-right. Émile Zola entered the political scene with his open letter " J'Accuse…! ", followed by other writers, artists and scholars supporting him with
14274-777: Was continued by the PFN, who launched the Euroright alliance, with the MSI, the Spanish New Force and the Belgian PFN , for the 1979 European elections . Headed by Jean-Louis Tixier-Vignancour , the PFN won 1.3% of the vote. This electoral failure prompted Roland Gaucher and François Brigneau to quit the party and join Le Pen's National Front. The French far-right was divided in the 1981 presidential election , with both Pascal Gauchon (PFN) and Le Pen (FN) attempting, without success, to secure
14396-416: Was created. Three men in particular headed this policy: In October 1940, the two General Commissioners prohibited professionalism in two federations (tennis and wrestling), while permitting a three-year delay for four other federations (football, cycling, boxing and Basque pelota ). They prohibited competitions for women in cycling or association football . Furthermore, they prohibited, or spoiled by seizing
14518-454: Was inspired by Charles Maurras ’ concept of the "Anti-France", or "internal foreigners", which he defined as the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners". The regime also persecuted Romani people , homosexuals , and left-wing activists in general. Vichy imitated the racial policies of the Third Reich and also engaged in natalist policies aimed at reviving
14640-413: Was recreated, and dissolved again in 1985 by Laurent Fabius ' government. Finally, it was dissolved a third time in 1987 by Jacques Chirac 's government, on charges of "violent demonstrations organised by this movement, which has as one of its expressed objective the establishment of a new Nazi regime", the " paramilitary organisation of this association and its inciting of racial discrimination ". In
14762-611: Was rumoured to dislike the term and only used it four times in his wartime speeches. As a result, different factions formed different views of what it meant which conformed with their own ideological views about the regime and the postwar future. The Pétainistes gathered those who supported the personal figure of Marshal Pétain, considered at that time a war hero of the Battle of Verdun . The Collaborateurs include those who collaborated with Nazi Germany or advocated collaboration, but who are considered more moderate, or more opportunistic, than
14884-400: Was sixth, obtaining 2.23% of the vote. This electoral slump for the FN was confirmed at the 2007 legislative elections , the FN obtaining only 0.08% of the votes in the second round, and therefore no seats. These electoral defeats, which contrasted with the high score obtained at the 2002 presidential elections, caused financial problems for the FN, which was forced to sell its headquarters,
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