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48-512: The region has a very heterogeneous topography . The western range located near the border with the Lima Region , has snowy and ice-covered peaks. On the east, there are high glacier valleys which end up in high plateaus ( Altiplano ). Among them is the Junín Plateau that is located between the cities of La Oroya and Cerro de Pasco . The Mantaro Valley becomes wider before Jauja up to

96-400: A Digital Land Surface Model in the form of a TIN . The DLSM can then be used to visualize terrain, drape remote sensing images, quantify ecological properties of a surface or extract land surface objects. The contour data or any other sampled elevation datasets are not a DLSM. A DLSM implies that elevation is available continuously at each location in the study area, i.e. that the map represents

144-492: A complete surface. Digital Land Surface Models should not be confused with Digital Surface Models, which can be surfaces of the canopy, buildings and similar objects. For example, in the case of surface models produces using the lidar technology, one can have several surfaces – starting from the top of the canopy to the actual solid earth. The difference between the two surface models can then be used to derive volumetric measures (height of trees etc.). Topographic survey information

192-650: A decree creating what is now the Junín Region, to commemorate his victory in the Battle of Junín , the last real cavalry charge in South America where no shot was fired. Major events of national importance occurred during this period: Huancayo hosted the Assembly that issued the 1839 Constitution and on December 3, 1854, Ramón Castilla signed a decree that granted freedom to Afro-Peruvian slaves. Topography Topography

240-403: A new constitution was enacted during Castilla's presidency and became Peru's supreme law until 1920. Castilla's second presidency, therefore, was marked by the liberation of slaves and indigenous Peruvians, as well as a new postal system and a new constitution. In 1862, he was succeeded by Miguel de San Román , who died less than a year later. Castilla refused to recognise Pedro Diez Canseco ,

288-405: A part of geovisualization , whether maps or GIS systems. False-color and non-visible spectra imaging can also help determine the lie of the land by delineating vegetation and other land-use information more clearly. Images can be in visible colours and in other spectrum. Photogrammetry is a measurement technique for which the co-ordinates of the points in 3D of an object are determined by

336-570: A place or places, what is now largely called ' local history '. In Britain and in Europe in general, the word topography is still sometimes used in its original sense. Detailed military surveys in Britain (beginning in the late eighteenth century) were called Ordnance Surveys , and this term was used into the 20th century as generic for topographic surveys and maps. The earliest scientific surveys in France were

384-593: A valuable set of information for large-scale analysis. The original American topographic surveys (or the British "Ordnance" surveys) involved not only recording of relief, but identification of landmark features and vegetative land cover. Remote sensing is a general term for geodata collection at a distance from the subject area. Besides their role in photogrammetry, aerial and satellite imagery can be used to identify and delineate terrain features and more general land-cover features. Certainly they have become more and more

432-533: Is superficial human anatomy . In mathematics the concept of topography is used to indicate the patterns or general organization of features on a map or as a term referring to the pattern in which variables (or their values) are distributed in a space. Topographers are experts in topography. They study and describe the surface features of a place or region. Ram%C3%B3n Castilla Ramón Castilla y Marquesado ( Spanish pronunciation: [raˈmoŋ kasˈtiʝa] ; 31 August 1797 – 30 May 1867)

480-456: Is concerned with underlying structures and processes to the surface, rather than with identifiable surface features. The digital elevation model (DEM) is a raster -based digital dataset of the topography ( hypsometry and/or bathymetry ) of all or part of the Earth (or a telluric planet ). The pixels of the dataset are each assigned an elevation value, and a header portion of the dataset defines

528-452: Is divided into nine provinces ( Spanish : provincias , singular: provincia ), which are composed of 123 districts ( distritos , singular: distrito ). The provinces and their capitals are: According to the 2007 Peru Census , the language learnt first by most of the residents was Spanish (86.63%) followed by Quechua (9.29%). The Quechua varieties spoken in Junín are Huanca Quechua (in

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576-428: Is essential for the planning and construction of any major civil engineering , public works , or reclamation projects. There are a variety of approaches to studying topography. Which method(s) to use depends on the scale and size of the area under study, its accessibility, and the quality of existing surveys. Surveying helps determine accurately the terrestrial or three-dimensional space position of points and

624-438: Is historically based upon the notes of surveyors. They may derive naming and cultural information from other local sources (for example, boundary delineation may be derived from local cadastral mapping). While of historical interest, these field notes inherently include errors and contradictions that later stages in map production resolve. As with field notes, remote sensing data (aerial and satellite photography, for example),

672-543: Is often considered to include the graphic representation of the landform on a map by a variety of cartographic relief depiction techniques, including contour lines , hypsometric tints , and relief shading . The term topography originated in ancient Greece and continued in ancient Rome , as the detailed description of a place. The word comes from the Greek τόπος ( topos , "place") and -γραφία ( -graphia , "writing"). In classical literature this refers to writing about

720-581: Is raw and uninterpreted. It may contain holes (due to cloud cover for example) or inconsistencies (due to the timing of specific image captures). Most modern topographic mapping includes a large component of remotely sensed data in its compilation process. In its contemporary definition, topographic mapping shows relief. In the United States, USGS topographic maps show relief using contour lines . The USGS calls maps based on topographic surveys, but without contours, "planimetric maps." These maps show not only

768-425: Is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces . The topography of an area may refer to the land forms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps. Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary science and is concerned with local detail in general, including not only relief , but also natural , artificial, and cultural features such as roads, land boundaries, and buildings. In

816-422: Is to something else). Topography has been applied to different science fields. In neuroscience , the neuroimaging discipline uses techniques such as EEG topography for brain mapping . In ophthalmology , corneal topography is used as a technique for mapping the surface curvature of the cornea . In tissue engineering , atomic force microscopy is used to map nanotopography . In human anatomy , topography

864-618: The Cassini maps after the family who produced them over four generations. The term "topographic surveys" appears to be American in origin. The earliest detailed surveys in the United States were made by the "Topographical Bureau of the Army", formed during the War of 1812 , which became the Corps of Topographical Engineers in 1838. After the work of national mapping was assumed by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1878,

912-595: The Battle of Carmen Alto. Nieto assumed the presidency but died a few months later. Castilla assumed the position on 17 February 1844 until 11 December of that year. After defeating the other caudillos around the country, Castilla reinstated Menéndez as president, in order to achieve a constitutional transition to democracy. In 1845, Castilla won the Peruvian presidential elections and was sworn in in April of that year. During this time,

960-536: The Battle of La Palma on 5 January 1855. In 1859, Peru had a confrontation with neighboring Ecuador over disputed territory bordering the Amazon. Though Peru was considered successful, Castilla failed to secure a definitive agreement with Ecuador and the issue would haunt both countries until the end of the 20th century, when the 1997 Peace and Border Treaty of Itamaraty was signed by Peru and Ecuador in Brazil. In December 1860,

1008-521: The Peruvian Congress named Simón Bolívar dictator or "Liberator of Peru", Castilla joined Simon Bolivar 's army, fighting in the decisive Battle of Ayacucho , which helped Peru gain its independence from Spain. In 1825 Bolivar named him as governor of his native province of Tarapacá . In 1833, Castilla married Francisca Diez Canseco. In 1839 Castilla beside the Chilean general Manuel Bulnes decided

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1056-637: The Second Vice President of the Republic as well as his brother-in-law, and claimed the presidency for himself. Diez Canseco, however, was chosen as interim president from April to August 1863, and was succeeded by Juan Antonio Pezet . He served as the President of the Senate in 1864. In 1864, Castilla condemned the international policies of Pezet, only to be jailed and exiled to Gibraltar . During his absence,

1104-806: The Southwest), Yaru Quechua (in the Northwest, especially in Tarma Province ). The following table shows the results concerning the language learnt first in the Junín Region by province: Until the arrival of the Incas the eastern plains of the Junín region, known in Quechua as "Pampas," were inhabited by the Yanesha' and the Asháninka people, who lived a hunter-gatherer lifestyle and tended to be hostile towards outsiders. Meanwhile,

1152-565: The United States, topography often means specifically relief , even though the USGS topographic maps record not just elevation contours, but also roads, populated places, structures, land boundaries, and so on. Topography in a narrow sense involves the recording of relief or terrain , the three-dimensional quality of the surface, and the identification of specific landforms ; this is also known as geomorphometry . In modern usage, this involves generation of elevation data in digital form ( DEM ). It

1200-669: The area of coverage, the units each pixel covers, and the units of elevation (and the zero-point). DEMs may be derived from existing paper maps and survey data, or they may be generated from new satellite or other remotely sensed radar or sonar data. A geographic information system (GIS) can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex spatial modelling and analysis to be performed. Topological relationships between geometric entities traditionally include adjacency (what adjoins what), containment (what encloses what), and proximity (how close something

1248-647: The area. The upper jungle , with valleys of great length, modelled by the Tulumayu, Pawqartampu, Perené and Ene rivers, is located on the eastern side of the region. Lake Junin , the largest lake entirely within Peru, is located in the region, except for its northernmost tip which belongs to the Pasco Region . Junín Region is also home to Mount Toromocho . It is rich in minerals, including silver, copper, mercury, bismuth, molybdenum, lead and coal. The Junín Region borders

1296-439: The army of José Ballivián during the Battle of Ingavi , leaving Peru without a leader. During that year various infights among caudillos occurred who constantly proclaimed themselves Presidents. Manuel Menéndez , then Vice President, assumed the presidency, but was overthrown by a coup d'état led by Juan Crisóstomo Torrico in 1842. Soon after, Castilla, along with Domingo Nieto , overthrew Manuel Ignacio de Vivanco during

1344-455: The basis for much derived topographic work. Digital Elevation Models, for example, have often been created not from new remote sensing data but from existing paper topographic maps. Many government and private publishers use the artwork (especially the contour lines) from existing topographic map sheets as the basis for their own specialized or updated topographic maps. Topographic mapping should not be confused with geologic mapping . The latter

1392-454: The contours, but also any significant streams or other bodies of water, forest cover , built-up areas or individual buildings (depending on scale), and other features and points of interest. While not officially "topographic" maps, the national surveys of other nations share many of the same features, and so they are often called "topographic maps." Existing topographic survey maps, because of their comprehensive and encyclopedic coverage, form

1440-509: The direct survey still provides the basic control points and framework for all topographic work, whether manual or GIS -based. In areas where there has been an extensive direct survey and mapping program (most of Europe and the Continental U.S., for example), the compiled data forms the basis of basic digital elevation datasets such as USGS DEM data. This data must often be "cleaned" to eliminate discrepancies between surveys, but it still forms

1488-476: The distances and angles between them using leveling instruments such as theodolites , dumpy levels and clinometers . GPS and other global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) are also used. Work on one of the first topographic maps was begun in France by Giovanni Domenico Cassini , the great Italian astronomer. Even though remote sensing has greatly sped up the process of gathering information, and has allowed greater accuracy control over long distances,

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1536-518: The exploitation of guano deposits. Castilla's governments are remembered for having abolished slavery and modernized the state. He assumed the presidency for the first time after general Domingo Nieto 's death for a short period in 1844, then in 1845 until 1851, again from 1855 to 1862 and, finally, during a brief period in 1863. Castilla was born in Tarapacá (then part of the Viceroyalty of Peru ),

1584-413: The guano export boom was rapidly expanding, largely due to treaties signed with the British company Antony Gibbs , which had commercialized the guano trade in Europe. Important urban projects began during this period, too, such as the first railroad from Lima to Callao , which helped in the transportation of guano from the production centers ready to be shipped abroad. After six years in power, Castilla

1632-453: The historic Battle of Callao took place, which became Spain's final and unsuccessful move to reconquer independent Peru. After he returned to Peru, he was again deported to Chile on the orders of then president Mariano Ignacio Prado . In a last effort to regain power for a fifth time, Castilla – now nearly seventy – and a group of followers landed in Pisagua and proceeded towards

1680-672: The independence forces sent by Argentine general José de San Martín . Castilla became a prisoner of war, but managed to escape and returned to Peru in 1821, deserting the Spanish Army and offering his services to José de San Martín, who enrolled him in the Patriot Army with the rank of lieutenant (a rank he had held with the Spanish Army ). When San Martin resigned as "Protector of Peru", Castilla sided with José de la Riva Agüero , who in turn shortly became president in 1823. In 1824, when

1728-490: The limit with the Huancavelica Region . This area concentrates a large share of the region's population. Towards the east, near the jungle , there is an abundance of narrow and deep canyons , with highly inclined hillsides, covered by woods under low-lying clouds. The Waytapallana mountain range is located in the south central area of the region. This range holds a great fault which is the reason earthquakes happen in

1776-439: The measurements made in two photographic images (or more) taken starting from different positions, usually from different passes of an aerial photography flight. In this technique, the common points are identified on each image . A line of sight (or ray ) can be built from the camera location to the point on the object. It is the intersection of its rays ( triangulation ) which determines the relative three-dimensional position of

1824-480: The most applications in environmental sciences , land surface is represented and modelled using gridded models. In civil engineering and entertainment businesses, the most representations of land surface employ some variant of TIN models. In geostatistics , land surface is commonly modelled as a combination of the two signals – the smooth (spatially correlated) and the rough (noise) signal. In practice, surveyors first sample heights in an area, then use these to produce

1872-525: The point. Known control points can be used to give these relative positions absolute values. More sophisticated algorithms can exploit other information on the scene known a priori (for example, symmetries in certain cases allowing the rebuilding of three-dimensional co-ordinates starting from one only position of the camera). Satellite RADAR mapping is one of the major techniques of generating Digital Elevation Models (see below). Similar techniques are applied in bathymetric surveys using sonar to determine

1920-475: The position of any feature or more generally any point in terms of both a horizontal coordinate system such as latitude, longitude, and altitude . Identifying (naming) features, and recognizing typical landform patterns are also part of the field. A topographic study may be made for a variety of reasons: military planning and geological exploration have been primary motivators to start survey programs, but detailed information about terrain and surface features

1968-583: The regions of Pasco in the north, Ucayali in the northeast and Cusco in the east. The Mantaro River marks the border of the region with the Ayacucho and Huancavelica regions in the south and in the west it is bordered by the Lima Region . The Junín Region has an average annual temperature of 13.1 °C (56 °F), a maximum high of 17 °C (62 °F) and a minimum low of 0 °C (32 °F). The rainy season runs from November to April, and from December to March in tropical areas. The region

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2016-569: The second son of Pedro Castilla, of Spanish-Argentine origin, and Juana Marquezado de Romero, who was of part Aymara descent. In 1807 he traveled to Lima at the age of 10 to study with his brother and later continued his education in Concepción, Chile , also helping his brother with his business. In 1817 he enrolled in the Spanish colonial army during the Peruvian War of Independence , fighting against

2064-610: The southwestern Mantaro Valley was inhabited by the Huancas . Sapa Inca Pachacuti conquered this region in 1460, bringing it under the domain of the Inca Empire . Huancayo became the region's main highway rest stop on the Inca Trail. Woolen mills (known in Spanish as "obrajes" or "mills") were created during the viceroyalty, where the tissue and its craft became a tradition that continues today. On September 13, 1825, Simón Bolívar issued

2112-399: The term topographical remained as a general term for detailed surveys and mapping programs, and has been adopted by most other nations as standard. In the 20th century, the term topography started to be used to describe surface description in other fields where mapping in a broader sense is used, particularly in medical fields such as neurology . An objective of topography is to determine

2160-417: The terrain of the ocean floor. In recent years, LIDAR ( LI ght D etection A nd R anging), a remote sensing technique that uses a laser instead of radio waves, has increasingly been employed for complex mapping needs such as charting canopies and monitoring glaciers. Terrain is commonly modelled either using vector ( triangulated irregular network or TIN) or gridded ( raster image ) mathematical models. In

2208-566: The victory of the Restorative Army in the battle of Yungay (War of the Confederation) and was named Minister of War and Minister of Finance in 1839 under Agustín Gamarra . Under the latter post, Castilla was responsible for Peru's first lucrative guano exportation. Meanwhile, president Gamarra had been harboring intentions of annexing Bolivia back to Peru and, in 1841, he led an invasion army to Bolivia, only to be defeated and killed by

2256-572: Was a Peruvian caudillo who served as President of Peru three times as well as the Interim President of Peru (Revolution Self-proclaimed President) in 1863. His earliest prominent appearance in Peruvian history began with his participation in a commanding role of the army of the Libertadores that helped Peru become an independent nation . Later, he led the country when the economy boomed due to

2304-418: Was succeeded by José Rufino Echenique . In 1854, however, another rebellion was led in Peru's second-largest city, Arequipa , by Castilla himself, who was largely urged by other Peruvian liberals to help in the suppression of slavery in the country. On 3 December 1854, in the city of Huancayo , an abolition of slavery law was passed. As this law was being applied, Castilla confronted and defeated Echenique in

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