The Paxton Boys , also known as the Paxtang Boys or the Paxton Rangers , were a mob of settlers that murdered 20 unarmed Conestoga in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania , in December 1763. This group of vigilantes from Lancaster and Cumberland counties formed in 1763 to defend themselves from Indigenous attacks during Pontiac's War . The Paxton Boys justified their actions by claiming that the Conestoga were colluding with the Lenape and Shawnee who were attacking Pennsylvania's frontier settlements. According to historian Kevin Kenny, the Paxton Boys were Pennsylvania 's most aggressive colonists.
180-628: In February 1763, the Paxton Boys marched on Philadelphia with the intent of murdering the Moravian Lenape and Mohican who had been moved to that city for their protection. However, the marchers dispersed at Germantown after meeting with a delegation headed by Benjamin Franklin . Members of the group led by Lazarus Stewart later supported settlers from Connecticut in the Wyoming Valley during
360-519: A French Invasion of Hanover . The convention removed Hanover from the war, leaving the western approach to Prussian territory extremely vulnerable. Frederick sent urgent requests to Britain for more substantial assistance, as he was now without any outside military support for his forces in Germany. Things were looking grim for Prussia now, with the Austrians mobilising to attack Prussian-controlled soil and
540-729: A 24-hour particle pollution rating of D in the American Lung Association 's 2017 State of the Air report, which analyzed data from 2013 to 2015. The city was ranked 22nd for ozone, 20th for short-term particle pollution, and 11th for year-round particle pollution. According to the same report, the city experienced a significant reduction in high ozone days since 2001—from nearly 50 days per year to fewer than 10—along with fewer days of high particle pollution since 2000—from about 19 days per year to about 3—and an approximate 30% reduction in annual levels of particle pollution since 2000. Five of
720-545: A Russian army of 43,000 commanded by Count William Fermor . Both sides suffered heavy casualties—the Prussians 12,800, the Russians 18,000—but the Russians withdrew, and Frederick claimed victory. The American historian Daniel Marston described Zorndorf as a "draw" as both sides were too exhausted and had taken such losses that neither wished to fight another battle with the other. In the undecided Battle of Tornow on 25 September,
900-495: A bachelor's degree or higher. 23.9% spoke a language other than English at home, the most common of which was Spanish (10.8%). 15.0% of the populations foreign born, roughly half of whom are naturalized U.S. citizens. 3.7% of the population are veterans. The median household income was $ 52,889 and 22.8% of the population lived in poverty. 49.5% of the population drove alone to work, while 23.2% used public transit, 8.2% carpooled, 7.9% walked, and 7.0% worked from home. The average commute
1080-512: A battle, Russian generals did not wish to risk another battle knowing resupply would be a long time coming. This long-standing weakness was evident in the Russian-Ottoman War of 1735–1739, where Russian battle victories led to only modest war gains due to problems supplying their armies. The Russian quartermasters department had not improved, so the same problems reoccurred in Prussia. Still,
1260-403: A budget of $ 371 million. The Philadelphia Parking Authority is responsible for ensuring adequate parking for city residents, businesses, and visitors. Philadelphia's architectural history dates back to colonial times and includes a wide range of styles. The earliest structures were constructed with logs , but brick structures were common by 1700. During the 18th century, the cityscape
1440-467: A city on the Delaware River to serve as a port and place for government. Hoping that Philadelphia would become more like an English rural town instead of a city, Penn laid out roads on a grid plan to keep houses and businesses spread far apart with areas for gardens and orchards . The city's inhabitants did not follow Penn's plans, however, and instead crowded the present-day Port of Philadelphia on
1620-531: A combined French and Reichsarmee force under Prince Soubise approaching from the west. The Reichsarmee was a collection of armies from the smaller German states that had banded together to heed the appeal of the Holy Roman Emperor Franz I of Austria against Frederick. However, in November and December 1757, the whole situation in Germany was reversed. First, Frederick devastated Soubise's forces at
1800-675: A commander in the Prussian Army), regrouped his army and launched a series of offensives that drove the French back across the River Rhine . Ferdinand's forces kept Prussia's western flank secure for the rest of the war. The British had suffered further defeats in North America, particularly at Fort William Henry . At home, however, stability had been established. Since 1756, successive governments led by Newcastle and Pitt had fallen. In August 1757,
1980-473: A delegation to meet with the Paxton Boys. On February 7, after a day of negotiations, they agreed to disperse and to submit their grievances in writing. Two documents were submitted. The Declaration justified the killing of the Conestoga, criticized the government's failure to establish a scalp bounty, and accused the government of favoring the indigenous population over the colonists. The Remonstrance repeated
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#17328445985982160-492: A grid pattern between the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers that is aligned with their courses. The original city plan was designed to allow for easy travel and to keep residences separated by open space that would help prevent the spread of fire. In keeping with the idea of a "Greene Countrie Towne", and inspired by the many types of trees that grew in the region, Penn named many of the east–west streets for local trees. Penn planned
2340-706: A growth in its population in 2007, which continued with incremental annual increases through the present. A migration pattern has been established from New York City to Philadelphia by residents opting for a large city with relative proximity and a lower cost of living . Philadelphia's geographic center is about 40° 0′ 34″ north latitude and 75° 8′ 0″ west longitude. The 40th parallel north passes through neighborhoods in Northeast Philadelphia , North Philadelphia , and West Philadelphia including Fairmount Park . The city encompasses 142.71 square miles (369.62 km ), of which 134.18 square miles (347.52 km )
2520-622: A joint effort between former mayors John F. Street and Michael Nutter . The zoning changes were intended to rectify incorrect zoning maps to facilitate future community development, as the city forecasts an additional 100,000 residents and 40,000 jobs will be added by 2035. The Philadelphia Housing Authority (PHA) is the largest landlord in Pennsylvania. Established in 1937, the PHA is the nation's fourth-largest housing authority, serving about 81,000 people with affordable housing, while employing 1,400 on
2700-601: A moderately sunny climate with an average of 2,498 hours of sunshine annually. The percentage of sunshine ranges from 47% in December to 61% in June, July, and August. The January daily average temperature is 33.7 °F (0.9 °C). The temperature frequently rises to 50 °F (10 °C) during thaws. July averages 78.7 °F (25.9 °C). Heat waves accompanied by high humidity and heat indices are frequent, with highs reaching or exceeding 90 °F (32 °C) on 30 days of
2880-521: A population of 1,603,797 in the 2020 census . The city is the urban core of the larger Delaware Valley , also known as the Philadelphia metropolitan area, the nation's eighth-largest metropolitan area and seventh-largest combined statistical area with 6.245 million residents and 7.366 million residents, respectively. Philadelphia has played an extensive role in United States history . The city
3060-518: A reward was issued, none of the Paxton Boys were ever held accountable for the Conestoga Massacre. The reluctance of the Pennsylvania government to prosecute the perpetrators resulted in a climate in which it became acceptable to murder Indigenous people. Benjamin Franklin wrote, "the Spirit of killing all Indians, Friends and Foes, spread amazingly thro' the whole Country." The most notorious incident
3240-850: A time, row houses built elsewhere in the United States were known as "Philadelphia rows". A variety of row houses are found throughout the city, from Federal-style continuous blocks in Old City and Society Hill to Victorian-style homes in North Philadelphia to twin row houses in West Philadelphia . While newer homes have been built recently, much of the housing dates to the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries, which has created problems such as urban decay and vacant lots. Some neighborhoods, including Northern Liberties and Society Hill, have been rehabilitated through gentrification . As of 2014 ,
3420-487: A tomahawk. In this manner lay the whole of them, men, women and children, spread about the prison yard: shot—scalped—hacked—and cut to pieces. Following this second attack, Governor John Penn offered a substantial reward for the capture of the ringleaders involved in the massacre, but none were ever identified. Many of the residents of Lancaster County expressed sympathy towards the Paxton Boys, so no arrests occurred. In Philadelphia, however, many people were outraged about
3600-636: A town in Finland with a Swedish majority. In 1655, a Dutch military campaign led by New Netherland Director-General Peter Stuyvesant took control of the Swedish colony, ending its claim to independence. The Swedish and Finnish people settlers continued to have their own militia , religion, and court, and to enjoy substantial autonomy under the Dutch. An English fleet captured the New Netherland colony in 1664, though
3780-557: Is 31 minutes. Seven Years%27 War The Seven Years' War (1756–1763) was a global conflict involving most of the European great powers , fought primarily in Europe and the Americas . One of the opposing alliances was led by Great Britain and Prussia . The other alliance was led by France and Austria , backed by Spain , Saxony , Sweden , and Russia . Related conflicts include
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#17328445985983960-410: Is highly variable. Some winters have only light snow while others include major snowstorms. The normal seasonal snowfall averages 22.4 in (57 cm), with rare snowfalls in November or April, and rarely any sustained snow cover. Seasonal snowfall accumulation has ranged from trace amounts in 1972–73, to 78.7 inches (200 cm) in the winter of 2009–10. The city's heaviest single-storm snowfall
4140-487: Is home to five Fortune 500 corporate headquarters. Metropolitan Philadelphia ranks as one of the Big Five U.S. venture capital hubs, facilitated by its geographic proximity to both the entrepreneurial and financial ecosystems of New York City and to the federal regulatory environment of Washington, D.C. Greater Philadelphia is also a biotechnology hub. The Philadelphia Stock Exchange , owned by Nasdaq since 2008,
4320-639: Is land and 8.53 square miles (22.09 km ), or 6%, is water. Natural bodies of water include the Delaware and Schuylkill rivers, lakes in Franklin Delano Roosevelt Park , and Cobbs , Wissahickon , and Pennypack creeks. The largest artificial body of water is East Park Reservoir in Fairmount Park . The lowest point is sea level and the highest point is in Chestnut Hill , about 446 feet (136 m) above sea level on Summit Street near
4500-440: Is often ranked as the nation's best city for professional sports fans. The city has a culturally and philanthropically active LGBTQ+ community . Philadelphia also has played an immensely influential historic and ongoing role in the development and evolution of American music, especially R&B , soul , and rock . As of 2022 , the Philadelphia metropolitan area had a gross metropolitan product of US$ 518.5 billion and
4680-578: Is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the U.S. The two parks, along with the Colonial Revival , Georgian and Federal -style mansions in them, have been listed as one entity on the National Register of Historic Places since 1972. Within the Köppen climate classification , Philadelphia falls under the northern periphery of the humid subtropical climate zone (Köppen Cfa ). Within
4860-433: Is the nation's oldest stock exchange and a global leader in options trading. 30th Street Station , the city's primary rail station, is the third-busiest Amtrak hub in the nation, and the city's multimodal transportation and logistics infrastructure also includes Philadelphia International Airport , a major transatlantic gateway and transcontinental hub; the rapidly-growing PhilaPort seaport ; and Interstate 95 ,
5040-456: The 2020 U.S. Census , there were 1,603,797 people residing in Philadelphia, representing a 1.2% increase from the 2019 census estimate. The racial composition of the city was 39.3% Black alone (42.0% Black alone or in combination), 36.3% White alone (41.9% White alone or in combination), 8.7% Asian alone, 0.4% American Indian and Alaska Native alone, 8.7% some other race, and 6.9% multiracial. 14.9% of residents were Hispanic or Latino. 34.8% had
5220-813: The Battle of Brandywine in Chadds Ford Township , on September 11, 1777, during the Philadelphia campaign , the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia was defenseless and the city prepared for what was perceived to be an inevitable British attack. Because bells could easily be recast into munitions, the Liberty Bell , then known as the Pennsylvania State Bell, and bells from two Philadelphia churches, Christ Church and St. Peter's Church , were hastily taken down and transported by heavily guarded wagon train out of
5400-405: The Battle of Domstadtl that wiped out a supply convoy destined for Olmütz, Frederick broke off the siege and withdrew from Moravia. It marked the end of his final attempt to launch a major invasion of Austrian territory. In January 1758, the Russians invaded East Prussia , where the province, almost denuded of troops, put up little opposition. East Prussia had been occupied by Russian forces over
5580-510: The Battle of Rossbach on 5 November 1757 and then routed a vastly superior Austrian force at the Battle of Leuthen on 5 December 1757. Rossbach was the only battle between the French and the Prussians during the entire war. At Rossbach, the Prussians lost about 548 men killed while the Franco- Reichsarmee force under Soubise lost about 10,000 killed. Frederick always called Leuthen his greatest victory, an assessment shared by many at
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5760-612: The British Army , which was then the world's most powerful military force. Since the Declaration's July 4, 1776, adoption, its signing has been cited globally and repeatedly by various peoples of the world seeking independence and liberty. It also has been, since its adoption, the basis for annual celebration by Americans; in 1938, this celebration of the Declaration was formalized as Independence Day , one of only eleven designated U.S. federal holidays . After George Washington 's defeat at
5940-594: The Delaware River watershed , western Long Island , and the Lower Hudson Valley . Most Lenape were pushed out of the region during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, exacerbated by losses from intertribal conflicts. Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox , and conflict with Europeans. The Iroquois occasionally fought the Lenape. Surviving Lenape moved west into
6120-665: The Diplomatic Revolution . In the War of the Austrian Succession , which lasted from 1740 to 1748, Prussian King Frederick II , known as Frederick the Great, seized the prosperous province of Silesia from Austria. Empress Maria Theresa of Austria had signed the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748 in order to gain time to rebuild her military forces and forge new alliances. The War of
6300-667: The Eastern Mediterranean during the Greek and Roman periods, including modern Alaşehir , mentioned as the site of an early Christian congregation in the Book of Revelation . As a Quaker , Penn had experienced religious persecution and wanted his colony to be a place where anyone could worship freely. This tolerance, which exceeded that of other colonies, led to better relations with the local native tribes and fostered Philadelphia's rapid growth into America's most important city. Penn planned
6480-566: The Great Migration from the South . By the 20th century, Philadelphia had an entrenched Republican political machine and a complacent population. In 1910, a general strike shut down the entire city. In 1917, following outrage over the election-year murder of a Philadelphia police officer, led to the shrinking of the City Council from two houses to just one. In July 1919, Philadelphia
6660-590: The Liberty Bell , and hosting the Second Continental Congress during which the nation's 56 founders formed the Continental Army and elected George Washington as its commander in 1775, and unanimously adopted the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. For nine months, from September 1777 to June 1778, the city fell under British occupation during the war's Philadelphia campaign . In 1787,
6840-568: The Pennamite-Yankee War . Ogden arrived in the valley in January 1769 and established a fort which became known as Fort Ogden. In February, the settlers from Connecticut arrived, followed a few months later by a second group led by John Durkee. As a counter to Fort Ogden, the newcomers constructed fortified houses surrounded by a stockade which they named Fort Durkee. In November, however, Ogden captured Fort Durkee and expelled or arrested most of
7020-667: The Pennamite-Yankee Wars and the Revolutionary War . The Paxton Boys were drawn from Scots-Irish Presbyterians who lived in the hill country northwest of Lancaster and across the Susquehanna River in Cumberland County . Many of these settlers were squatters encroaching on Indigenous territory. As a result, the Lenape and Shawnee targeted their scattered farms during Pontiac's War. Reverend John Elder , who
7200-544: The Second Continental Congress , which adopted the Declaration of Independence in what was then called the Pennsylvania State House and was later renamed Independence Hall. Historian Joseph Ellis , in 2007, described the Declaration of Independence, written predominantly by Thomas Jefferson , as "the most potent and consequential words in American history," and its adoption represented a declaration of war against
7380-475: The Trewartha climate classification , Philadelphia has a temperate maritime climate ( Do ) limited to the north by the continental climate ( Dc ). Summers are typically hot and muggy. Fall and spring are generally mild, and winter is moderately cold. The plant life hardiness zones are 7a and 7b, reflecting an average annual extreme minimum temperature between 0 and 10 °F (−18 and −12 °C). Snowfall
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7560-653: The U.S. Constitution was ratified in Philadelphia at the Philadelphia Convention . Philadelphia remained the nation's largest city until 1790, and it served as the nation's first capital from May 10, 1775, until December 12, 1776, and on four subsequent occasions until 1800, when construction of the new national capital in Washington, D.C. was completed. Philadelphia maintains extensive contemporary influence in business and industry , culture , sports , and music . With 17 four-year universities and colleges in
7740-599: The early modern period was characterised by the widespread adoption of firearms in combination with more traditional bladed weapons . Eighteenth-century European armies were built around units of massed infantry armed with smoothbore flintlock muskets and bayonets . Cavalrymen were equipped with sabres and pistols or carbines ; light cavalry were used principally for reconnaissance , screening and tactical communications , while heavy cavalry were used as tactical reserves and deployed for shock attacks . Smoothbore artillery provided fire support and played
7920-448: The world's 54th-largest urban park . Philadelphia is known for its arts, culture , cuisine , and colonial and Revolutionary-era history; in 2016, it attracted 42 million domestic tourists who spent $ 6.8 billion, representing $ 11 billion in economic impact to the city and its surrounding Pennsylvania counties. With five professional sports teams and one of the nation's most loyal and passionate fan bases, Philadelphia
8100-572: The "ancient tongue." The population shrank as some families migrated west to the Ohio Country or returned north to the Iroquois homeland. In 1718, Provincial Secretary James Logan ordered a 16,000-acre tract of land that encompassed the village surveyed. Known as Conestoga Manor, the tract was held by William Penn and his heirs but set aside for the use of the Conestoga. In 1730, a group of Scots-Irish squatters occupied Conestoga Manor, declaring that it
8280-527: The 1754 to 1763 French and Indian War , and 1762 to 1763 Anglo-Spanish War . The War of the Austrian Succession ended in 1748, but failed to resolve ongoing tensions between the European powers. Continuing colonial disputes between Britain and France in North America resulted in the outbreak of the French and Indian War in 1754. Following the realignment of traditional alliances in the so-called 1756 Diplomatic Revolution , Prussia allied with Britain, while
8460-490: The 1980s. Historic areas such as Old City and Society Hill were renovated during the reformist mayoral era of the 1950s through the 1980s, making both areas among the most desirable Center City neighborhoods. Immigrants from around the world began to enter the U.S. through Philadelphia as their gateway, leading to a reversal of the city's population decline between 1950 and 2000, during which it lost about 25 percent of its residents. Philadelphia eventually began experiencing
8640-649: The 2 square miles (5.2 km ) of Center City to the roughly 134 square miles (350 km ) of Philadelphia County . In the latter half of the 19th century and leading into the 20th century, immigrants from Russia, Eastern Europe, and Italy, and African Americans from the southern U.S. settled in the city. Philadelphia was represented by the Washington Grays in the American Civil War . The African-American population of Philadelphia increased from 31,699 to 219,559 between 1880 and 1930, largely stemming from
8820-452: The Acadians . In July, British Major General Edward Braddock led about 2,000 army troops and provincial militia on an expedition to retake Fort Duquesne, but the expedition ended in disastrous defeat. In further action, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on 8 June 1755 , capturing it and two troop ships. In September 1755, British colonial and French troops met in
9000-426: The Austrian Succession had seen the belligerents aligned on a time-honoured basis. France's traditional enemies, Great Britain and Austria , had coalesced just as they had done against Louis XIV. Prussia , the leading anti-Austrian state in Germany, had been supported by France. Neither group, however, found much reason to be satisfied with its partnership: British subsidies to Austria produced nothing of much help to
9180-536: The Black Boys, led by James Smith . In March 1765 at Sideling Hill , Smith and his followers attacked a pack train moving goods intended for the Native trade to Fort Pitt . Included among the blankets, shirts, beads, and liquor were "war goods" such as vermillion , lead, tomahawks, and scalping knives. The attackers burned the goods, and because they had blackened their faces to disguise their identities, they became known as
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#17328445985989360-529: The Black Boys. Another attack followed in May on a pack train transporting goods for the garrison at Fort Pitt. When British soldiers from Fort Loudoun went to investigate, they were fired upon but suffered no casualties. Fort Loudoun was later besieged when the British commander refused to return confiscated weapons. Much like the Paxton Boys, none of the Black Boys were ever indicted. The Wyoming Valley , located along
9540-665: The British settlers wanted access to the fertile land of the Ohio River Valley for the new settlers that were flooding into the British colonies seeking farmland. The most important French fort planned was intended to occupy a position at "the Forks", where the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers meet to form the Ohio River in present-day Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania. Peaceful British attempts to halt this fort construction were unsuccessful, and
9720-566: The British, while the British military effort had not saved Silesia for Austria. Prussia, having secured Silesia, came to terms with Austria in disregard of French interests. Even so, France concluded a defensive alliance with Prussia in 1747, and the maintenance of the Anglo-Austrian alignment after 1748 was deemed essential by the Duke of Newcastle , British secretary of state in the ministry of his brother Henry Pelham . The collapse of that system and
9900-433: The Connecticut settlers. Meanwhile the Susquehanna Company began offering land to disaffected Pennsylvanians. In December 1769, Lazurus Stewart agreed to bring the Paxton Boys to the Wyoming Valley in exchange for land. Two months later, Stewart accompanied by Susquehanna Company agent Zebulon Butler and about forty of the Paxton Boys set out for the Wyoming Valley. They captured and razed Fort Ogden, plundered and destroyed
10080-400: The Delaware River and subdivided and resold their lots. Before Penn left Philadelphia for the final time, he issued the Charter of 1701 establishing it as a city. Though poor at first, Philadelphia became an important trading center with tolerable living conditions by the 1750s. Benjamin Franklin , a leading citizen, helped improve city services and founded new ones that were among the first in
10260-477: The Dutch wished to remain fully neutral. Despite the huge disparity in numbers, the year had been successful for the Prussian-led forces on the continent, in contrast to the British campaigns in North America. On 18 April 1757, Frederick II again took the initiative by marching into the Kingdom of Bohemia , hoping to inflict a decisive defeat on Austrian forces. After winning the bloody Battle of Prague on 6 May 1757, in which both forces suffered major casualties,
10440-458: The Elder , who entered the cabinet in 1756, had a grand vision for the war that made it entirely different from previous wars with France. As prime minister, Pitt committed Britain to a grand strategy of seizing the entire French Empire, especially its possessions in North America and India. Britain's main weapon was the Royal Navy, which could control the seas and bring as many invasion troops as were needed. He also planned to use colonial forces from
10620-430: The European powers was centred on the desire of Austria to recover Silesia from Prussia. The Treaty of Hubertusburg ended the war between Saxony, Austria, and Prussia in 1763. France's supremacy in Europe was halted, while Prussia confirmed its status as a great power, challenging Austria for dominance within the Holy Roman Empire , thus altering the European balance of power . In the historiography of some countries,
10800-439: The European war went well, by its end France had few counterbalancing European successes. The British—by inclination as well as for practical reasons—had tended to avoid large-scale commitments of troops on the continent. They sought to offset the disadvantage of this in Europe by allying themselves with one or more continental powers whose interests were antithetical to those of their enemies, particularly France. By subsidising
10980-414: The French began constructing a chain of forts in the Ohio River Valley to assert their claim and shield the Native American population from increasing British influence. The British settlers along the coast were upset that French troops would now be close to the western borders of their colonies. They felt the French would encourage their tribal allies among the North American natives to attack them. Also,
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#173284459859811160-509: The French proceeded to build the fort they named Fort Duquesne . British colonial militia from Virginia accompanied by Chief Tanacharison and a small number of Mingo warriors were sent to drive them out. Led by George Washington , they ambushed a small French force at Jumonville Glen on 28 May 1754 killing ten, including commander Joseph Coulon de Jumonville . The French retaliated by attacking Washington's army at Fort Necessity on 3 July 1754 and forced Washington to surrender. These were
11340-400: The Imperial Russian Army was a new threat to Prussia. Not only was Frederick forced to break off his invasion of Bohemia, he was also now forced to withdraw further into Prussian-controlled territory. His defeats on the battlefield brought still more opportunistic nations into the war. Sweden declared war on Prussia and invaded Pomerania with 17,000 men. Sweden felt this small army was all that
11520-438: The Indians, which had been frequently, but without effect, urged, this painful catastrophe might have been avoided. What could I do with men heated to madness? All that I could do was done. I expostulated; but life and reason were set at defiance. Yet the men in private life are virtuous and respectable; not cruel, but mild and merciful. The time will arrive when each palliating circumstance will be weighed. This deed, magnified into
11700-405: The Lancaster workhouse . Angry that many of the Conestoga had escaped, the Paxton Boys rode into Lancaster two weeks later. Elder appeared before the angry mob and tried to restrain them, but to little effect. On December 27, 1763, under the leadership of Smith and Stewart, the Paxton Boys broke into the workhouse and killed, scalped, and dismembered all fourteen of the surviving Conestoga, including
11880-434: The North Branch of the Susquehanna River in Northeastern Pennsylvania , was claimed by both Pennsylvania and Connecticut . In 1768, Pennsylvania acted upon its claim and hired land speculator Amos Ogden to bring in settlers and defend the valley against intruders from Connecticut. At the same time the directors of Connecticut's Susquehanna Company voted to send forty settlers to the valley. These competing land claims triggered
12060-402: The Ottoman Empire. They also agreed to a secret clause that promised the restoration of Silesia and the countship of Glatz (now Kłodzko , Poland) to Austria in the event of hostilities with Prussia. Their real desire, however, was to destroy Frederick's power altogether, reducing his sway to his electorate of Brandenburg and giving East Prussia to Poland, an exchange that would be accompanied by
12240-497: The Paxton Boys to surrender was rebuked. During the siege, a third attempt was made to arrest Stewart, during which Nathan Ogden, the brother of Amos Ogden, was ambushed and killed. Stewart abandoned Fort Durkee and escaped to Connecticut with several of his followers. The victorious Pennsylvanians destroyed Fort Durkee and took control of the Wyoming Valley. In early July 1771, however, one hundred men under Butler and Stewart returned and laid siege to Fort Wyoming. Ogden slipped through
12420-488: The Pennsylvania government to allow his rangers to take offensive action. Citing their Presbyterian faith, the leaders of the Paxton Boys declared that the "Indians" were " Canaanites " and needed to be destroyed. The Paxton Boys struggled with the idea of "friendly" indigenous groups and insisted that “the distinction between 'friendly' and 'enemy' Indians was invalid. All Indians were enemies and must be treated accordingly.” The Paxton Boys also despised some Whites, especially
12600-529: The Pennsylvania government. The population continued to decline; by 1763, only seven men, five women, and eight children remained at Conestoga Town. Tenseedaagua (Will Sock), a prominent member of the Conestoga, became a target of the Paxton Boys due to unsubstantiated claims that he was providing aid and intelligence to the Lenape and Shawnee. Matthew Smith, along with five companions, decided to visit Conestoga Town and investigate. Upon their return, Smith claimed that he had seen "dozens of strange, armed Indians" in
12780-470: The Prussians forced the Austrians back into the fortifications of Prague. The Prussian army then laid siege to the city . In response, Austrian commander Leopold von Daun collected a force of 30,000 men to come to the relief of Prague. Following the battle at Prague, Frederick took 5,000 troops from the siege at Prague and sent them to reinforce the 19,000-man army under the Duke of Brunswick-Bevern at Kolín in Bohemia. Daun arrived too late to participate in
12960-454: The Russians under Field Marshal Apraksin besieged Memel with 75,000 troops. Memel had one of the strongest fortresses in Prussia. However, after five days of artillery bombardment, the Russian army was able to storm it. The Russians then used Memel as a base to invade East Prussia and defeated a smaller Prussian force in the fiercely contested Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf on 30 August 1757. In
13140-521: The Saxons. At the Battle of Lobositz on 1 October 1756, Frederick stumbled into one of the embarrassments of his career. Severely underestimating a reformed Austrian army under General Maximilian Ulysses Browne, he found himself outmanoeuvred and outgunned, and at one point in the confusion even ordered his troops to fire on retreating Prussian cavalry. Frederick actually fled the field of battle, leaving Field Marshall Keith in command. Browne, however, also left
13320-753: The Second Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation on November 15, 1777, and the city later served as the meeting place for the Constitutional Convention , which ratified the Constitution in Independence Hall in Philadelphia on September 17, 1787. Philadelphia served as capital of the United States for much of the colonial and early post-colonial periods, including for a decade, from 1790 to 1800, while Washington, D.C. ,
13500-654: The Swedish invasion. In short order, the Prussian army drove the Swedes back, occupied most of Swedish Pomerania , and blockaded its capital Stralsund . George II of Great Britain , on the advice of his British ministers after the battle of Rossbach, revoked the Convention of Klosterzeven, and Hanover reentered the war. Over the winter the new commander of the Hanoverian forces, Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick (until immediately before
13680-578: The United States after Midtown Manhattan in New York City. Philadelphia's neighborhoods are divided into six large sections that surround Center City: North Philadelphia , Northeast Philadelphia , South Philadelphia , Southwest Philadelphia , West Philadelphia , and Northwest Philadelphia . The city's geographic boundaries have been largely unchanged since these neighborhoods were consolidated in 1854. However, each of these large areas contains numerous neighborhoods, some of whose boundaries derive from
13860-666: The Wyoming Valley sided with the Patriots during the American Revolution. In late June 1778, a strong force of Loyalist troops and Iroquois under Major John Butler approached the Wyoming Valley from the north. In response, a Patriot militia headed by Lieutenant Colonel Zebulon Butler , who was home on leave from the Continental Army at the time, assembled at Forty Fort . Colonel Butler favored delay, as he anticipated
14040-593: The accusation of favoritism and the demand for a scalp bounty, but also insisted that the Moravian Lenape and Mohican were enemies of Pennsylvania. According to the authors of the Remonstrance , "all Indians were perfidious and deserving of annihilation during wartime." The documents were submitted to Governor Penn and the Assembly; however, the only action taken was the creation of a scalp bounty later that year. Although
14220-428: The aligning of France with Austria and of Great Britain with Prussia constituted what is known as the " Diplomatic Revolution " or the "reversal of alliances". In 1756 Austria was making military preparations for war with Prussia and pursuing an alliance with Russia for this purpose. On 2 June 1756, Austria and Russia concluded a defensive alliance that covered their own territory and Poland against attack by Prussia or
14400-460: The almost continuous level of worldwide conflict between France and Great Britain during the entire 18th century, reminiscent of the Hundred Years' War of the 14th and 15th centuries. The boundary between British and French possessions in North America was largely undefined in the 1750s. France had long claimed the entire Mississippi River basin. This was disputed by Britain. In the early 1750s
14580-652: The armies of continental allies, Britain could turn London's enormous financial power to military advantage . In the Seven Years' War, the British chose as their principal partner the most brilliant general of the day, Frederick the Great of Prussia, then the rising power in central Europe, and paid Frederick substantial subsidies for his campaigns. This was accomplished in the Diplomatic Revolution of 1756, in which Britain ended its long-standing alliance with Austria in favour of Prussia, leaving Austria to side with France. In marked contrast to France, Britain strove to prosecute
14760-518: The arrival of reinforcements, but Stewart (who had taken over command of the company from Hanover Township) insisted that they should immediately attack and drive off the enemy. The militia and a company of Continentals marched out on July 3, 1778, and encountered the enemy a few miles upriver. During the Battle of Wyoming, a flanking maneuver by the Iroquois panicked the militia and routed them. Stewart died in
14940-580: The attempt to satisfy Austria at the time, Britain gave their electoral vote in Hanover for the candidacy of Maria Theresa's son, Joseph II , as the Holy Roman Emperor, much to the dismay of Frederick and Prussia. Not only that, Britain would soon join the Austro-Russian alliance, but complications arose. Britain's basic framework for the alliance itself was to protect Hanover's interests against France. At
15120-453: The battle of Prague, but picked up 16,000 men who had escaped from the battle. With this army he slowly moved to relieve Prague. The Prussian army was too weak to simultaneously besiege Prague and keep Daun away, and Frederick was forced to attack prepared positions. The resulting Battle of Kolín was a sharp defeat for Frederick, his first. His losses further forced him to lift the siege and withdraw from Bohemia altogether. Later that summer,
15300-563: The battle. The men who were wounded or taken prisoner as they fled the battlefield were killed by the Iroquois in what is commonly known as the Wyoming Massacre. Each of these books references the Paxton Boys: Philadelphia Philadelphia , colloquially referred to as Philly , is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the sixth-most populous city in the United States , with
15480-461: The blackest of crimes, shall be considered as one of those ebullitions of wrath, caused by momentary excitement, to which human infirmity is subjected. A month before the Conestoga Massacre, the peaceable Moravian Lenape and Mohican who lived near Bethlehem had been moved to Province Island near Philadelphia for their protection. Following the massacre Governor Penn ordered a relocation to New York . The governor of New York, however, refused to accept
15660-565: The border of Saxony, one of the small German states in league with Austria. He intended this as a bold pre-emption of an anticipated Austro-French invasion of Silesia. He had three goals in his new war on Austria. First, he would seize Saxony and eliminate it as a threat to Prussia, then use the Saxon army and treasury to aid the Prussian war effort. His second goal was to advance into Bohemia, where he might set up winter quarters at Austria's expense. Thirdly, he wanted to invade Moravia from Silesia, seize
15840-464: The boroughs, townships, and other communities that constituted Pennsylvania County before their inclusion within the city. The City Planning Commission , tasked with guiding growth and development of the city, has divided the city into 18 planning districts as part of the Philadelphia2035 physical development plan. Much of the city's 1980 zoning code was overhauled from 2007 to 2012 as part of
16020-588: The brief occupation of Düsseldorf , he was compelled by the successful manoeuvering of larger French forces to withdraw across the Rhine. By this point Frederick was increasingly concerned by the Russian advance from the east and marched to counter it. Just east of the Oder in Brandenburg- Neumark , at the Battle of Zorndorf (now Sarbinowo, Poland), a Prussian army of 35,000 men under Frederick on 25 August 1758, fought
16200-456: The cession of the Polish Duchy of Courland to Russia. Alexey Bestuzhev-Ryumin , grand chancellor of Russia under Empress Elizabeth , was hostile to both France and Prussia, but he could not persuade Austrian statesman Wenzel Anton von Kaunitz to commit to offensive designs against Prussia so long as Prussia was able to rely on French support. The Hanoverian King George II of Great Britain
16380-575: The city for its outlying railroad commuting towns and newer housing. The resulting reduction in Philadelphia's tax base and the resources of local government caused the city to struggle through a long period of adjustment, and it approached bankruptcy by the late 1980s. In 1985, the MOVE Bombing of the Cobbs Creek neighborhood by city helicopters occurred, killing 11 and destroying 61 homes. Revitalization and gentrification of neighborhoods began in
16560-517: The city's 17th century founding through the present, Philadelphia has been the birthplace or home to an extensive number of prominent and influential Americans . Prior to the arrival of Europeans in the early 17th century, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon . They were also called the Delaware Indians, and their historical territory was along
16740-456: The city's director of public safety, but political pressure still prevented long-term success in fighting crime and corruption. In 1940, non-Hispanic whites constituted 86.8% of the city's population. In 1950, the population peaked at more than two million residents, then began to decline with the restructuring of industry that led to the loss of many middle-class union jobs. In addition, suburbanization enticed many affluent residents to depart
16920-399: The city's tallest building. The Comcast Technology Center was completed in 2018, reaching a height of 1,121 ft (342 m), as the tallest building in the United States outside of Manhattan and Chicago. For much of Philadelphia's history, the typical home has been the row house . The row house was introduced to the United States via Philadelphia in the early 19th century and, for
17100-511: The city's total park space, including municipal, state, and federal parks in the city, amounts to 11,211 acres (17.5 sq mi). Philadelphia's largest park is Fairmount Park , which includes the Philadelphia Zoo and encompasses 2,052 acres (3.2 sq mi) of the total parkland. Fairmount Park's adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park contains 2,042 acres (3.2 sq mi). Fairmount Park, when combined with Wissahickon Valley Park,
17280-403: The city, Philadelphia is one of the nation's leading centers for higher education and academic research . The city is a national cultural center, hosting more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other city in the nation. Fairmount Park , when combined with adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the same watershed , is 2,052 acres (830 ha), representing one of the nation's largest and
17460-676: The city. The Liberty Bell was taken to Zion German Reformed Church in Northampton Town, which is present-day Allentown , where it was hidden under the church's floor boards for nine months from September 1777 until the British Army's departure from Philadelphia in June 1778. Two Revolutionary War battles, the Siege of Fort Mifflin , fought between September 26 and November 16, 1777, and the Battle of Germantown , fought on October 4, 1777, took place within Philadelphia's city limits. In Philadelphia,
17640-443: The cold season, resuming their campaigns with the return of spring. For much of the eighteenth century, France approached its wars in the same way. It would let colonies defend themselves or would offer only minimal help (sending them limited numbers of troops or inexperienced soldiers), anticipating that fights for the colonies would most likely be lost anyway. This strategy was to a degree forced upon France: geography, coupled with
17820-590: The colonies made it a natural center for America's revolutionaries . By the 1750s, Philadelphia surpassed Boston as the largest city and busiest port in British America , and the second-largest city in the entire British Empire after London . In 1774, as resentment of British colonial practices and support for independence was burgeoning in the colonies, Philadelphia hosted the First Continental Congress . From 1775 to 1781, Philadelphia hosted
18000-466: The colony. Penn made a treaty of friendship with Lenape chief Tammany under an elm tree at Shackamaxon , in what is now the city's Fishtown neighborhood. Penn named the city Philadelphia, which is Greek for "brotherly love", derived from the Ancient Greek terms φίλος phílos (beloved, dear) and ἀδελφός adelphós (brother, brotherly). There were a number of cities named Philadelphia in
18180-475: The continent, hoping for victories closer to home. The plan was to fight to the end of hostilities and then, in treaty negotiations, to trade territorial acquisitions in Europe to regain lost overseas possessions (as had happened in, e.g. , the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye and the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ). This approach did not serve France well in the war, as the colonies were indeed lost, and although much of
18360-402: The country, and the first Black Episcopal Church . The free Black community also established many schools for its children with the help of Quakers . Large-scale construction projects for new roads, canals , and railroads made Philadelphia the first major industrial city in the United States. Throughout the 19th century, Philadelphia hosted a variety of industries and businesses; the largest
18540-486: The creation of five public parks in the city which were renamed in 1824. Centre Square was renamed Penn Square ; Northeast Square was renamed Franklin Square ; Southeast Square was renamed Washington Square ; Southwest Square was renamed Rittenhouse Square ; and Northwest Square was renamed Logan Circle/Square . Center City had an estimated 183,240 residents as of 2015 , making it the second-most populated downtown area in
18720-538: The existence of the Secret du Roi —a system of private diplomacy conducted by King Louis XV. Unbeknownst to his foreign minister, Louis had established a network of agents throughout Europe with the goal of pursuing personal political objectives that were often at odds with France's publicly stated policies. Louis's goals for le Secret du roi included the Polish crown for his kinsman Louis François de Bourbon, Prince of Conti , and
18900-532: The field, in a vain attempt to meet up with an isolated Saxon army holed up in the fortress at Pirna. As the Prussians technically remained in control of the field of battle, Frederick, in a masterful coverup, claimed Lobositz as a Prussian victory. The Prussians then occupied Saxony; after the siege of Pirna , the Saxon army surrendered in October 1756, and was forcibly incorporated into the Prussian army. The attack on neutral Saxony caused outrage across Europe and led to
19080-519: The first British troop commitment on the continent and a reversal in the policy of Pitt. Ferdinand's Hanoverian army, supplemented by some Prussian troops, had succeeded in driving the French from Hanover and Westphalia and re-captured the port of Emden in March 1758 before crossing the Rhine with his own forces, which caused alarm in France. Despite Ferdinand's victory over the French at the Battle of Krefeld and
19260-420: The first engagements of what would become the worldwide Seven Years' War. Britain and France failed to negotiate a solution after receiving news about this in Europe. The two countries eventually sent regular troops to North America to enforce their claims. The first British action was the assault on Acadia on 16 June 1755 in the Battle of Fort Beauséjour , which was immediately followed by their expulsion of
19440-600: The first modern International Style skyscraper in the United States, the PSFS Building , designed by George Howe and William Lescaze . The 548 ft (167 m) City Hall remained the tallest building in the city until 1987 when One Liberty Place was completed. Numerous glass and granite skyscrapers were built in Center City beginning in the late 1980s. In 2007, the Comcast Center surpassed One Liberty Place to become
19620-474: The first official World's fair in the U.S. Immigrants, mostly from Ireland and Germany, settled in Philadelphia and the surrounding districts. These immigrants were largely responsible for the first general strike in North America in 1835, in which workers in the city won the ten-hour workday. The city was a destination for thousands of Irish immigrants fleeing the Great Famine in the 1840s; housing for them
19800-530: The fortress at Olmütz, and advance on Vienna to force an end to the war. Accordingly, leaving Field Marshal Count Kurt von Schwerin in Silesia with 25,000 soldiers to guard against incursions from Moravia and Hungary, and leaving Field Marshal Hans von Lehwaldt in East Prussia to guard against Russian invasion from the east, Frederick set off with his army for Saxony. The Prussian army marched in three columns. On
19980-483: The houses of Pennsylvania settlers, and reoccupied Fort Durkee. In September 1770, a surprise assault by Pennsylvanian forces under Ogden retook Fort Durkee. Three months later, Stewart, having twice escaped arrest in Lancaster County, returned with the Paxton Boys and recaptured the fort. A month later, Ogden's forces reentered the valley, besieged Fort Durkee, and began construction of Fort Wyoming. Their demand for
20160-605: The inconclusive Battle of Lake George . The British also harassed French shipping beginning in August 1755, seizing hundreds of ships and capturing thousands of merchant seamen while the two nations were nominally at peace. Incensed, France prepared to attack Hanover, whose prince-elector was also the King of Great Britain and Menorca . Britain concluded a treaty whereby Prussia agreed to protect Hanover. In response France concluded an alliance with its long-time enemy Austria, an event known as
20340-604: The intersection of Germantown Avenue and Bethlehem Pike at: 40.07815 N, 75.20747 W. Philadelphia is located on the Atlantic Seaboard Fall Line that separates the Atlantic Plain from the Piedmont . The Schuylkill River's rapids at East Falls were inundated by completion of the dam at Fairmount Water Works . The city is the seat of its own county . The city is bordered by six adjacent counties: Montgomery to
20520-400: The island was captured on 28 June (for which Admiral Byng was court-martialed and executed). Britain formally declared war on France on 17 May, nearly two years after fighting had broken out in the Ohio Country . Frederick II of Prussia had received reports of the clashes in North America and had formed an alliance with Great Britain . On 29 August 1756, he led Prussian troops across
20700-432: The land. Conestoga Town became a small but noteworthy Indigenous settlement. A major fur-trading center in the early 18th century, it was the site of many negotiations and treaties between colonial governments and various Indigenous groups. Its importance, however, declined in the 1730s due to the influx of European settlers. By this time Seneca had become the dominant language, with only a few Conestoga still able to speak
20880-551: The last occurrence of such a temperature being July 21, 2019. The lowest officially recorded temperature was −11 °F (−24 °C) on February 9, 1934. Temperatures at or below 0 °F (−18 °C) are rare, with the last such occurrence being January 19, 1994 . The record low maximum is 5 °F (−15 °C) on February 10, 1899, and December 30, 1880. The record high minimum is 83 °F (28 °C) on July 23, 2011, and July 24, 2010. See or edit raw graph data . Philadelphia County received an ozone grade of F and
21060-540: The late 1970s and continues into the 21st century with much of the development occurring in the Center City and University City neighborhoods. But this expanded a shortage of affordable housing in the city. After many manufacturers and businesses left Philadelphia or shut down, the city started attracting service businesses and began to market itself more aggressively as a tourist destination. Contemporary glass-and-granite skyscrapers were built in Center City beginning in
21240-465: The leading role in siege warfare . Strategic warfare in this period centred around control of key fortifications positioned so as to command the surrounding regions and roads, with lengthy sieges a common feature of armed conflict. Decisive field battles were relatively rare. The Seven Years' War, like most European wars of the eighteenth century, was fought as a so-called cabinet war in which disciplined regular armies were equipped and supplied by
21420-415: The lines at night and obtained reinforcements in Philadelphia. Stewart ambushed the relief force but most managed to reach the fort. After a month-long siege, Fort Wyoming capitulated, and for the next four years the Wyoming Valley enjoyed relative peace. The Pennamite-Yankee War resumed in 1775, when a Pennsylvania force of several hundred men under Colonel William Plunket approached the Wyoming Valley from
21600-414: The little village. Elder sent a written message to dissuade any violence, but it had little effect. At daybreak on December 14, 1763, roughly 50 Paxton Boys attacked Conestoga Town, killed and scalped the six Conestoga they found there, and set the buildings ablaze. Will Sock was one of fourteen Conestoga who had been away from Conestoga Town when the attack occurred. He and the others were given refuge in
21780-594: The long running French–Habsburg rivalry ended when Austria signed a treaty with France. Spain entered the war on the French side in 1762, unsuccessfully attempting to invade Britain's ally Portugal in what became known as the Fantastic War . Spain lost Havana in Cuba and Manila in the Philippines to Britain, but they were returned in the 1763 Treaty of Paris . In Europe, the large-scale conflict that drew in most of
21960-530: The maintenance of Poland, Sweden, and the Ottoman Empire as French allies in opposition to Russian and Austrian interests. Frederick saw Saxony and Polish west Prussia as potential fields for expansion, but could not expect French support if he started an aggressive war for them. If he joined the French against the British in the hope of annexing Hanover, he might fall victim to an Austro-Russian attack. The hereditary elector of Saxony, Frederick Augustus II ,
22140-444: The middle of the gaol yard, along the west side of the wall, lay a stout Indian, whom I particularly noticed to have been shot in the breast, his legs were chopped with the tomahawk, his hands cut off, and finally a rifle ball discharged in his mouth; so that his head was blown to atoms, and the brains were splashed against, and yet hanging to the wall, for three or four feet around. This man's hands and feet had also been chopped off with
22320-626: The murders, describing the massacre as more savage than those committed by Native Americans. Benjamin Franklin 's "Narrative of the Late Massacres" noted that the Conestoga would have been safe "among any other people on earth, no matter how primitive, except 'the Christian white savages' of Peckstang and Donegall!" Elder, who was not directly implicated in either attack, wrote to Governor Penn on January 27, 1764: The storm which had been so long gathering, has, at length, exploded. Had Government removed
22500-619: The name Pommerska kriget (the Pomeranian War ), as the Sweden–Prussia conflict between 1757 and 1762 was limited to Pomerania in northern central Germany. The Third Silesian War involved Prussia and Austria (1756–1763). On the Indian subcontinent, the conflict is called the Third Carnatic War (1757–1763). The term " Second Hundred Years' War " has been used in order to describe
22680-927: The nation, including a fire company , library , and hospital . A number of philosophical societies were formed, which were centers of the city's intellectual life, including the Philadelphia Society for Promoting Agriculture (1785), the Pennsylvania Society for the Encouragement of Manufactures and the Useful Arts (1787), the Academy of Natural Sciences (1812), and the Franklin Institute (1824). These societies developed and financed new industries that attracted skilled and knowledgeable immigrants from Europe. Philadelphia's importance and central location in
22860-510: The new threat on their doorstep, and Austria was anxious to regain Silesia , lost to Prussia in the War of the Austrian Succession . Along with France, Russia and Austria agreed in 1756 to mutual defence and an attack by Austria and Russia on Prussia, subsidized by France. Westphalia, Hesse and Lower Saxony Electoral Saxony Brandenburg Silesia East Prussia Pomerania Iberian Peninsula Naval Operations William Pitt
23040-542: The next five years. Between 10 and 17 October 1757, a Hungarian general, Count András Hadik , serving in the Austrian army, executed what may be the most famous hussar action in history. When the Prussian king, Frederick, was marching south with his powerful armies, the Hungarian general unexpectedly swung his force of 5,000, mostly hussars, around the Prussians and occupied part of their capital, Berlin, for one night. The city
23220-449: The northwest; Bucks to the north and northeast; Burlington County, New Jersey to the east; Camden County, New Jersey to the southeast; Gloucester County, New Jersey to the south; and Delaware County to the southwest. Philadelphia was created in the 17th century, following the plan by William Penn 's surveyor Thomas Holme . Center City is structured with long, straight streets running nearly due east–west and north–south, forming
23400-631: The pacifist "English Quakers and German Moravians [whom] they believed ... jeopardized the security of the backcountry.” In the late 1680s, a remnant group of Susquehannock who had been living among the Seneca returned to their traditional homeland in the lower Susquehanna River valley. They established a village north of the Conestoga River near the confluence with the Susquehanna River, where they later were joined by several Seneca families. By 1697,
23580-481: The parties hoped to achieve lasting peace and stability in Europe. The carefully coded word in the agreement proved no less catalytic for the other European powers. The results were absolute chaos. Empress Elizabeth of Russia was outraged at the duplicity of Britain's position. Not only that, but France was enraged and terrified by the sudden betrayal of its only ally, Prussia. Austria, particularly Kaunitz, used this situation to their utmost advantage. Now-isolated France
23760-454: The peace table, but she was determined not to negotiate until she had re-taken Silesia. Maria Theresa also improved the Austrians' command after Leuthen by replacing her incompetent brother-in-law, Charles of Lorraine , with Daun, who was now a field marshal. Calculating that no further Russian advance was likely until 1758, Frederick moved the bulk of his eastern forces to Pomerania under the command of Marshal Lehwaldt, where they were to repel
23940-470: The preparation was directed against Prussia, was more than happy to obey the request of the British. Unbeknownst to the other powers, King George II also made overtures to the Prussian king, Frederick, who, fearing the Austro-Russian intentions, was also desirous of a rapprochement with Britain. On 16 January 1756, the Convention of Westminster was signed, whereby Britain and Prussia promised to aid one another;
24120-441: The prison yard, and there, O what a horrid sight presented itself to my view!!—Near the back door of the prison, lay an old Indian and his [wife], particularly well known and esteemed by the people of the town, on account of his placid and friendly conduct. His name was Will Sock; across him and his [wife] lay two children, of about the age of three years, whose heads were split with the tomahawk, and their scalps all taken off. Towards
24300-471: The ranks of the citizenry were a substantial number of the normally pacifistic Quakers. On February 5, the Paxton Boys entered Germantown, a village six miles northwest of Philadelphia. A resident of the town, David Rittenhouse , described the occupation: "I have seen hundreds of Indians traveling the country, and can with truth affirm, that the behavior of these fellows was ten times more savage and brutal than theirs.” The Paxton Boys, he wrote, paraded through
24480-564: The refugees, and they were forced back to Philadelphia, where they were housed in the city barracks. In February 1764, the Paxton Boys and their followers, a few hundred in total, marched on Philadelphia intending to "put to death all the Indians in the Barracks." Rumors placed the number much higher. Penn appointed Franklin to organize a volunteer militia. Franklin quickly raised six companies of infantry, one of artillery, and two of cavalry. Included in
24660-646: The right was a column of about 15,000 men under the command of Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick . On the left was a column of 18,000 men under the command of the Duke of Brunswick-Bevern . In the centre was Frederick II, himself with Field Marshal James Keith commanding a corps of 30,000 troops. Ferdinand of Brunswick was to close in on the town of Chemnitz . The Duke of Brunswick-Bevern was to traverse Lusatia to close in on Bautzen . Meanwhile, Frederick and Keith would make for Dresden . The Saxon and Austrian armies were unprepared, and their forces were scattered. Frederick occupied Dresden with little or no opposition from
24840-531: The same time, Kaunitz kept approaching the French in the hope of establishing just such an alliance with Austria. Not only that, France had no intention to ally with Russia, who, years earlier, had meddled in France's affairs during Austria's succession war. France also saw the dismemberment of Prussia as threatening to the stability of Central Europe. Years later, Kaunitz kept trying to establish France's alliance with Austria. He tried as hard as he could to avoid Austrian entanglement in Hanover's political affairs, and
25020-745: The second half of the 19th century. His contemporaries included John McArthur Jr. , Addison Hutton , Wilson Eyre , the Wilson Brothers , and Horace Trumbauer . In 1871, construction began on the Second Empire -style Philadelphia City Hall . The Philadelphia Historical Commission was created in 1955 to preserve the cultural and architectural history of the city. The commission maintains the Philadelphia Register of Historic Places , adding historic buildings, structures, sites, objects and districts as it sees fit. In 1932, Philadelphia became home to
25200-592: The situation did not change substantially until 1682, when the area was included in William Penn 's charter for Pennsylvania. In 1681, in partial repayment of a debt, Charles II of England granted Penn a charter for what would become the Pennsylvania colony . Despite the royal charter, Penn bought the land from the local Lenape in an effort to establish good terms with the Native Americans and ensure peace for
25380-591: The south. Connecticut raised a militia of four hundred men under Butler, and a confrontation took place over two days at Christmas. Stewart, with twenty men, ambushed the Pennsylvanians on Christmas Eve as they attempted to cross to the east side of the Susquehanna under cover of darkness. On Christmas Day, Plunket attacked Butler's position on the west side of the river but was forced to withdraw. The Paxton Boys still in Lancaster County and those with Lazarus Stewart in
25560-467: The spine of the north–south highway system along the U.S. East Coast . Philadelphia is a city of many firsts, including the nation's first library (1731), hospital (1751), medical school (1765), national capital (1774), university (by some accounts) (1779), central bank (1781), stock exchange (1790), zoo (1874), and business school (1881). Philadelphia contains 67 National Historic Landmarks , including Independence Hall . From
25740-677: The state to conduct warfare on behalf of the sovereign's interests. Occupied enemy territories were regularly taxed and extorted for funds, but large-scale atrocities against civilian populations were rare compared with conflicts in the previous century. Military logistics was the decisive factor in many wars, as armies had grown too large to support themselves on prolonged campaigns by foraging and plunder alone. Military supplies were stored in centralised magazines and distributed by baggage trains that were highly vulnerable to enemy raids. Armies were generally unable to sustain combat operations during winter and normally established winter quarters in
25920-486: The streets, “frightening women, by running the muzzles of their guns through windows, swearing and hallooing: attacking men without the least provocation; dragging them by their hair to the ground, and pretending to scalp them.” The Paxton Boys halted their march in Germantown after learning about the sizable force that was prepared to meet them in Philadelphia. Seeking an end to the situation, Penn appointed Franklin to lead
26100-491: The strengthening of the anti-Prussian coalition. The Austrians had succeeded in partially occupying Silesia and, more importantly, denying Frederick winter quarters in Bohemia. Frederick had proven to be overly confident to the point of arrogance and his errors were very costly for Prussia's smaller army. This led him to remark that he did not fight the same Austrians as he had during the previous war. Britain had been surprised by
26280-404: The sudden Prussian offensive but now began shipping supplies and £670,000 (equivalent to £125.9 million in 2023) to its new ally. A combined force of allied German states was organised by the British to protect Hanover from French invasion, under the command of the Duke of Cumberland . The British attempted to persuade the Dutch Republic to join the alliance, but the request was rejected, as
26460-408: The superiority of the British navy, made it difficult for the French navy to provide significant supplies and support to overseas colonies. Similarly, several long land borders made an effective domestic army imperative for any French ruler. Given these military necessities, the French government, unsurprisingly, based its strategy overwhelmingly on the army in Europe: it would keep most of its army on
26640-493: The surrounding Delaware Valley in the early 17th century. The first settlements were founded by Dutch colonists , who built Fort Nassau on the Delaware River in 1623 in what is now Brooklawn, New Jersey . The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony. In 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina , located in present-day Wilmington, Delaware , and quickly spread out in
26820-522: The ten largest combined statistical areas (CSAs) were ranked higher for ozone: Los Angeles (1st), New York City (9th), Houston (12th), Dallas (13th), and San Jose, California (18th). Many smaller CSAs were also ranked higher for ozone, including Sacramento (8th), Las Vegas (10th), Denver (11th), El Paso (16th), and Salt Lake City (20th). Only two of those same ten CSAs, San Jose and Los Angeles, were ranked higher than Philadelphia for both year-round and short-term particle pollution. As of
27000-403: The thirteen American colonies, working under the command of British regulars, to invade New France. In order to tie the French army down he subsidized his European allies. Pitt was head of the government from 1756 to 1761, and even after that the British continued his strategy. It proved completely successful. Pitt had a clear appreciation of the enormous value of imperial possessions, and realized
27180-430: The time as the Austrian Army was considered to be a highly professional force. With these victories, Frederick once again established himself as Europe's premier general and his men as Europe's most accomplished soldiers. However, Frederick missed an opportunity to completely destroy the Austrian army at Leuthen; although depleted, it escaped back into Bohemia. He hoped the two smashing victories would bring Maria Theresa to
27360-424: The two men agreed to a political partnership and formed a coalition government that gave new, firmer direction to the war effort. The new strategy emphasised both Newcastle's commitment to British involvement on the continent, particularly in defence of its German possessions, and Pitt's determination to use naval power to seize French colonies around the globe. This "dual strategy" would dominate British policy for
27540-432: The upper Ohio River basin. Following the American Revolutionary War and subsequent formation of an independent United States, the Lenape began moving further west. In the 1860s, the United States government sent most remaining Lenape in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory in present-day Oklahoma and surrounding territories as part of the Indian removal policy. Europeans first entered Philadelphia and
27720-402: The valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their war against Maryland colonists. In 1648, the Dutch built Fort Beversreede on the west bank of the Delaware, south of the Schuylkill River near the present-day Eastwick section of Philadelphia, to reassert their dominion over the area. The Swedes responded by building Fort Nya Korsholm , or New Korsholm , named after
27900-438: The village had an estimated population of 132. Most inhabitants were of Susquehannock and Seneca heritage, but some Cayuga and Oneida were also present. Collectively they became known as the Conestoga. From this group William Penn acquired a deed for the Susquehannock's traditional territory in 1700. A treaty in 1701 confirmed the ownership transfer but also recognized the right of the Conestoga to continue to live on and use
28080-424: The vulnerability of the French Empire. The British prime minister, the Duke of Newcastle , was optimistic that the new series of alliances could prevent war from breaking out in Europe. However, a large French force was assembled at Toulon , and the French opened the campaign against the British with an attack on Minorca in the Mediterranean. A British attempt at relief was foiled at the Battle of Minorca , and
28260-407: The war actively overseas, taking full advantage of its naval power . The British pursued a dual strategy—naval blockade and bombardment of enemy ports, and rapid movement of troops by sea. They harassed enemy shipping and attacked enemy colonies, frequently using colonists from nearby British colonies in the effort. The Russians and the Austrians were determined to reduce the power of Prussia,
28440-421: The war is named after combatants in its respective theatres. In the present-day United States, the conflict is known as the French and Indian War (1754–1763). In English-speaking Canada—the balance of Britain's former North American colonies—it is called the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). In French-speaking Canada, it is known as La guerre de la Conquête (the War of the Conquest ). Swedish historiography uses
28620-571: The winter and would remain under their control until 1762, although it was far less strategically valuable to Prussia than Brandenburg or Silesia. In any case, Frederick did not see the Russians as an immediate threat and instead entertained hopes of first fighting a decisive battle against Austria that would knock them out of the war. In April 1758, the British concluded the Anglo-Prussian Convention with Frederick in which they committed to pay him an annual subsidy of £670,000. Britain also dispatched 9,000 troops to reinforce Ferdinand's Hanoverian army,
28800-401: The women and children. William Henry , a resident of Lancaster, described the aftermath: I saw a number of people running down [the] street towards the gaol, which enticed me and other lads to follow them. At about sixty or eighty yards from the gaol, we met from twenty-five to thirty men, well mounted on horses, and with rifles, tomahawks, and scalping knives, equipped for murder. I ran into
28980-405: The words of the American historian Daniel Marston , Gross-Jägersdorf left the Prussians with "a newfound respect for the fighting capabilities of the Russians that was reinforced in the later battles of Zorndorf and Kunersdorf". However, the Russians were not yet able to take Königsberg after using up their supplies of cannonballs at Memel, and Gross-Jägersdorf retreated soon afterwards. Logistics
29160-491: The year. The average window for freezing temperatures is November 6 to April 2, allowing a growing season of 217 days. Early fall and late winter are generally dry, with February having the lowest average precipitation at 2.75 inches (70 mm). The dewpoint in the summer averages between 59.1 and 64.5 °F (15 and 18 °C). The highest recorded temperature was 106 °F (41 °C) on August 7, 1918. Temperatures at or above 100 °F (38 °C) are not common, with
29340-723: Was "against the Laws of God and Nature that so much Land Should lie idle while so many Christians wanted it to labour on and raise their Bread." Although the squatters were promptly evicted, the Penn family began to sell off portions of Conestoga Manor, eventually leaving the Conestoga with less than 500 acres. The Conestoga remained neutral during the Seven Years' War and Pontiac's War . Although they had lived peacefully with their colonial neighbors for decades, they were no longer able to support their families by hunting for fear of being mistaken for hostile warriors. They bartered brooms and baskets, fished, and tended their gardens, but increasingly they depended on gifts of clothing and rations from
29520-486: Was 30.7 in (78 cm), which occurred in January 1996. Precipitation is generally spread throughout the year, with eight to eleven wet days per month, at an average annual rate of 44.1 inches (1,120 mm), but historically ranging from 29.31 in (744 mm) in 1922 to 64.33 in (1,634 mm) in 2011. The most rain recorded in one day occurred on July 28, 2013, when 8.02 in (204 mm) fell at Philadelphia International Airport . Philadelphia has
29700-461: Was a recurring problem for the Russians throughout the war. The Russians lacked a quartermaster's department capable of keeping armies operating in Central Europe properly supplied over the primitive mud roads of eastern Europe. The tendency of Russian armies to break off operations after fighting a major battle, even when they were not defeated, was less about their casualties and more about their supply lines; after expending much of their munitions in
29880-505: Was also elective King of Poland as Augustus III, but the two territories were physically separated by Brandenburg and Silesia. Neither state could pose as a great power. Saxony was merely a buffer between Prussia and Austrian Bohemia , whereas Poland, despite its union with the ancient lands of Lithuania, was prey to pro-French and pro-Russian factions. A Prussian scheme for compensating Frederick Augustus with Bohemia in exchange for Saxony obviously presupposed further spoliation of Austria. In
30060-413: Was being constructed and prepared to serve as the new national capital. In 1793, the largest yellow fever epidemic in U.S. history killed approximately 4,000 to 5,000 people in Philadelphia, or about ten percent of the city's population at the time. The capital of the United States was moved to Washington, D.C. in 1800 upon completion of the White House and U.S. Capitol buildings. The state capital
30240-410: Was developed south of South Street and later occupied by succeeding immigrants. They established a network of Catholic churches and schools and dominated the Catholic clergy for decades. Anti- Irish , anti-Catholic nativist riots erupted in Philadelphia in 1844. The rise in population of the surrounding districts helped lead to the Act of Consolidation of 1854 , which extended the city limits from
30420-427: Was dominated by Georgian architecture , including Independence Hall and Christ Church . In the first decades of the 19th century, Federal and Greek Revival architecture were the dominant styles produced by Philadelphia architects such as Benjamin Latrobe , William Strickland , John Haviland , John Notman , Thomas Walter , and Samuel Sloan . Frank Furness is considered Philadelphia's greatest architect of
30600-420: Was even willing to trade Austrian Netherlands for France's aid in recapturing Silesia. Frustrated by this decision and by the Dutch Republic 's insistence on neutrality, Britain soon turned to Russia. On 30 September 1755, Britain pledged financial aid to Russia in order to station 50,000 troops on the Livonian-Lithuanian border, so they could defend Britain's interests in Hanover immediately. Bestuzhev, assuming
30780-447: Was forced to accede to the Austro-Russian alliance or face ruin. Thereafter, on 1 May 1756, the First Treaty of Versailles was signed, in which both nations pledged 24,000 troops to defend each other in the case of an attack. This diplomatic revolution proved to be an important cause of the war; although both treaties were ostensibly defensive in nature, the actions of both coalitions made the war virtually inevitable. European warfare in
30960-433: Was founded in 1682 by William Penn , an English Quaker and advocate of religious freedom , and served as the capital of the Pennsylvania Colony during the British colonial era . The city went on to play a historic and vital role during the American Revolution and Revolutionary War , serving as the central meeting place for the nation's founding fathers , hosting the First Continental Congress in 1774, preserving
31140-439: Was moved from Philadelphia to Lancaster in 1799, then ultimately to Harrisburg in 1812. Philadelphia remained the nation's largest city until the late 18th century. It also was the nation's financial and cultural center until ultimately being eclipsed in total population by New York City in 1790. In 1816, the city's free Black community founded the African Methodist Episcopal Church , the first independent Black denomination in
31320-410: Was needed to occupy Pomerania and felt the Swedish army would not need to engage with the Prussians because the Prussians were occupied on so many other fronts. This problem was compounded when the main Hanoverian army under Cumberland, which include Hesse-Kassel and Brunswick troops, was defeated at the Battle of Hastenbeck and forced to surrender entirely at the Convention of Klosterzeven following
31500-406: Was one of more than 36 industrial cities nationally to suffer a race riot during Red Summer in post- World War I unrest as recent immigrants competed with Blacks for jobs. In the 1920s, the public flouting of Prohibition laws, organized crime , mob violence, and corrupt police involvement in illegal activities led to the appointment of Brig. Gen. Smedley Butler of the U.S. Marine Corps as
31680-556: Was passionately devoted to his family's continental holdings, but his commitments in Germany were counterbalanced by the demands of the British colonies overseas. If war against France for colonial expansion was to be resumed, then Hanover had to be secured against Franco-Prussian attack. France was very much interested in colonial expansion and was willing to exploit the vulnerability of Hanover in war against Great Britain, but it had no desire to divert forces to Central Europe for Prussia's interest. French policy was, moreover, complicated by
31860-481: Was spared for a negotiated ransom of 200,000 thalers. When Frederick heard about this humiliating occupation, he immediately sent a larger force to free the city. Hadik, however, left the city with his hussars and safely reached the Austrian lines. Subsequently, Hadik was promoted to the rank of marshal in the Austrian Army. In early 1758, Frederick launched an invasion of Moravia and laid siege to Olmütz (now Olomouc , Czech Republic). Following an Austrian victory at
32040-414: Was the textile industry . Major corporations in the 19th and early 20th centuries included the Baldwin Locomotive Works , William Cramp & Sons Shipbuilding Company , and the Pennsylvania Railroad . Established in 1870, the Philadelphia Conveyancers' Association was chartered by the state in 1871. Along with the U.S. Centennial in 1876, the city's industry was celebrated in the Centennial Exposition ,
32220-424: Was the January 1768 murder of ten Lenape and Mohicans , including women and children, by Frederick Stump and John Ironcutter in Cumberland County. Stump and Ironcutter were arrested, but an armed mob broke into the Carlisle jail and freed them. Stump escaped to Georgia and served under Francis Marion during the Revolutionary War. The Paxton Boys emboldened attacks not only by individuals but by groups such as
32400-408: Was the parson at Paxtang , was a dominant Presbyterian figure on the Pennsylvania frontier. He was known as the "Fighting Parson" and kept his rifle in the pulpit when he delivered his sermons. In the spring of 1763, Elder recruited 110 associators to defend against Lenape and Shawnee attacks. Elder realized that he did not have enough men to mount an effective defense, but he was unable to convince
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