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126-539: The intellectual politics of the Stuart Restoration (1660–1688) expanded Dryden's playwright usage of savage to denote a human wild beast and a wild man . Concerning civility and incivility, in the Inquiry Concerning Virtue, or Merit (1699), the philosopher Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury , said that men and women possess an innate morality , a sense of right and wrong conduct, which

252-406: A Canadian Indian who played the role of noble savage for French explorers: Adario sings the praises of Natural Religion . ... As against society, he puts forward a sort of primitive Communism , of which the certain fruits are Justice and a happy life. ... [The Savage] looks with compassion on poor civilized man — no courage, no strength, incapable of providing himself with food and shelter:

378-553: A Commonwealth of its own in what is known as Fendall's Rebellion but with the fall of the republic in England he was left without support and was replaced by Philip Calvert upon the Restoration. Virginia was the most loyal of King Charles II's dominions. It had, according to the eighteenth-century historian Robert Beverley Jr. , been "the last of all the King's Dominions that submitted to

504-563: A Dutch fleet and army led to his accession to the English throne as William III of England jointly with his wife Mary II of England, James' daughter. In April 1688, James had re-issued the Declaration of Indulgence and ordered all Anglican clergymen to read it to their congregations. When seven bishops, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, submitted a petition requesting the reconsideration of

630-500: A civilization. In 18th-century anthropology, the term noble savage then denoted nature's gentleman , an ideal man born from the sentimentalism of moral sense theory . In the 19th century, in the essay "The Noble Savage" (1853) Charles Dickens rendered the noble savage into a rhetorical oxymoron by satirizing the British romanticisation of Primitivism in philosophy and in the arts made possible by moral sentimentalism. In many ways,

756-507: A company in serious debt, while blockbusters like Thomas Shadwell 's Psyche or Dryden's King Arthur would put it comfortably in the black for a long time. The Glorious Revolution ended the Restoration. The Glorious Revolution which overthrew King James II of England was propelled by a union of English Parliamentarians with the Dutch stadtholder William III of Orange-Nassau (William of Orange). William's successful invasion of England with

882-550: A complex and balanced set of customs and beliefs which "make sense" in their own right. They are attached to a powerfully positive morality of valor and pride, one that would have been likely to appeal to early modern codes of honor, and they are contrasted with modes of behavior in the France of the wars of religion, which appear as distinctly less attractive, such as torture and barbarous methods of execution. As philosophic reportage, "Of Cannibals" applies cultural relativism to compare

1008-494: A conquest of Oliver Cromwell 's and Charles II's claim to the island was therefore questionable. However, Charles II chose not to restore Jamaica to Spain and in 1661 it became a British colony and the planters would claim that they held rights as Englishmen by the King's assumption of the dominion of Jamaica. The first governor was Lord Windsor . He was replaced in 1664 by Thomas Modyford who had been ousted from Barbados. New England , with its Puritan settlement, had supported

1134-400: A degenerate, a moral cretin , a figure of fun in his blue coat, his red hose, his black hat, his white plume and his green ribands. He never really lives, because he is always torturing the life out of himself to clutch at wealth and honors, which, even if he wins them, will prove to be but glittering illusions. ... For science and the arts are but the parents of corruption. The Savage obeys

1260-569: A delegation that met with the Paxton leaders at Germantown outside Philadelphia. The marchers dispersed after Franklin convinced them to submit their grievances in writing to the government. In his 1784 pamphlet Remarks Concerning the Savages of North America , Franklin especially noted the racism inherent to the colonists using the word savage as a synonym for indigenous people: Savages" we call them, because their manners differ from ours, which we think

1386-832: A favourite setting was the bed-chamber. Indeed, sexually explicit language was encouraged by the king personally and by the rakish style of his court. Historian George Norman Clark argues: The best-known fact about the Restoration drama is that it is immoral. The dramatists did not criticize the accepted morality about gambling, drink, love, and pleasure generally, or try, like the dramatists of our own time, to work out their own view of character and conduct. What they did was, according to their respective inclinations, to mock at all restraints. Some were gross, others delicately improper....The dramatists did not merely say anything they liked: they also intended to glory in it and to shock those who did not like it. The socially diverse audiences included both aristocrats, their servants and hangers-on, and

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1512-639: A former governor of Connecticut, and one of whose sons had been a captain in Monck 's army, went to England at the Restoration and in 1662 obtained a royal charter for Connecticut with New Haven annexed to it. Maryland had resisted the republic until finally occupied by New England Puritans/Parliamentary forces after the Battle of the Severn in 1655. In 1660 the Governor Josias Fendall tried to turn Maryland into

1638-531: A haven for refugees fleeing the English republic , had held for Charles II under Lord Willoughby until defeated by George Ayscue . When news reached Barbados of the King's restoration, Thomas Modyford declared Barbados for the King in July 1660. The planters, however, were not eager for the return of the former governor Lord Willoughby, fearing disputes over titles, but the King ordered he be restored. Jamaica had been

1764-490: A knighthood by Charles II. Edmund Dunch was created Baron Burnell of East Wittenham in April 1658, but this barony was not regranted. The male line failed in 1719 with the death of his grandson, also Edmund Dunch , so no one can lay claim to the title. The one hereditary viscountcy Cromwell created for certain, (making Charles Howard Viscount Howard of Morpeth and Baron Gilsland) continues to this day. In April 1661, Howard

1890-727: A little in their [high] opinion of the Lo family." In Western literature, the Roman book De origine et situ Germanorum ( On the Origin and Situation of the Germans , 98 CE ), by the historian Publius Cornelius Tacitus , introduced the anthropologic concept of the noble savage to the Western World; later a cultural stereotype who featured in the exotic-place tourism reported in the European travel literature of

2016-566: A maritime one and were being thwarted by the company, which relied on revenue from tobacco cultivation. Bermuda was the first colony to recognise Charles II as King in 1649. It controlled its own "army" (of militia) and deposed the Company appointed Governor, electing a replacement. Its Independent Puritans were forced to emigrate, settling the Bahamas under prominent Bermudian settler, sometime Governor of Bermuda, and Parliamentary loyalist William Sayle as

2142-410: A pupil of John Locke . Sentimentalism in philosophy and sentimentalism in literature are sometimes hard to distinguish. As the philosophical arguments developed, the literature soon tried to emulate by putting the philosophical into practice through narration and characters. As a result, it is common to observe both philosophical and literary movements simultaneously. Philosophically, sentimentalism

2268-573: A recognisable genre. In addition, women were allowed to perform on the commercial stage as professional actresses for the first time. In Scotland, the bishops returned as the Episcopacy was reinstated. To celebrate the occasion and cement their diplomatic relations, the Dutch Republic presented Charles with the Dutch Gift , a fine collection of old master paintings, classical sculptures, furniture, and

2394-432: A sound moral theory by building from an intrinsic human nature, which each person possessed. Sentimentalists were, thus, often seen as relating to the schools of humanism and empirical ethical intuitionism . Sentimentalism asserted that over-shown feeling was not a weakness but rather showed one to be a moral person. Arising from religiously motivated empathy, it expanded to the other perceptions—for example, sensual love

2520-403: A substantial middle-class segment. These playgoers were attracted to the comedies by up-to-the-minute topical writing, by crowded and bustling plots, by the introduction of the first professional actresses, and by the rise of the first celebrity actors. This period saw the first professional female playwright, Aphra Behn . The Restoration spectacular , or elaborately staged machine play , hit

2646-524: A yacht. Restoration literature includes the roughly homogenous styles of literature that centre on a celebration of or reaction to the restored court of King Charles II. It is a literature that includes extremes, for it encompasses both Paradise Lost and the John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester 's Sodom , the high-spirited sexual comedy of The Country Wife and the moral wisdom of The Pilgrim's Progress . It saw Locke 's Treatises of Government ,

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2772-523: Is a court, the highest in the land, a bill of attainder is a legislative act declaring a person guilty of treason or felony, in contrast to the regular judicial process of trial and conviction. In January 1661, the corpses of Cromwell, Ireton and Bradshaw were exhumed and hanged in chains at Tyburn . In 1661 John Okey , one of the regicides who signed the death warrant of Charles I, was brought back from Holland along with Miles Corbet , friend and lawyer to Cromwell, and John Barkstead , former constable of

2898-467: Is based upon the intellect and the emotions, and not based upon religious doctrine. In the philosophic debates of 17th-century Britain, the Inquiry Concerning Virtue, or Merit was the Earl of Shaftesbury's ethical response to the political philosophy of Leviathan (1651), in which Thomas Hobbes defended absolute monarchy and justified centralized government as necessary because the condition of Man in

3024-479: Is equally unknown to men and women. Very rare for so numerous a population is adultery [...] No one in Germany laughs at vice, nor do they call it the fashion to corrupt and to be corrupted. The 12th-century Andalusian allegorical novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan developed the idea through its noble savage titular protagonist understanding natural theology in a tabula rasa existence without any education or contact with

3150-458: Is just that you leave us in peace and liberty. Go, and never forget that you owe your lives to our feeling of humanity. Never forget that it was from a people whom you call rude and savage that you receive this lesson in gentleness and generosity. ... We abhor that brutality which, under the gaudy names of ambition and glory, ... sheds the blood of men who are all brothers. ... We value health, frugality, liberty, and vigor of body and mind:

3276-404: Is no regular reasoning upon the ebbs and flows of our humours" (6) [i.e. our emotions]. While he argues against the authority of sense, ultimately this sense creates discontent in his conscience. After the monk leaves empty handed, it is Yorick's "heart" that "smote [him] the moment [the monk] shut the door" (7). Accordingly, Yorick has "behaved very ill" (7). He has complied with his rational maxim,

3402-536: Is only visible to the poet's eye. To the prosaic observer, the average Indian of the woods and prairies is a being who does little credit to human nature — a slave of appetite and sloth, never emancipated from the tyranny of one animal passion, save by the more ravenous demands of another. As I passed over those magnificent bottoms of the Kansas, which form the reservations of the Delawares , Potawatamies , etc., constituting

3528-424: Is subordinate to the visual. It was spectacle and scenery that drew in the crowds, as shown by many comments in the diary of the theatre-lover Samuel Pepys . The expense of mounting ever more elaborate scenic productions drove the two competing theatre companies into a dangerous spiral of huge expenditure and correspondingly huge losses or profits. A fiasco such as John Dryden 's Albion and Albanius would leave

3654-824: Is what we wish to make it", that the felicity of Man depends entirely on the improvement of legislation, and ... his view is generally optimistic. Benjamin Franklin was critical of government indifference to the Paxton Boys massacre of the Susquehannock in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania in December 1763. Within weeks of the murders, he published A Narrative of the Late Massacres in Lancaster County , in which he referred to

3780-447: The Age of Enlightenment , partly as a response to sentimentalism in philosophy . In eighteenth-century England , the sentimental novel was a major literary genre. The genre developed in England between 1730 and 1780 at the time of high enlightenment from where it spread to other European literatures. Its philosophical basis primarily came from Anthony Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury ,

3906-587: The American Indian Wars (1609–1924) for possession of the land, European white settlers considered the Indians "an inferior breed of men" and mocked them by using the terms "Lo" and "Mr. Lo" as disrespectful forms of address. In the Western U.S., those terms of address also referred to East Coast humanitarians whose conception of the mythical noble-savage American Indian was unlike the warrior who confronted and fought

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4032-630: The Convention Parliament , which met for the first time on 25 April. On 8 May, it proclaimed that King Charles II had been the lawful monarch since the execution of Charles I on 30 January 1649. Historian Tim Harris argues that "Constitutionally, it was as if the last nineteen years had never happened." Charles returned from exile, leaving the Hague on 23 May and landing at Dover on 25 May. He entered London on 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday. To celebrate His Majesty's Return to his Parliament, 29 May

4158-648: The Council of State during the Interregnum even though he refused to take the oath which expressed approbation (approval) of the King's execution. At the Restoration, after much debate in Parliament, he was exempted from the Indemnity and Oblivion Act. In 1662 he was tried for high treason, found guilty and beheaded on Tower Hill on 14 June 1662. The Instrument of Government , The Protectorate 's written constitutions, gave to

4284-768: The Eleutheran Adventurers . Although eventually reaching a compromise with the Commonwealth, the Bermudians dispute with the company continued and was finally taken before the restored Crown, which was keen for an opportunity to re-assert its authority over the wealthy businessmen who controlled the Somers Isles Company. The islanders' protest to the Crown initially concerned the mis-treatment of Perient Trott and his heirs (including Nicholas Trott ), but expanded to include

4410-466: The Inquiry Concerning Virtue, or Merit (1699), Jean-Jacques Rousseau likewise believed that Man is innately good, and that urban civilization, characterized by jealousy, envy, and self-consciousness, has made men bad in character. In Discourse on the Origins of Inequality Among Men (1754), Rousseau said that in the primordial state of nature , man was a solitary creature who was not méchant (bad), but

4536-592: The Lord Protector the King's power to grant titles of honour. Over 30 new knighthoods were granted under the Protectorate. These knighthoods passed into oblivion upon the Restoration of Charles II, but many were regranted by the restored King. Of the eleven Protectorate baronetcies , two had been previously granted by Charles I during the Civil War, but under Commonwealth legislation they were not recognised under

4662-577: The Louvre Palace window did combine the established reputation of the King as a hunter, with a stigmatization of hunting, a cruel and perverted custom, did it not? The themes about the person and persona of the mythical noble savage are the subjects of the novel Oroonoko: Or the Royal Slave (1688), by Aphra Behn , which is the tragic love story between Oroonoko and the beautiful Imoinda, an African king and queen respectively. At Coramantien , Ghana,

4788-539: The Province of Carolina was formed as a reward given to some supporters of the Restoration. The province was named after the King's father, Charles I . The town of Charleston was established in 1669 by a party of settlers from Bermuda (some being Bermudians aboard Bermudian vessels, others having passed through Bermuda from as far as England) under the same William Sayle who had led the Eleutheran Adventurers to

4914-626: The Rump Parliament , Charles Fleetwood and John Lambert then dominated government for a year. On 20 October 1659, George Monck , the governor of Scotland under the Cromwells, marched south with his army from Scotland to oppose Fleetwood and Lambert. Lambert's army began to desert him, and he returned to London almost alone whilst Monck marched to London unopposed. The Presbyterian members, excluded in Pride's Purge of 1648, were recalled, and on 24 December

5040-659: The Tower of London . They were all imprisoned in the Tower. From there they were taken to Tyburn and hanged, drawn and quartered on 19 April 1662. A further 19 regicides were imprisoned for life. John Lambert was not in London for the trial of Charles I. At the Restoration, he was found guilty of high treason and remained in custody in Guernsey for the rest of his life. Henry Vane the Younger served on

5166-514: The customs of honor of the Tupinambá people indicates Western philosophic recognition that people are people, despite their different customs, traditions, and codes of honor. The academic David El Kenz explicates Montaigne's background concerning the violence of customary morality: In his Essais ... Montaigne discussed the first three wars of religion (1562–63; 1567–68; 1568–70) quite specifically; he had personally participated in [the wars], on

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5292-403: The pathos of the love story, the circumstances, and the characters, which consequently gave political importance to the play and the novel for the candid cultural representation of slave-powered European colonialism. In the 1st century CE, in the book Germania , Tacitus ascribed to the Germans the cultural superiority of the noble savage way of life, because Rome was too civilized, unlike

5418-517: The wild man the Europeans granted themselves the right to colonize the natives inhabiting the islands and the continental lands of the northern, the central, and the southern Americas. The conquistador mistreatment of the indigenous peoples of the Viceroyalty of New Spain (1521–1821) eventually produced bad-conscience recriminations amongst the European intelligentsias for and against colonialism. As

5544-562: The 15th century, soon after arriving to the Americas in 1492, the Europeans employed the term savage to dehumanise the indigènes (noble-savage natives) of the newly discovered " New World " as ideological justification for the European colonization of the Americas , called the Age of Discovery (1492–1800); thus with the dehumanizing stereotypes of the noble savage and the indigène , the savage and

5670-481: The 17th and the 18th centuries. The 12th-century Andalusian novel The Living Son of the Vigilant ( Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān , 1160), by the polymath Ibn Tufail , explores the subject of natural theology as a means to understand the material world. The protagonist is a wild man isolated from his society, whose trials and tribulations lead him to knowledge of Allah by living a rustic life in harmony with Mother Nature. In

5796-416: The Bahamas. In 1670, Sayle became the first Colonial Governor of the Province of Carolina . The Restoration and Charles' coronation mark a reversal of the stringent Puritan morality, "as though the pendulum [of England's morality] swung from repression to licence more or less overnight". Theatres reopened after having been closed during the protectorship, Puritanism lost its momentum, and bawdy comedy became

5922-406: The Bermudians, who had their own House of Assembly (and many of whom were becoming landowners as they were sold the land they had previously farmed as tenants as the profitability of the tobacco farmed exclusively for the company fell), placed the Bermudians on the side of the Crown despite the large number of Puritans in the colony. Bermudians were attempting to shift their economy from tobacco to

6048-586: The Church and the sacerdotal system. ... Raynal brought home to the conscience of Europeans the miseries which had befallen the natives of the New World through the Christian conquerors and their priests. He was not indeed an enthusiastic preacher of Progress. He was unable to decide between the comparative advantages of the savage state of nature and the most highly cultivated society. But he observes that "the human race

6174-556: The Commonwealth and the Protectorate . Acceptance of the Restoration was reluctant in some quarters as it highlighted the failure of puritan reform. Rhode Island declared in October 1660 and Massachusetts lastly in August 1661. The Colony of New Haven provided refuge for Regicides such as Edward Whalley , William Goffe and John Dixwell and would be subsequently merged into Connecticut in 1662, perhaps in punishment. John Winthrop ,

6300-462: The Dutch colonialists. Despite Behn having written the popular novel for money, Oroonoko proved to be political-protest literature against slavery , because the story, plot, and characters followed the narrative conventions of the European romance novel . In the event, the Irish playwright Thomas Southerne adapted the novel Oroonoko into the stage play Oroonoko: A Tragedy (1696) that stressed

6426-462: The Earth; no Navigation, nor use of the commodities that may be imported by Sea; no commodious Building; no Instruments of moving, and removing such things as require much force; no Knowledge of the face of the Earth; no account of Time; no Arts; no Letters; no Society; and which is worst of all, continuall feare, and danger of violent death; And the life of man, solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short. In

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6552-523: The Germans to criticize the society of Rome. But very few ever look into the seven volumes of the Abbé Raynal 's History of the Two Indies , which appeared in 1772. It is however one of the most remarkable books of the century. Its immediate practical importance lay in the array of facts which it furnished to the friends of humanity in the movement against negro slavery . But it was also an effective attack on

6678-608: The Highland Scots; the writer Tobias Smollett described the Highlanders: They greatly excel the Lowlanders in all the exercises that require agility; they are incredibly abstemious, and patient of hunger and fatigue; so steeled against the weather, that in traveling, even when the ground is covered with snow, they never look for a house, or any other shelter but their plaid, in which they wrap themselves up, and go to sleep under

6804-525: The King's religious policies, they were arrested and tried for seditious libel. On 30 June 1688, a group of seven Protestant nobles invited the Prince of Orange to come to England with an army. By September it became clear that William would invade England. When William arrived on 5 November 1688, James lost his nerve, declined to attack the invading Dutch and tried to flee to France. He was captured in Kent. Later, he

6930-519: The King. The Anglican Church was restored as the established church . The Somers Isles, alias Bermuda (originally named Virgineola ), was originally part of Virginia, and was administered by the Somers Isles Company , a spin-off of the Virginia Company , until 1684. The already existing contest between the mostly Parliamentarian Adventurers (shareholders) of the company in England and

7056-547: The Kingdom of France, critics of the Crown and Church risked censorship and summary imprisonment without trial, and primitivism was political protest against the repressive imperial règimes of Louis XIV and Louis XV . In his travelogue of North America, the writer Louis-Armand de Lom d'Arce de Lahontan, Baron de Lahontan , who had lived with the Huron Indians ( Wyandot people ), ascribed deist and egalitarian politics to Adario,

7182-523: The London public stage in the late 17th-century Restoration period, enthralling audiences with action, music, dance, moveable scenery, baroque illusionistic painting , gorgeous costumes, and special effects such as trapdoor tricks, "flying" actors, and fireworks. These shows have always had a bad reputation as a vulgar and commercial threat to the witty, "legitimate" Restoration drama; however, they drew Londoners in unprecedented numbers and left them dazzled and delighted. Basically home-grown and with roots in

7308-615: The Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and became the predominant political figure of the Restoration period. Charles was proclaimed King again on 14 May 1660. He was not crowned, having been previously crowned at Scone in 1651. The Restoration "presented an occasion of universal celebration and rejoicing throughout Scotland". Charles II summoned his parliament on 1 January 1661, which began to undo all that been forced on his father Charles I of Scotland . The Rescissory Act 1661 made all legislation back to 1633 'void and null'. Barbados , as

7434-408: The Origin and Situation of the Germans ) by Publius Cornelius Tacitus introduced the idea of the noble savage to the Western World in 98 AD, describing the ancient Germanic people as aligned with ancient Roman virtues , such as bravery and honesty. Thus with their virtue protected they live uncorrupted by the allurements of public shows or the stimulant of feastings. Clandestine correspondence

7560-407: The Paxton Boys as "Christian white savages" and called for judicial punishment of those who carried the Bible in one hand and a hatchet in the other. When the Paxton Boys led an armed march on Philadelphia in February 1764, with the intent of killing the Moravian Lenape and Mohican who had been given shelter there, Franklin recruited associators including Quakers to defend the city and led

7686-403: The Protectorate (hence the Lord Protector's regranting of them). When that legislation passed into oblivion these two baronets were entitled to use the baronetcies granted by Charles I, and Charles II regranted four more. Only one now continues: Richard Thomas Willy , 14th baronet, is the direct successor of Griffith Williams. Of the remaining Protectorate baronets one, William Ellis , was granted

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7812-404: The Rhine returned to the service of England, became a member of the privy council , and was provided with an annuity. George Goring, 1st Earl of Norwich , returned to be the Captain of the King's guard and received a pension. Marmaduke Langdale returned and was made " Baron Langdale ". William Cavendish , Marquess of Newcastle, returned and was able to regain the greater part of his estates. He

7938-418: The Roman Catholic Bishop of Chiapas , the priest Bartolomé de las Casas witnessed the enslavement of the indigènes of New Spain, yet idealized them into morally innocent noble savages living a simple life in harmony with Mother Nature. At the Valladolid debate (1550–1551) of the moral philosophy of enslaving the native peoples of the Spanish colonies, Bishop de las Casas reported the noble-savage culture of

8064-423: The Usurpation". Virginia had provided sanctuary for Cavaliers fleeing the English republic . In 1650, Virginia was one of the Royalist colonies that became the subject of Parliament's An Act for prohibiting Trade with the Barbadoes, Virginia, Bermuda and Antego . William Berkeley , who had previously been governor up until 1652, was elected governor in 1660 by the House of Burgesses and he promptly declared for

8190-420: The Western perspective of "An Essay on Man", Pope's metaphoric usage of poor means "uneducated and a heathen", but also denotes a savage who is happy with his rustic life in harmony with Nature, and who believes in deism , a form of natural religion — the idealization and devaluation of the non-European Other derived from the mirror logic of the Enlightenment belief that "men, everywhere and in all times, are

8316-573: The academic Arthur O. Lovejoy said that: Stuart Restoration The Stuart Restoration was the reinstatement in May 1660 of the Stuart monarchy in England , Scotland , and Ireland . It replaced the Commonwealth of England , established in January 1649 after the execution of Charles I , with his son Charles II . The term is also used to describe the reign of Charles II (1660–1685), and sometimes that of his younger brother James II (1685–1688). After Richard Cromwell , Lord Protector from 1658 to 1659, ceded power to

8442-416: The apolitical state of nature is a "war of all against all", for which reason the lives of men and women are "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short" without the political organization of people and resources. The European Hobbes gave, incorrectly, as example the Native Americans as people living in the bellicose state of nature that precedes tribes and clans organizing into the societies that compose

8568-402: The army restored the Long Parliament . Fleetwood was deprived of his command and ordered to appear before Parliament to answer for his conduct. On 3 March 1660, Lambert was sent to the Tower of London , from which he escaped a month later. He tried to rekindle the civil war in favour of the Commonwealth by issuing a proclamation calling on all supporters of the " Good Old Cause " to rally on

8694-408: The base laws of servitude began, When wild in woods the noble savage ran. By the 18th century, Montaigne's predecessor to the noble savage, nature's gentleman was a stock character usual to the sentimental literature of the time, for which a type of non-European Other became a background character for European stories about adventurous Europeans in the strange lands beyond continental Europe. For

8820-470: The battlefield of Edgehill, but he was recaptured by Colonel Richard Ingoldsby , a participant in the regicide of Charles I who hoped to win a pardon by handing Lambert over to the new regime. Lambert was incarcerated and died in custody in 1684; Ingoldsby was pardoned. The restoration was not what George Monck, as an apparent engineer of the Restoration, had intended – if indeed he knew what he intended, for in Clarendon's sardonic words; "the whole machine

8946-414: The civilized European to the uncivilized noble savage. Montaigne's anthropological report about cannibalism in Brazil indicated that the Tupinambá people were neither a noble nor an exceptionally good folk , yet neither were the Tupinambá culturally or morally inferior to his contemporary, 16th-century European civilization. From the perspective of Classical liberalism of Montaigne's humanist portrayal of

9072-601: The company's wider mismanagement of the colony. This led to a lengthy court case in which the Crown championed Bermudians against the company, and resulted in the company's Royal Charter being revoked in 1684. From that point onwards the Crown assumed responsibility for appointing the Colony's governors (it first re-appointed the last company governor). Freed of the company's restraints, the emerging local merchant class came to dominate and shape Bermuda's progress, as Bermudians abandoned agriculture en masse and turned to seafaring. In 1663

9198-460: The cope of heaven. Such people, in quality of soldiers, must be invincible. . . . The imperial politics of Western Europe featured debates about soft primitivism and hard primitivism worsened with the publication of Leviathan, or The Matter, Forme and Power of a Commonwealth Ecclesiasticall and Civil (1651), by Thomas Hobbes , which justified the central-government regime of absolute monarchy as politically necessary for societal stability and

9324-582: The death warrant in 1649 were living. The regicides were hunted down; some escaped but most were found and put on trial. Three escaped to the American colonies. New Haven, Connecticut , secretly harboured Edward Whalley, William Goffe and John Dixwell, and after American independence named streets after them to honour them as forefathers of the American Revolution. In the ensuing trials, twelve were condemned to death. The Fifth Monarchist Thomas Harrison ,

9450-410: The early 17th-century court masque , though never ashamed of borrowing ideas and stage technology from French opera , the spectaculars are sometimes called "English opera". However, the variety of them is so untidy that most theatre historians despair of defining them as a genre at all. Only a handful of works of this period are usually accorded the term "opera", as the musical dimension of most of them

9576-583: The essay " Of Cannibals " (1580), Michel de Montaigne reported that the Tupinambá people of Brazil ceremoniously eat the bodies of their dead enemies, as a matter of honour, whilst reminding the European reader that such wild man behavior was analogous to the religious barbarism of burning at the stake : "One calls ‘barbarism’ whatever he is not accustomed to." The academic Terence Cave further explains Montaigne's point of moral philosophy : The cannibal practices are admitted [by Montaigne] but presented as part of

9702-540: The first epistolary novel in German) and its influence may also be seen in Goethe 's early work Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (1774), a high-point of Sturm und Drang . Meta Klopstock 's writing has also been seen as part of the movement. Religious sentimentalism has often been considered as inspiration for François-René de Chateaubriand and his creation of Romanticism , which was another literary genre that emerged late in

9828-510: The first person found guilty of regicide, who had been the seventeenth of the 59 commissioners to sign the death warrant, was the first regicide to be hanged, drawn and quartered because he was considered by the new government still to represent a real threat to the re-established order. In October 1660, at Charing Cross or Tyburn , London, ten were publicly hanged, drawn and quartered: Thomas Harrison, John Jones , Adrian Scrope , John Carew , Thomas Scot , and Gregory Clement , who had signed

9954-481: The founding of the Royal Society , the experiments and holy meditations of Robert Boyle , the hysterical attacks on theatres from Jeremy Collier , and the pioneering of literary criticism from John Dryden and John Dennis . The period witnessed news become a commodity, the essay develop into a periodical art form, and the beginnings of textual criticism . The return of the king and his court from exile led to

10080-409: The frontiersman. Concerning the story of the settler Thomas Alderdice, whose wife was captured and killed by Cheyenne Indians , The Leavenworth, Kansas, Times and Conservative newspaper said: "We wish some philanthropists, who talk about civilizing the Indians, could have heard this unfortunate and almost broken-hearted man tell his story. We think [that the philanthropists] would at least have wavered

10206-423: The justified action of his "great claims" argument (6). Yet he senses from the conscience of his sentimental nature that he has done wrong. In continental Europe, one aspect of sentimentalism was Empfindsamkeit . The sensitive style (German: empfindsamer Stil ) of music, developed in Germany, aimed to express "true and natural" feelings, in contrast to the baroque . The origin of sentimentalism in this context

10332-459: The king's death warrant; the preacher Hugh Peters ; Francis Hacker and Daniel Axtell , who commanded the guards at the king's trial and execution; and John Cooke , the solicitor who directed the prosecution. The 10 judges who were on the panel but did not sign the death warrant were also convicted. Oliver Cromwell , Henry Ireton , Judge Thomas Pride , and Judge John Bradshaw were posthumously attainted for high treason. Because Parliament

10458-427: The love of virtue, the fear of the gods, a natural goodness toward our neighbors, attachment to our friends, fidelity to all the world, moderation in prosperity, fortitude in adversity, courage always bold to speak the truth, and abhorrence of flattery. ... If the offended gods so far blind you as to make you reject peace, you will find, when it is too late, that the people who are moderate and lovers of peace are

10584-450: The man–animal relationship allowed him to define virtue , which he presented as the opposite of cruelty. ... [As] a sort of natural benevolence based on ... personal feelings. Montaigne associated the [human] propensity to cruelty toward animals, with that exercised toward men. After all, following the St. Bartholomew's Day massacre, the invented image of Charles IX shooting Huguenots from

10710-422: The middle of the century, sentimentalism set "untouched" nature against (courtly) civilization, as in the works of Jean Jacques Rousseau . In addition, Samuel Richardson 's sentimental epistolary novel " Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded " (1740) had great literary influence. The literary work often featured scenes of distress and tenderness, and the plot was arranged to advance emotions rather than action. The result

10836-507: The modern United States: I have learned to appreciate better than hitherto, and to make more allowance for the dislike, aversion, contempt wherewith Indians are usually regarded by their white neighbors, and have been since the days of the Puritans. It needs but little familiarity with the actual, palpable aborigines to convince anyone that the poetic Indian — the Indian of Cooper and Longfellow —

10962-513: The most formidable in war.” In the 18th century, British intellectual debate about Primitivism used the Highland Scots as a local, European example of a mythical noble savage people, as often as the American Indians were the example. The English cultural perspective scorned the ostensibly rude manners of the Highlanders, whilst admiring and idealizing the toughness of person and character of

11088-479: The myth of the noble savage entails fantasies about the non-West that cut to the core of the conversation in the social sciences about Orientalism, colonialism and exoticism. The key question that emerges here is whether an admiration of "the Other" as noble undermines or reproduces the dominant hierarchy, whereby the Other is subjugated by Western powers. The first century Roman work De origine et situ Germanorum ( On

11214-448: The narrator is using the sentimental character Yorick as a device to critique the obligation of morality, whether it is sentimental or rational. There is a scene early in the novel where Yorick meets a monk and refuses "to give him a single sous [a penny]." He feels discontent when he disregards what he senses he ought to do, even though he appears to obey "better reason" (4). Rationally, he disregards his sentimental obligation because "there

11340-410: The national security of the state: Whatsoever therefore is consequent to a time of War, where every man is Enemy to every man; the same is consequent to the time, wherein men live without other security, than what their own strength, and their own invention shall furnish them withall. In such condition, there is no place for Industry; because the fruit thereof is uncertain; and consequently no Culture of

11466-525: The natives, especially noting their plain-manner social etiquette and that they did not have the social custom of telling lies. In the intellectual debates of the late 16th and 17th centuries, philosophers used the racist stereotypes of the savage and the good savage as moral reproaches of the European monarchies fighting the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648) and the French Wars of Religion (1562–1598). In

11592-483: The noble savage natives, such as the historical novel The Last of the Mohicans: A Narrative of 1757 (1826), by James Fenimore Cooper , and the epic poem The Song of Hiawatha (1855), by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , both literary works presented the primitivism (geographic, cultural, political) of North America as an ideal place for the European man to commune with Nature, far from the artifice of civilisation; yet in

11718-457: The novel The Adventures of Telemachus, Son of Ulysses (1699), in the “Encounter with the Mandurians” (Chapter IX), the theologian François Fénelon presented the noble savage stock character in conversation with civilized men from Europe about possession and ownership of Nature : On our arrival upon this coast we found there a savage race who ... lived by hunting and by the fruits which

11844-453: The novels, the opera, and the stageplays, the stock of characters included the "Virtuous Milkmaid" and the "Servant-More-Clever-Than-the-Master" (e.g. Sancho Panza and Figaro ), literary characters who personify the moral superiority of working-class people in the fictional world of the story. In English literature, British North America was the geographic locus classicus for adventure and exploration stories about European encounters with

11970-403: The outside world, inspiring later Western philosophy and literature during Age of Enlightenment . The stock character of the noble savage appears in the essay " Of Cannibals " (1580), about the Tupinambá people of Brazil, wherein the philosopher Michel de Montaigne presents "Nature's Gentleman", the bon sauvage counterpart to civilized Europeans in the 16th century. The first usage of

12096-400: The perfection of civility; they think the same of theirs. Franklin praised the way of life of indigenous people, their customs of hospitality, their councils of government, and acknowledged that while some Europeans had foregone civilization to live like a "savage", the opposite rarely occurred, because few indigenous people chose "civilization" over "savagery". Like the Earl of Shaftesbury in

12222-571: The poem “ An Essay on Man ” (1734), the Englishman Alexander Pope portrays the American Indian thus: Lo, the poor Indian! whose untutor'd mind Sees God in clouds, or hears Him in the wind; His soul proud Science never taught to stray Far as the solar walk or milky way; Yet simple Nature to his hope has giv'n, Behind the cloud-topp'd hill, a humbler heav'n; Some safer world in depth of woods embrac'd, Some happier island in

12348-479: The practice of being sentimental , and thus tending towards making emotions and feelings the basis of a person's actions and reactions, as opposed to reason, has been a recurring aspect of world literature. Sentimentalism includes a variety of aspects in literature, such as sentimental poetry, the sentimental novel, and the German sentimentalist music movement, Empfindsamkeit . European literary sentimentalism arose during

12474-534: The protagonist is deceived and delivered into the Atlantic slave trade (16th–19th centuries), and Oroonoko becomes a slave of plantation colonists in Surinam (Dutch Guiana, 1667–1954). In the course of his enslavement, Oroonoko meets the woman who narrates to the reader the life and love of Prince Oroonoko, his enslavement, his leading a slave rebellion against the Dutch planters of Surinam, and his consequent execution by

12600-647: The replacement of the Puritan severity of the Cromwellian style with a taste for magnificence and opulence and to the introduction of Dutch and French artistic influences. These are evident in furniture in the use of floral marquetry , walnut instead of oak, twisted turned supports and legs, exotic veneers , cane seats and backs on chairs, sumptuous tapestry and velvet upholstery and ornate carved and gilded scrolling bases for cabinets. Similar shifts appear in prose style. Comedy, especially bawdy comedy, flourished, and

12726-475: The same". Like Dryden's noble savage term, Pope's phrase "Lo, the Poor Indian!" was used to dehumanize the natives of North America for European purposes, and so justified white settlers' conflicts with the local Indians for possession of the land. In the mid-19th century, the journalist-editor Horace Greeley published the essay "Lo! The Poor Indian!" (1859), about the social condition of the American Indian in

12852-770: The savage Germans. The art historian Erwin Panofsky explains that: There had been, from the beginning of Classical speculation, two contrasting opinions about the natural state of man , each of them, of course, a "Gegen-Konstruktion" to the conditions under which it was formed. One view, termed "soft" primitivism in an illuminating book by Lovejoy and Boas, conceives of primitive life as a golden age of plenty, innocence, and happiness — in other words, as civilized life purged of its vices. The other, "hard" form of primitivism conceives of primitive life as an almost subhuman existence full of terrible hardships and devoid of all comforts — in other words, as civilized life stripped of its virtues. In

12978-501: The shift from regular war to the carnage of civil war: popular intervention, religious demagogy, and the never-ending aspect of the conflict. ... He chose to depict cruelty through the image of hunting, which fitted with the tradition of condemning hunting for its association with blood and death, but it was still quite surprising, to the extent that this practice was part of the aristocratic way of life. Montaigne reviled hunting by describing it as an urban massacre scene. In addition,

13104-572: The side of the [French] royal army, in southwestern France. The [anti-Protestant] St. Bartholomew's Day massacre [1572] led him to retire to his lands in the Périgord region, and remain silent on all public affairs until the 1580s. Thus, it seems that he was traumatized by the massacre. To him, cruelty was a criterion that differentiated the Wars of Religion [1562–1598] from previous conflicts, which he idealized. Montaigne considered that three factors accounted for

13230-483: The supremacy of the Church of England, the prosecution of the Seven Bishops for merely petitioning the crown, the establishment of a standing army, and the imposition of cruel punishments. The bill also declared that henceforth no Roman Catholic was permitted to ascend the English throne, nor could any English monarch marry a Roman Catholic. Sentimentalism (literature) As a literary mode , sentimentalism ,

13356-563: The term noble savage in English literature occurs in John Dryden's stageplay The Conquest of Granada by the Spaniards (1672), about the troubled love of the hero Almanzor and the Moorish beauty Almahide, in which the protagonist defends his life as a free man by denying a prince's right to put him to death, because he is not a subject of the prince: I am as free as nature first made man, Ere

13482-507: The throne, and that the throne was vacant. To fill this vacancy, James's daughter Mary was declared Queen; she was to rule jointly with her husband William, Prince of Orange, who would be king. The English Parliament passed the Bill of Rights of 1689 that denounced James for abusing his power. The abuses charged to James included the suspension of the Test Acts after having sworn as king to uphold

13608-405: The title Yoriks empfindsame Reise . The translation was a great success. His word "empfindsam" or "sensitive" was a neologism that then became attached to Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and the whole literary period. German poets who verged on sentimentalism were Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1724–1803), Christian Fürchtegott Gellert (1715–1769) and Sophie de La Roche (1730–1807, the author of

13734-455: The trees spontaneously produced. These people ... were greatly surprised and alarmed by the sight of our ships and arms and retired to the mountains. But since our soldiers were curious to see the country and hunt deer, they were met by some of these savage fugitives. The leaders of the savages accosted them thus: “We abandoned for you, the pleasant sea-coast, so that we have nothing left, but these almost inaccessible mountains: at least, it

13860-426: The very best corn-lands on Earth, and saw their owners sitting around the doors of their lodges at the height of the planting season, and in as good, bright planting weather as sun and soil ever made, I could not help saying: "These people must die out — there is no help for them. God has given this earth to those who will subdue and cultivate it, and it is vain to struggle against His righteous decree." Moreover, during

13986-472: The wat'ry waste, Where slaves once more their native land behold, No fiends torment, no Christians thirst for gold! To be, contents his natural desire; He asks no angel's wing, no seraph's fire: But thinks, admitted to that equal sky, His faithful dog shall bear him company. To the English intellectual Pope, the American Indian was an abstract being unlike his insular European self; thus, from

14112-486: The will of Nature, his kindly mother, therefore he is happy. It is civilized folk who are the real barbarians. Interest in the remote peoples of the Earth, in the unfamiliar civilizations of the East, in the untutored races of America and Africa, was vivid in France in the 18th century. Everyone knows how Voltaire and Montesquieu used Hurons or Persians to hold up the [looking] glass to Western manners and morals, as Tacitus used

14238-470: Was a valorization of "fine feeling," displaying the characters as a model for refined, moral and emotional effect. Sentimentalism in literature was also often used as a medium through which authors could promote their own agendas—imploring readers to empathize with the problems they are dealing with in their books. For example, in Laurence Sterne's novel, A Sentimental Journey Through France and Italy ,

14364-539: Was chiefly religious, with the emotionally coloured keyboard music and lieder of Carl Philipp Emmanuel Bach being typical examples. Empfindsamkeit is also known as secularized pietism because it frequently came with moralizing content that had increasingly broken free of church and religious ties. An important theorist of the movement was Jean Baptiste Dubos . The musician and publisher Johann Christoph Bode translated Laurence Sterne 's novel, A sentimental Journey Through France and Italy , into German in 1768 under

14490-519: Was created Earl of Carlisle , Viscount Howard of Morpeth, and Baron Dacre of Gillesland. The present Earl is a direct descendant of this Cromwellian creation and Restoration recreation. On 6 January 1661, about 50 Fifth Monarchists , headed by a wine-cooper named Thomas Venner , tried to gain possession of London in the name of "King Jesus". Most were either killed or taken prisoner; on 19 and 21 January 1661, Venner and 10 others were hanged, drawn and quartered for high treason . The Church of England

14616-609: Was dissolved by Charles II in January 1661, and he summoned his first parliament in Ireland in May 1661. In 1662, 29 May was made a public holiday known to this day as Oak Apple Day. Coote, Broghill and Maurice Eustace were initially the main political figures in the Restoration. George Monck, Duke of Albemarle was given the position of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland but he did not assume office. In 1662 James Butler, 1st Duke of Ormonde returned as

14742-404: Was founded upon analytic principles (e.g. Immanuel Kant 's " Categorical Imperative "), these principles could not be adequately founded in the empirical nature of humans—such as observing a sad image or expressing a strong emotion physically. Therefore, one could not obtain a sound moral theory. However, by developing the moral sensibility and fine tuning the capacity to feel, a person could access

14868-472: Was infinitely above his strength ... and it is glory enough to his memory that he was instrumental in bringing those things to pass which he had neither wisdom to foresee, nor courage to attempt, nor understanding to contrive". On 4 April 1660, Charles II issued the Declaration of Breda , in which he made several promises in relation to the reclamation of the crown of England. While he did this, Monck organised

14994-504: Was invested in 1666 with the Order of the Garter (which had been bestowed upon him in 1650), and was advanced to a dukedom on 16 March 1665. The Indemnity and Oblivion Act , which became law on 29 August 1660, pardoned all past treason against the crown, but specifically excluded those involved in the trial and execution of Charles I . Thirty-one of the 59 commissioners (judges) who had signed

15120-503: Was made a public holiday, popularly known as Oak Apple Day . He was crowned at Westminster Abbey on 23 April 1661. Some contemporaries described the Restoration as "a divinely ordained miracle". The sudden and unexpected deliverance from political chaos was interpreted as a restoration of the natural and divine order. The Cavalier Parliament convened for the first time on 8 May 1661, and it would endure for over 17 years, finally being dissolved on 24 January 1679. Like its predecessor, it

15246-466: Was no longer understood as a destructive passion ( Vanitas ) but rather as a basis of social institutions, as it was for Antoine Houdar de la Motte . Requited love was, as in serious opera (the Tragédie en musique or Opera seria ), a symbol for a successful alliance between nations. The " Lesesucht " re-evaluated what was permitted literature, and the novel as a type of literature as versus drama. Around

15372-427: Was often contrasted to rationalism . While eighteenth-century rationalism corresponded itself with the development of the analytic mind as the basis for acquiring truth, sentimentalism hinged upon an intrinsic human capacity to feel and how this leads to truth. For the sentimentalist this capacity was most important in morality ( moral sense theory ). Sentimentalists contended that where the rationalists believed morality

15498-470: Was overwhelmingly Royalist . It is also known as the Pensionary Parliament for the many pensions it granted to adherents of the King. The leading political figure at the beginning of the Restoration was Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon . It was the "skill and wisdom of Clarendon" which had "made the Restoration unconditional". Many Royalist exiles returned and were rewarded. Prince Rupert of

15624-524: Was possessed of an "innate repugnance to see others of his kind suffer." Moreover, as the philosophe of the Jacobin radicals of the French Revolution (1789–1799), ideologues accused Rousseau of claiming that the mythical noble savage was a real type of man, despite the term not appearing in work written by Rousseau; in addressing The Supposed Primitivism of Rousseau’s Discourse on Inequality (1923),

15750-466: Was released and placed under Dutch protective guard. Having no desire to make James a martyr, William, Prince of Orange, let him escape on 23 December. James was received in France by his cousin and ally, Louis XIV , who offered him a palace and a pension. William convened a Convention Parliament to decide how to handle the situation. While the Parliament refused to depose James, they declared that James, having fled to France had effectively abdicated

15876-675: Was restored as the national Church in England, backed by the Clarendon Code and the Act of Uniformity 1662 . People reportedly "pranced around May poles as a way of taunting the Presbyterians and Independents" and "burned copies of the Solemn League and Covenant ". "The commonwealth parliamentary union was, after 1660, treated as null and void". As in England the republic was deemed constitutionally never to have occurred. The Convention Parliament

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