Misplaced Pages

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168-515: In the traditional Korean clan system, which remains as the basis of the family registry system in South Korea , each clan is distinguished by its bon-gwan (본관,本貫). Each bon-gwan in Korea originates from the clan progenitor's settlement, which can be explained as the traditional home of the family clan's first male ancestor. Typically in Korea, a last name includes many distinct bon-gwans, which leads to

336-506: A Daoist priestess, named Congqing, and was a poet at the imperial court. Intermarriage between Balhae civil elites in the Jin dynasty was common. In 1190, Wang Ji identified two families he encountered in Liaodong as Balhae. Writing after the fall of the Jin dynasty in 1234, Liu Qi identified the military commander Li Ying as a "Bohai man of Liaodong." There were still limitations on Balhae people in

504-413: A feed-in tariff . Around 350 residential micro combined heat and power units were installed in 2012. In 2017, South Korea was the world's seventh largest emitter of carbon emissions and the fifth largest emitter per capita. President Moon Jae-in pledged to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to zero in 2050. Seoul's tap water recently became safe to drink, with city officials branding it " Arisu " in

672-597: A "state of Go[gu]ryeo." In the early 12th century, the Jurchen leader Aguda sent ambassadors to the Liao dynasty to call on the Balhae people there to rebel against the Liao by appealing to a common origin between the Jurchens and Balhae. According to the appeal, both the Jurchens and Balhae people descended from the seven Wuji tribes. However, according to Alexander Kim, this only applied to

840-503: A Korean state and one of the Northern and Southern States of Korea, Russian and Chinese scholars reject this notion, echoing the position of historical Korean scholars such as Kim Bu-sik , author of the Samguk sagi . Some historians view this dispute as the polemics reflecting modern politics rather than historical evidence. The problem about Parhae history is that many questions are beyond

1008-437: A bid to convince the public. Efforts have also been made with afforestation projects. Another multibillion-dollar project was the restoration of Cheonggyecheon , a stream running through downtown Seoul that had earlier been paved over by a motorway. One major challenge is air quality, with acid rain, sulfur oxides, and annual yellow dust storms being particular problems. It is acknowledged that many of these difficulties are

1176-683: A close election over the Democratic Party candidate by the narrowest margin ever. Yoon was sworn in on May 10, 2022. South Korea occupies the southern portion of the Korean Peninsula , which extends some 1,100 km (680 mi) from the Continental and East Asian mainland. This mountainous peninsula is flanked by the Yellow Sea to the west and the Sea of Japan to the east. Its southern tip lies on

1344-550: A conservative government was elected in 2007 led by President Lee Myung-bak , former mayor of Seoul . Meanwhile, South Korea and Japan jointly co-hosted the 2002 FIFA World Cup . However, South Korean and Japanese relations later soured because of conflicting claims of sovereignty over the Liancourt Rocks . In 2010, there was an escalation in attacks by North Korea. In March 2010 the South Korean warship ROKS Cheonan

1512-479: A distinct group. During the later Jin era, the strong association between Balhae and Liaodong declined as Liaodong became dominated by other identities. As Balhae descendants became firmly incorporated into the apparatus of the Jurchen-led state, many individual Balhae-descended officials willingly chose to self-identify as Chinese. In 1135, Nansali was chosen as an emissary to Goryeo, for which he changed his name to

1680-593: A force of 5,000 Kumo Xi cavalrymen surrendered to the Tang. The defeat of the Khitans and Turks , and the submission of the Kumo Xi removed the buffer zone that had formed between Balhae and the Tang. Sensing the change in strategic developments, Muye decided to reconcile with the Tang. In 737, Tang sailors and civilians detained in Balhae were repatriated. In 738, an envoy from Balhae requested Tang ritual codes and dynastic histories in

1848-665: A golden age under Gwanggaeto the Great and his son Jangsu , who both subdued Baekje and Silla during their respective reigns, achieving a brief unification of the Three Kingdoms and becoming the most dominant power on the Korean Peninsula. In addition to contesting control of the Korean Peninsula, Goguryeo had many military conflicts with various Chinese dynasties, most notably the Goguryeo–Sui War , in which Goguryeo defeated

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2016-420: A huge force said to number over a million men. Baekje was a maritime power, sometimes called the " Phoenicia of East Asia". Its maritime ability was instrumental in the dissemination of Buddhism throughout East Asia and spreading continental culture to Japan. Baekje was once a great military power on the Korean Peninsula, especially during the time of Geunchogo , but was critically defeated by Gwanggaeto

2184-579: A message that "The Jurchen and Bohai are originally of the same family; as we rise in arms to smite the wicked, [harm] will not unjustly reach the innocent." The fourth, fifth and seventh emperors of Jin were mothered by Balhae consorts. Nevertheless, the 13th century census of Northern China by the Mongols distinguished Balhae people who belonged to the Khitan Empire from other ethnic groups such as Goryeo, Khitans and Jurchens. A Song observer notes that during

2352-539: A million individuals. In the summer of 1029, a distant descendant of Balhae royalty, Da Yanlin , rebelled at the Eastern Capital. He imprisoned minister Xiao Xiaoxian and his wife, killed the tax commissioners and chief military commander, and declared his own Xing Liao dynasty (興遼國/흥료국). He requested aid from Goryeo, who sent forces against Liao only to be repelled. Further ambassadors were sent by Xing Liao to Goryeo seeking aid but Goryeo refused to help them owing to

2520-475: A nationwide next-generation network that will be 10 times faster than broadband facilities, in order to reduce energy usage. The renewable portfolio standard program with renewable energy certificates runs from 2012 to 2022. Quota systems favor large, vertically integrated generators and multinational electric utilities, if only because certificates are generally denominated in units of one megawatt-hour. They are also more difficult to design and implement than

2688-454: A now-lost Sillan record. Kim considers this unlikely since Goguryeo fell in 668 while Dae died in 719, and young men could not receive the rank of general. As we know in relation to the origin of the Bohai people, when Gouli (Koguryŏ) was not yet destroyed, they [the Bohai people] were the useless tribe of Mohe. Many tribes were the same; its name was that of the small barbarian nation Sumo, and in

2856-451: A political prisoner sentenced to death (later commuted to exile). He won against the backdrop of the 1997 Asian financial crisis , where he took IMF advice to restructure the economy and the nation soon recovered its economic growth, albeit at a slower pace. In June 2000, as part of President Kim Dae-jung's " Sunshine Policy " of engagement, a North–South summit took place in Pyongyang ,

3024-487: A population of around 500,000. At the time of its fall, its soldiers numbered "hundreds of thousands" according to the History of Liao . The kingdom's total population in its last years is variously estimated at between 1.5 and 4 million by historians today. Though Balhae was lost, a great portion of the royalty and aristocracy fled to Goryeo, including Dae Gwang-hyeon , the last crown prince . They were granted land and

3192-558: A rebellious vassal. However, Kim Eun Gug argues that thus the "bestowal of a fifth-rank position was an expression of Silla's confidence, and such an exchange would have been unimaginable if Silla and Parhae were in a hostile relationship." After Tang recognition of Balhae as a kingdom, Balhae diplomatic missions to Japan began to refer to the Balhae ruler as descended from Heaven. Japanese officials criticized these letters, revised them, and limited diplomatic missions from Balhae. A royal epitaph and Buddhist scripture confirm this designation for

3360-681: A result of South Korea's proximity to China, which is a major air polluter. South Korea had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 6.02/10, ranking it 87th globally out of 172 countries. South Korea is a member of the Antarctic-Environmental Protocol , Antarctic Treaty , Biodiversity Treaty , Kyoto Protocol (forming the Environmental Integrity Group (EIG), regarding UNFCCC , with Mexico and Switzerland), Desertification , Endangered Species , Environmental Modification , Hazardous Wastes , Law of

3528-534: A series of massive public demonstrations from November 2016, and she was removed from office. After the fallout of Park's impeachment and dismissal, elections were held and Moon Jae-in of the Democratic Party won the presidency, assuming office on May 10, 2017. His tenure saw an improving political relationship with North Korea, some increasing divergence in the military alliance with the United States, and

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3696-507: A show of goodwill and a desire to foster friendly relations with Japan. In 734, Silla attacked Balhae with no success. In an effort to curb Balhae's ambitions, the Tang granted Silla's request to place troops in the Paegang region in 735. The strategic landscape began to turn on Balhae in 734–735, when the Khitan chieftain, Ketuyu, and his Turkic allies were defeated by Tang forces. In addition

3864-466: A significant boost for South Korea's global image and economy. South Korea was formally invited to become a member of the United Nations in 1991. The transition of Korea from autocracy to modern democracy was marked in 1997 by the election of Kim Dae-jung, who was sworn in as the eighth president of South Korea on February 25, 1998. His election was significant given that he had in earlier years been

4032-569: A simple answer. Different, nearly contemporary, sources represent fundamental questions in very different ways with different possible interpretations. Historical sources give different accounts of Dae Joyeong's ethnicity and background. Among the official dynastic history works, the New Book of Tang refers to Dae Joyeong and his state as Sumo Mohe (related to Jurchens and later Manchus ) affiliated with Goguryeo. The Old Book of Tang also states Dae's ethnic background as Mohe but adds that he

4200-493: A southwestern region of mountains and valleys; and a southeastern region dominated by the broad basin of the Nakdong River . South Korea is home to three terrestrial ecoregions: Central Korean deciduous forests , Manchurian mixed forests , and Southern Korea evergreen forests . South Korea's terrain is mostly mountainous, most of which is not arable . Lowlands , located primarily in the west and southeast, make up only 30% of

4368-599: A symbolic gesture towards peace. Muye died soon after. Muye's son and successor, Dae Heummu (Da Qinmao, r. 737–793), continued the course of reconciliation with the Tang. At the same time, trouble with the Tibetan Empire to the west forced the Tang to withdraw all military forces from Korea and adopt a defensive stance. Heummu cemented the geopolitical balance by sending an envoy to the Japanese court, which his father had done as well in 728 to threaten Silla with an ally from

4536-535: A third of the parliament. Suppression of the opposition and human rights abuse by the government became more severe in this period. Even after Park's assassination in 1979, the authoritarian rule continued in the Fifth Republic led by Chun Doo-hwan , which violently seized power by two coups and brutally suppressed the Gwangju Uprising . The June Democratic Struggle of 1987 ended authoritarian rule , forming

4704-425: Is a comprehensive overhaul of South Korea's economy, utilizing nearly two percent of the national GDP. The greening initiative includes such efforts as a nationwide bike network, solar and wind energy, lowering oil dependent vehicles, backing daylight saving time and extensive usage of environmentally friendly technologies such as LEDs in electronics and lighting. The country—one of the world's most wired—plans to build

4872-488: Is affected by the East Asian monsoon , with precipitation heavier in summer during a short rainy season called jangma , which begins end of June and lasts through the end of July. In Seoul, the average January temperature range is −7 to 1 °C (19 to 34 °F), and the average August temperature range is 22 to 30 °C (72 to 86 °F). Winter temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower in

5040-412: Is also the site of South Korea's highest point: Hallasan , an extinct volcano , reaches 1,950 meters (6,400 feet) above sea level . The easternmost islands of South Korea include Ulleungdo and Liancourt Rocks (Dokdo/Takeshima), while Marado and Socotra Rock are the southernmost islands of South Korea. South Korea tends to have a humid continental climate and a humid subtropical climate , and

5208-827: Is also unclear whether they stayed, went back to Balhae, or moved on elsewhere like China or Japan. According to Kim, between the 10th and 11th centuries, 30,000 Balhae families (more than 100,000 people) immigrated to Goryeo, 94,000 local families (470,000 inhabitants) were deported by the Liao, and only 20,000 Balhae families lived in the former territories of Balhae, a significantly smaller figure than those that immigrated to Goryeo. Korean historians generally estimate that approximately 100,000 to 200,000 fled from Balhae to Goryeo. Historian Professor Park Jong-gi estimated that 120,600 people fled from Balhae to Goryeo, and by themselves comprised approximately 6.3% of early Goryeo's roughly 2 million inhabitants. According to Kim, many Balhae refugees fled to Goryeo due to pro-Balhae policies during

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5376-521: Is associated with the foundation of Balhae in Chinese, Korean, or Japanese sources. The question of the ethnic composition of the Bohai state has become a political problem in the East Asian region. Chinese and Korean historians alternatively regard Bohai as a Chinese provincial power or as an independent Korean country, based on intrinsically subjective positions. Certainly, all Korean specialists believe that

5544-497: Is concentrated in the summer months of June through September. The southern coast is subject to late summer typhoons that bring strong winds, heavy rains and sometimes floods. The average annual precipitation varies from 1,370 millimeters (54 in) in Seoul to 1,470 millimeters (58 in) in Busan. During the first 20 years of South Korea's growth surge, little effort was made to preserve

5712-482: Is formed by the Yellow Sea , while its eastern border is defined by the Sea of Japan . South Korea claims to be the sole legitimate government of the entire peninsula and adjacent islands . It has a population of 51.96 million, of which half live in the Seoul Capital Area , the ninth most populous metropolitan area in the world . Other major cities include Busan , Daegu , and Incheon . The Korean Peninsula

5880-571: Is no direct link between Balhae and either modern China or Korea. E. V. Shakunov believes that Balhae's population also consisted of elements from Central Asia such as Sogdians and Tocharians . Many Uyghurs fled to Balhae after the destruction of the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 but they failed to adapt to Balhae society and caused social unrest. It is evident that Balhae had a diverse population, including other minorities such as Khitan and Evenk peoples. Archaeological evidence suggests that

6048-574: Is the only such government in Korea." Both leaders engaged in authoritarian repression of political opponents. South Korea requested military support from the United States but was denied, and North Korea's military was heavily reinforced by the Soviet Union. On June 25, 1950, North Korea invaded South Korea, sparking the Korean War , the Cold War 's first major conflict, which continued until 1953. At

6216-489: The 38th parallel as the dividing line, as it placed Seoul under U.S. control. To the surprise of Rusk and Bonesteel, the Soviets accepted their proposal and agreed to divide Korea. Despite intentions to liberate a unified peninsula in the 1943 Cairo Declaration , escalating tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States led to the division of Korea into two political entities in 1948: North Korea and South Korea. In

6384-721: The Empire of Japan . Japanese rule ended following Japan's surrender in World War II , after which Korea was divided into two zones : a northern zone , which was occupied by the Soviet Union , and a southern zone , which was occupied by the United States . After negotiations on reunification failed, the southern zone became the Republic of Korea in August 1948, while the northern zone became

6552-634: The Gwangju Democratization Movement . Chun subsequently created the National Defense Emergency Policy Committee and took the presidency according to his political plan. Chun and his government held South Korea under a despotic rule until 1987, when a Seoul National University student, Park Jong-chul , was tortured to death. On June 10 , the Catholic Priests Association for Justice revealed

6720-583: The Joseon Navy led by Admiral Yi Sun-sin and his renowned " turtle ship ") with assistance from righteous army militias formed by Korean civilians, and Ming dynasty Chinese troops. Through a series of successful battles of attrition, the Japanese forces were eventually forced to withdraw, and relations between all parties became normalized. However, the Manchus took advantage of Joseon's war-weakened state and invaded in 1627 and 1637 and then went on to conquer

6888-546: The Korea Strait and the East China Sea . The country, including all its islands, lies between latitudes 33° and 39°N , and longitudes 124° and 130°E . Its total area is 100,410 square kilometers (38,768.52 sq mi). South Korea can be divided into four general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains, river basins , and rolling hills;

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7056-498: The Liao River during the turmoil. The Tang tried to appease Dae Jungsang (Da Zhongxiang) and Geolsa Biu (Qisi Biyu), two local leaders, by granting them the titles of Duke of Zhen (Jin) and Duke of Xu (Heo) respectively. Geolsa Biu rejected the offer but was soon defeated by a Tang force led by Li Kaigu , while Dae Jungsang fled with his followers but also died around the same time. Dae Jungsang's son, Dae Joyeong (Da Zuorong), left

7224-567: The March First Movement protests in 1919 and the subsequent foundation of resistance groups in exile, primarily in China. Among the resistance groups was Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea . Towards the end of World War II , the U.S. proposed dividing the Korean peninsula into two occupation zones: a U.S. zone and a Soviet zone . Dean Rusk and Charles H. Bonesteel III suggested

7392-537: The Proto–Three Kingdoms period , the states of Buyeo , Okjeo , Dongye , and Samhan occupied the whole Korean peninsula and southern Manchuria. From them, the Three Kingdoms of Korea emerged: Goguryeo , Baekje , and Silla . Goguryeo, the largest and most powerful among them, was a highly militaristic state and competed with various Chinese dynasties during its 700 years of history. Goguryeo experienced

7560-527: The Red Turbans . However, in 1392, General Yi Seong-gye , who had been ordered to attack China, turned his army around and staged a coup. Yi Seong-gye declared the new name of Korea as "Joseon" in reference to Gojoseon, and moved the capital to Hanseong (one of the old names of Seoul ). The first 200 years of the Joseon dynasty were marked by peace and saw great advancements in science and education, as well as

7728-474: The Seoul subway system , and laid the foundation for economic development during his 17-year tenure, which ended with his assassination in 1979. The years after Park's assassination were marked again by political turmoil, as the previously suppressed opposition leaders all campaigned to run for president in the sudden political void. In 1979, General Chun Doo-hwan led the coup d'état of December Twelfth . Following

7896-739: The Shandong Peninsula and the mouth of the Yangtze River. However, Silla was later weakened due to internal strife and the revival of successor states Baekje and Goguryeo , which culminated into the Later Three Kingdoms period in the late 9th century. Buddhism flourished during this time. Many Korean Buddhists gained great fame among Chinese Buddhist circles and greatly contributed to Chinese Buddhism . Examples of significant Korean Buddhists from this period include Woncheuk , Wonhyo , Uisang , Musang , and Kim Gyo-gak . Kim

8064-667: The Silla dynasty . Hwang Rak arrived at a place in Korea called Pyeong-Hae (평해,平海), located in the Eastern province of GyeongSang-BukDo, as currently known in South Korea. Upon settling in Pyeong-Hae, Hwang Rak naturalized as a Silla citizen and became the first progenitor of the last name Hwang (황) in Korea. His grave is located at GulMi-Bong (봉, 峰, peak), 423-8 BunJi, Wolsong-Ri, PyeongHae-Eub, WolJin-Kun, KyeongSang-BukDo, Republic of Korea , but only

8232-600: The bon-gwan . The last name is referred to as the Ssi (씨-氏) in Korean. This arranges every Korean family clan name as bon-gwan ssi, or in other words, family clan - last name. The Korean Hwang surname originates from a Chinese Han dynasty 's diplomatic ambassador to Vietnam , named Hwang Rak (황락,黃洛). Hwang Rak is recorded in AD 28 as having become lost at sea during a voyage from China to Vietnam , and instead having arrived in Korea during

8400-561: The communist Democratic People's Republic of Korea the following month. In 1950, a North Korean invasion began the Korean War , which ended in 1953 after extensive fighting involving the American-led United Nations Command and the People's Volunteer Army from China with Soviet assistance . The war left 3 million Koreans dead and the economy in ruins . The authoritarian First Republic of Korea led by Syngman Rhee

8568-410: The fourteenth-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP . Its citizens enjoy one of the world's fastest Internet connection speeds and densest high-speed railway networks . The country is the world's ninth-largest exporter and ninth-largest importer . Its armed forces are ranked as one of the world's strongest militaries, with the world's second-largest standing army by military and paramilitary personnel . In

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8736-511: The "Central Territories" was widespread from Song times onward. The term "Balhae" became noticeably less prevalent under the rule of the Mongol Empire . There is no trace of Balhae descendants from the defunct Jin dynasty and no epitaphs from the Mongol era claim a Balhae identity. Balhae was only used as a toponym in the early 14th century and Balhae disappeared entirely from historical sources by

8904-498: The 14th century dynasty) in 2333 BCE by the legendary Dangun . Gojoseon was noted in Chinese records in the early 7th century. Gojoseon expanded until it controlled the northern Korean Peninsula and parts of Manchuria . Gija Joseon was purportedly founded in the 12th century BCE, but its existence and role have been controversial in the modern era. In 108 BCE, the Han dynasty defeated Wiman Joseon and installed four commanderies in

9072-711: The 21st century, South Korea has been renowned for its globally influential pop culture, particularly in music , TV dramas , and cinema , a phenomenon referred to as the Korean Wave . It is a member of the OECD 's Development Assistance Committee , the G20 , the IPEF , and the Paris Club . The name Korea is an exonym , although it was derived from a historical kingdom name, Goryeo ( Revised Romanization ) or Koryŏ ( McCune–Reischauer ). Goryeo

9240-552: The 750s and 760s to plan for the attack. Silla likely knew of these plans and prepared by building six castles along the border with Balhae in 762. The border region changed hands many times but the losses are not described in Silla's official history, only the dates when an army was sent north. Japan prepared a fleet to invade southern Silla; however the plan never came to fruition. In 755, the An Lushan Rebellion broke out, causing

9408-535: The Balhae and Jurchens were mentioned in connection to each other and placed within a similar category. The Khitans themselves eventually succumbed to the Jurchen people , the descendants of the Mohe, who founded the Jin dynasty . Jurchen proclamations emphasized the common descent of the Balhae and Jurchens from the seven Wuji (勿吉) tribes. The Jin sent two Balhae representatives to recruit "people from their home area" while bearing

9576-400: The Balhae culture was an amalgamation of High Tang Chinese, Korean, and Tungusic cultures. Dae Joyeong died in 719 and was succeeded by his son, Dae Muye (Da Wuyi, r. 719–737). While Muye accepted Tang gifts and title upon his succession, he showed his independence by giving his father a posthumous temple name , Gowang/Gaowang (high king). Muye adopted his own reign title in 720. In 721,

9744-457: The Balhae population as consisting of solely Mohe people, but this could be due to the antagonistic relations between the two states causing the Sillan nobility to ignore Goguryeo elements of Balhae ethnic composition. The Ruijū Kokushi , a 9th-century Japanese text, says that when Balhae was founded, it spanned 2,000 li and was filled with villages, each of which were Mohe tribes. Japanese diplomatic communications with Balhae recognized it as

9912-451: The Balhae refugees. This was in stark contrast to Later Silla, which had endured a hostile relationship with Balhae. Taejo displayed strong animosity toward the Khitans who had destroyed Balhae. The Liao dynasty sent 30 envoys with 50 camels as a gift in 942, but Taejo exiled the envoys to an island and starved the camels under a bridge, in what is known as the "Manbu Bridge Incident". Taejo proposed to Gaozu of Later Jin that they attack

10080-430: The Balhae royal family, Da Gao (1086–1153), served in the Jin army and was given command of eight Balhae battalions in the war against the Song dynasty . One Balhae commander, Guo Yaoshi (active 1116–1132) fought in the Liao, Jin, and Song armies at one point or another. The Balhae played a critical role in supporting Emperor Shizong of Jin 's accession to the throne. Families of Balhae descent were able to rise high in

10248-442: The Bohai Commandery. According to Jin Yufu, the Tang referred to the state as Mohe (Malgal, name of the ethnic group) until 713, and "Balhae" was possibly used as a different transcription of the same name. According to the New Book of Tang , the state was called Mohe before it received investiture from China and assumed the name Bohai. Linguists Karl Heinrich Menges and Roy Andrew Miller raised another theory, suggesting that

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10416-470: The Chang-Won (창원황씨,昌原黃氏), Jang-Su (장수황씨,張水黃氏), and Pyeonghae (평해황씨,平海黃氏) clans, with the largest member counts of the 55 Hwang clans. South Korea South Korea , officially the Republic of Korea ( ROK ), is a country in East Asia . It constitutes the southern half of the Korean Peninsula and borders North Korea along the Korean Demilitarized Zone ; though it also claims the land border with China and Russia . The country's western border

10584-451: The Eastern Capital's gates to the Khitans. His short lived dynasty came to an end. The old Balhae nobility were resettled near the Supreme Capital while others fled to Goryeo. In 1114, Balhae descendants took advantage of the Jurchen-Khitan war and rebelled. They defeated Khitan armies twice before they were destroyed. In 1116 another rebellion occurred at the Eastern Capital when a Balhae officer named Gao Yongchang declared himself emperor of

10752-408: The Goryeo army. Some of Goryeo's officers sought further confrontation with the Liao, but the Goryeo diplomatic corps and nobility asked the Goryeo king to exercise caution. The Goryeo king decided to abandon military activities against the Liao. Despite this, Balhae people continued to send missions to Goryeo requesting assistance. The last mission, led by Lee Kwang Rok, arrived after the destruction of

10920-406: The Great and declined. Silla was the smallest and weakest of the three, but used opportunistic pacts and alliances with the more powerful Korean kingdoms, and eventually Tang China , to its advantage. In 676, the unification of the Three Kingdoms by Silla led to the Northern and Southern States period , in which Balhae controlled the northern parts of Goguryeo, and much of the Korean Peninsula

11088-412: The Jang-Su Hwang family clan. The third and youngest son, Byung-Go, is said to have settled in Chang-Won, becoming the first progenitor of the Chang-Won Hwang family clan. These migrations of the two sons have resulted in the three major Bon-gwans being created under the Hwang family name. All figures are from the 2000 South Korean census. To this day, the three primary branches of the Hwang family are

11256-426: The Japanese islands and displaced or intermingled with the original Jōmon inhabitants. The linguistic homeland of Proto- Koreans is located somewhere in southern Siberia / Manchuria , such as the Liao River area or the Amur River area. Proto-Koreans arrived in the southern part of the Korean Peninsula at around 300 BC, replacing and assimilating Japonic-speakers and likely causing the Yayoi migration. During

11424-408: The Jin dynasty was collapsing from the Mongol invasions, You established an independent fort near Gaozhou (modern Chifeng ). They fought off several military detachments until they were besieged by Muqali . After You surrendered, Muqali praised him to Genghis Khan , who bestowed on him the Mongol name Halabadu. He later fought for the Mongols at Taiyuan in 1227. You Xingge's son is only referred to by

11592-465: The Jin dynasty. In 1136, the Jurchen official Wanyan Puluhu revoked the pardon of a man when his origin was determined to be Balhae. Policies to restrain and weaken Balhae were increased over time. In 1140, an edict abolished Han Chinese and Balhae hereditary military garrisons but not Kumo Xi and Khitan garrisons. The Jin government also targeted the Balhae population for relocation. Over the years, groups of Balhae who were once moved outside to areas near

11760-600: The Jin hierarchy, including Zhang Rulin (d. 1190) and Zhang Rubi (d. 1187), who were key advisers of Emperor Shizong, and Li Yin ( jinshi 1194, d. 1214), who died fighting against the Mongols . Balhae descendants also participated with success in the Jin imperial examinations. Many Balhae literati-officials such as Gao Kan (d. 1167), Gao Xian ( jinshi 1203), Zhang Rulin, Zhang Runeng, Zhang Ruwei (fl. 1150), Zhang Rufang, and Wang Tingyun (1151–1202) were entrusted as arbiters of culture and cultivated taste. Wang Tingyun's family received literary distinctions. His eldest daughter became

11928-464: The Khitan Liao dynasty because of the decision of the Khitans near modern Chifeng and Tongliao , who recognized the supremacy of Balhae, to become part of the Liao dynasty. The Liao ruler Abaoji took possession of the Liao River basin, which led to a long conflict. In 911, Silla allied with Balhae against the Khitans. In 924, Balhae attacked the Khitans. The next year, a Balhae general, Sindeok, surrendered to Goryeo . In 925, Silla allied with

12096-492: The Khitan empire and the Korean peninsula of Goryeo. However this theory has lost popularity in Korea in recent times and Russian scholars do not consider it a plausible reason for Balhae's collapse. The most paramount reason seems to have been military confrontation with a superior power, the Khitans. The Old Book of Tang stated that the kingdom originally had around 100,000 households and tens of thousands of soldiers, suggesting

12264-445: The Khitan empire, the term "Bohai" was used through the fourteenth century to denote a subset of the populations of the Liao, Jin, and Mongol empires . The Liao Eastern Capital (Dongjing, modern-day Liaoyang , Liaoning ) served as a base for monitoring the former Balhae territories. The city's residents, over 40,000 in early tenth century, were primarily Balhae, according to a figure cited by Pamela Crossley. Dae Inseon (Da Yinzhuan),

12432-412: The Khitans and helped them in their war against Balhae. Afterwards, warriors from Silla were rewarded by the Khitan ruler. In 926, the Khitans laid siege to the Balhae capital Shangjing /Sanggyeong and forced their surrender. In Balhae's place, the Khitans established the autonomous kingdom of Dongdan ruled by the Liao crown prince Yelü Bei . Its independence ended in 929 when a new Liao ruler ordered

12600-527: The Khitans in retribution for Balhae, according to the Zizhi Tongjian . Furthermore, in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants, he stated that the Khitans are "savage beasts" and should be guarded against. Khitan conquest of Balhae resulted in Goryeo's prolonged hostility towards the Khitan Empire. Exodus en masse on part from the Balhae refugees would continue on at least until the early 12th century during

12768-483: The Koguryŏ population was dominant in Bohai. But Chinese historians tend to disagree, believing that Bohai was a Chinese province with some political autonomy, with the Mohe people as its main population. According to Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn (b. 857), the people of Balhae were Mohe. In the conflict between the joint Tang-Silla forces against Balhae, Silla described Balhae as "rebellious barbarians." Sillan aristocracy tended to view

12936-507: The Korean crown prince. Henceforth, Goryeo continued to rule Korea, though as a tributary ally to the Mongols for the next 86 years. During this period, the two nations became intertwined as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses, and the last empress of the Yuan dynasty was a Korean princess. In the mid-14th century, Goryeo drove out the Mongols to regain its northern territories, briefly conquered Liaoyang , and defeated invasions by

13104-528: The Korean name. As a result, the Korean name "Daehan Minguk" is sometimes used by South Koreans as a metonym to refer to the Korean ethnicity (or " race ") as a whole, rather than just the South Korean state. The Korean Peninsula was inhabited as early as the Lower Paleolithic period. According to Korea's founding mythology , the history of Korea begins with the founding of Joseon (also known as " Gojoseon ", or "Old Joseon", to differentiate it with

13272-680: The Korean romanization to avoid a "Chinese" narrative spread by the usage of pinyin romanization. According to Pamela Kyle Crossley , neither Chinese or Korean transliterations can be correct. She chose to use modern Chinese transliteration "to indicate that the only referent we have is Chinese characters". Jesse D. Sloane chose to use "Parhae" because it was not covered in depth in the state-mandated curriculum of China, but used Chinese romanization for all other terms related to Balhae that appeared in Chinese sources first. Neither Crossley or Sloane meant to depict Balhae as essentially Chinese but used Chinese romanization out of convenience and to acknowledge

13440-533: The Liao River and the coast of the Liaodong Peninsula . In 733, Tang and Sillan forces attempted a joint attack on Balhae but were accosted by a blizzard that blocked all roads and killed half of the 100,000 Tang-Silla army, forcing them to abort the invasion. Muye continued to try to kill his brother. He sent an agent to Luoyang to plot the assassination of his brother. Munye was attacked in broad daylight near

13608-580: The Liao River valley for Mt. Tianmen (in modern Jilin Province ). There, he dealt a heavy defeat to the Tang forces at the Battle of Tianmenling (Cheonmunnyeong), after which he led his followers to set up a state. In 698, Dae Joyeong declared himself King of Zhen (Jin). Another account of the events suggests that there was no rebellion at all, and the leader of the Sumo Mohe (Songmal Malgal) rendered assistance to

13776-417: The Liao era, Balhae people were not employed in the government, as a result they were the first to defect to the Jin. The call for Balhae defectors was met with significant success. Aguda was advised by a Balhae man named Yang Pu who aided him in establishing an imperial court. An 1125 embassy noted that Jin protocol officers included Khitans, Jurchens, as well as Balhae. They all spoke Chinese. A descendant of

13944-616: The Liao supreme or central capital regions were resettled east of the Taihang Mountains , which was completed by 1141. Another relocation south of Zhongdu was planned in 1149, but the Balhae court attendant Gao Shouxing protested to Empress Daoping , who told the emperor, resulting in the beating and death of the two officials planning the relocation. A substantial Jin military presence was bought to Liaodong in which as many as thirty Jurchen meng'an units ( meng'an literally means one thousand or units composed of one thousand soldiers) and

14112-471: The Mohe portion of Balhae's population and not the Goguryeo people, who were not included in the seven Wuji tribes. The Samguk sagi , written in the 12th century by Kim Bu-sik , did not consider Balhae a Korean state. The Samguk yusa , a 13th-century collection of Korean history and legends, describes Dae as a Sumo Mohe leader. However, it gives another account of Dae being a former Goguryeo general, citing

14280-549: The Mongol hierarchy, rather than the inferior fourth category, Nanren (Southern Chinese). Aside from legal references to the Taihe Code of the Jin dynasty, the term "Balhae" is absent from the Yuan legal compendium. The referenced passages have to do with limitations on levirate marriage for Han and Balhae and restrictions on marriage during mourning. Some Balhae adopted Mongol or Tatar culture rather than Chinese. The biography of You Xingge (d. 1227) identifies him as Balhae. As

14448-597: The Sea , Marine Dumping , Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (not into force), Ozone Layer Protection , Ship Pollution , Tropical Timber 83 , Tropical Timber 94 , Wetlands , and Whaling . The South Korean government's structure is determined by the Constitution of the Republic of Korea . Like many democratic states, South Korea has a government divided into three branches: executive , judicial , and legislative . The executive and legislative branches operate primarily at

14616-466: The Sinitic Wang Zheng. Wang Tingyun also invented a genealogy record on his epitaph tracing his lineage to Taiyuan rather than Liaodong. The epitaph acknowledges that his most recent ancestors were in the employ of Balhae but added that they only "lived dispersed among the eastern barbarians", rejecting his Balhae identity. The practice of inventing fictitious genealogies to hide ancestry outside of

14784-446: The South Korean public. South Korea saw another milestone in 2012 with the first ever female President Park Geun-hye elected and assuming office. The daughter of former President Park Chung Hee, she carried on a conservative brand of politics. President Park Geun-hye's administration was formally accused of corruption, bribery, and influence-peddling for the involvement of close friend Choi Soon-sil in state affairs. There followed

14952-770: The South, the United States appointed and supported the former head of the Korean Provisional Government Syngman Rhee as leader. Rhee won the first presidential elections of the newly declared Republic of Korea in May 1948. In the North, the Soviets backed a former anti-Japanese guerrilla and communist activist, Kim Il Sung , who was appointed premier of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea in September. In October,

15120-548: The Soviet Union declared Kim Il Sung's government as sovereign over both the north and south. The UN declared Rhee's government as "a lawful government having effective control and jurisdiction over that part of Korea where the UN Temporary Commission on Korea was able to observe and consult" and the government "based on elections which was observed by the Temporary Commission" in addition to a statement that "this

15288-581: The Tang asked Balhae for military support against the Khitans but they refused. To check Balhae's influence, the Tang appointed a chieftain of the Heishui Mohe (Heuksu Malgal) as prefect of Bozhou (in modern Khabarovsk ) in 722. In 725, the Andong Protectorate suggested stationing an army in the region. In response, Tang officials dispatched an administration staffed by the leaders of smaller tribes under

15456-408: The Tang by suppressing Khitan rebels. As a reward the Tang acknowledged the leader as the local hegemon of a semi-independent state. In diplomatic communications between Silla and Jin, Silla attempted to confer investiture to Dae Joyeong with the title of a fifth rank official: "Dae Achan". Silla conferred this mid-ranking investiture partially out of a sense of superiority, but also because Balhae

15624-546: The Tang court, to return to Silla and organize an attack on Balhae. Chungsin excused himself from the request by asking to remain in China as the emperor's bodyguard. In his place, the Tang sent Kim Saran, a low ranking Sillan diplomat, and a Tang eunuch. Munye was also recalled to recruit soldiers in Youzhou. In the meantime, Balhae struck again, sacking the town of Mt. Matou (northwest of modern Shanhaiguan ), and killing 10,000 Tang soldiers. The Balhae force raided and pillaged along

15792-465: The Tang dynasty. A Balhae envoy arrived at the Tang court in 732 requesting the execution of Munye. In response, the Tang secretly sent Munye to Central Asia while informing Muye that his brother had been banished to South China . The reality of events, however, leaked out, enraging Muye. A Balhae naval force led by Jang Mun-hyu (Zhang Wenxiu) attacked Dengzhou on the north shore of the Shandong Peninsula and killed its prefect. Additionally, Dengzhou

15960-448: The Tang or Silla recognized Balhae as the successor of Goguryeo. The Tang considered it a dukedom while Silla considered it their vassal. South Korean historians such as Kim Eng Gug, however, believe that the Tang viewed Balhae as Goguryeo's successor. Between 713 and 721, Silla constructed a northern wall to maintain active defences along the border. The Tang later recognized Balhae as a kingdom in 762 but Silla continued to view Balhae as

16128-400: The Tang to lose control of the northeast, and even after the rebellion's end in 763, warlords known as jiedushi controlled the former northeastern part of the Tang empire. In 762, Emperor Daizong of Tang formally recognized Balhae as a state and Heummu as its king. Although China recognized him as a king, Balhae itself referred to him as the son of heaven (emperor) and a king. The consort of

16296-437: The Tang, which would have weakened Balhae's dominace of the northern trade routes. Balhae's successful attack on Dengzhou also demonstrates a surprising maritime prowess for a thirty-year old state, which had military naval vessels that could cross the sea as well as merchant vessels that could carry out trade activities. In response to the attacks, the Tang ordered Kim Chungsin, the nephew of Seongdeok of Silla and courtier in

16464-458: The Tianjin Bridge outside the imperial palace but escaped unharmed. Japanese records indicate that Balhae and Japan enjoyed very amicable relations. When King Mu sent Balhae's first envoy delegation to Japan in 727, the mission was made up of 24 men, which included high-ranking Generals such as Ko In ˇui and Ko Ched ˇok. King Mu had 300 sable furs sent by the Balhae delegation to Japan as both

16632-456: The Vietnam War. Park was heavily criticized as a ruthless military dictator, who in 1972 extended his rule by creating a new constitution , which gave the president sweeping (almost dictatorial) powers and permitted him to run for an unlimited number of six-year terms. The Korean economy developed significantly during Park's tenure. The government developed the nationwide expressway system ,

16800-437: The Yuan dynasty and requested aid from the Jin. Liao troops sent to quash the rebellion were themselves led by those of Balhae descent. The Jin relief troops to Yuan easily repulsed the Liao troops but then turned on the Balhae rebels and killed Gao Yongchang. The distinction between Balhae and Jurchen rebellions was not always clear to the Liao. In the 1117 epitaph of an officer who died while fighting against Jurchens in 1114,

16968-537: The Yuexi Mohe and other tribes along the Amur valley in the north. In 818-820, he also invaded Liaodong and parts of Silla on Balhae's southern border. In 826, Silla mobilized tens of thousands of people to fortify the border with Balhae. In the middle of the 9th century, Balhae completed its local administrative system, which was composed of five capitals, 15 prefectures and 62 counties. In 907, Balhae came into conflict with

17136-529: The advice of nobles and scholars to the Goryeo king. Other Balhae people serving in the Liao military also refused to join Xing Liao. Four groups of ambassadors were sent but the last group remained in Goryeo rather than return. Instead only a handful of Jurchens joined his regime. Many participants of the rebellion probably realized the weakness of the new dynasty and fled to Goryeo before its collapse. A year later, one of Da Yanlin's officers betrayed him and opened

17304-465: The altar of the grave remains as a marker. Before his death, Hwang-Rak had three sons named Gab-Go (갑고,甲古), Eul-Go (을고,乙古), and Byung-Go (병고,丙古), from eldest to youngest. Gab-Go, the oldest son, is recorded as having remained in Pyeong-Hae, continuing the main Pyeong-Hae family clan. The second son, Eul-Go, is said to have left home Westwards and eventually settled in Jang-Su, becoming the first progenitor of

17472-511: The capital of North Korea. Later that year, Kim received the Nobel Peace Prize "for his work for democracy and human rights in South Korea and in East Asia in general, and for peace and reconciliation with North Korea in particular". However, because of discontent among the population for fruitless approaches to the North under the previous administrations and, amid North Korean provocations,

17640-460: The coast past what is now Hamgyong Province. This route, which also passed through Balhae's Southern Capital, was established for the purpose of conducting trade with Silla. Since the 1980s large numbers of archaeological sites related to Parhae have been excavated in North Korea; among those sites, the fortress at Bukcheong and the monastery site at Omae-ri in the city of Sinpo were locales engaged in

17808-528: The command of the Youzhou governor-general. Muye was convinced that the Heishui Mohe and the Tang were plotting to attack him and required a preemptive strike. He ordered his brother, Dae Munye (Da Wenyi), to attack the Heishui Mohe. Munye, who had stayed at the Tang capital as a hostage since the start of peaceful relations in 705, and understood the implications of attacking a Tang ally, was reluctant to carry out

17976-584: The coup d'état, Chun planned to rise to power through several measures. On May 17, Chun forced the Cabinet to expand martial law to the whole nation, which had previously not applied to Jeju Island . The expanded martial law closed universities, banned political activities, and further curtailed the press. Chun's assumption of the presidency through the events of May 17 triggered nationwide protests demanding democracy; these protests were particularly focused, Gwangju , to which Chun sent special forces to violently suppress

18144-472: The court of Emperor Dezong of Tang of their own volition. Peace with the Tang allowed Balhae to further expand its territory. After the death of Heummu, who was posthumously known as Mun of Balhae (Wen, r. 737–793), Balhae experienced a succession crisis. As a result, Balhae lost territory and bordering Mohe tribes rebelled. Both the reigns of Seon of Balhae (Xuan, r. 818–830) and Dae Ijin (Da Yizhen, r. 830–857) saw intrusions by Mohe tribes. Seon annexed

18312-430: The creation of Hangul by Sejong the Great to promote literacy among the common people. The prevailing ideology of the time was Neo-Confucianism , which was epitomized by the seonbi class: nobles who passed up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity. Between 1592 and 1598, Japan under Toyotomi Hideyoshi launched invasions of Korea , but the advance was halted by Korean forces (most notably

18480-432: The crown prince numbered in the tens of thousands of households. According to Alexander Kim, Goryeo's statistical information shows that more than 100,000 Balhae people moved to Goryeo at different points in time. As descendants of Goguryeo, the Balhae people and the Goryeo dynasts were related. Taejo of Goryeo felt a strong familial kinship with Balhae, calling it his "relative country" and "married country", and protected

18648-478: The crown prince was given the family name Wang ( 왕 ; 王 ), the royal family name of the Goryeo dynasty, and included in the royal household by Wang Geon , who was crowned as Taejo of Goryeo. Koreans believe Goryeo thus unified the two successor nations of Goguryeo. Some other members of the Balhae royalty took the surname Tae ( 태 ; 太 ). According to the Goryeosa jeolyo , the Balhae refugees who accompanied

18816-474: The current Sixth Republic. The country is now considered among the most advanced democracies in continental and East Asia. South Korea maintains a unitary presidential republic under the 1987 constitution with a unicameral legislature, the National Assembly . It is considered a regional power and a developed country , with its economy ranked as the world's fourteenth-largest by nominal GDP and

18984-561: The destabilized Ming dynasty. After normalizing relations with the new Qing dynasty , Joseon experienced a nearly 200-year period of peace. Kings Yeongjo and Jeongjo particularly led a new renaissance of the Joseon dynasty during the 18th century. In the 19th century, Joseon began experiencing economic difficulties and widespread uprisings, including the Donghak Peasant Revolution . The royal in-law families had gained control of

19152-565: The dispersion of knowledge on philosophy, literature, religion, and science. By 1100, there were 12 universities that produced notable scholars. However, the Mongol invasions in the 13th century greatly weakened the kingdom. Goryeo was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after three decades of fighting, the Korean court sent its crown prince to the Yuan capital to swear allegiance to Kublai Khan , who accepted and married one of his daughters to

19320-509: The end of the 8th century the relationship had become cordial and friendly. The Tang dynasty would eventually recognize Balhae as the "Prosperous Country of the East". Numerous cultural and political exchanges were made. Balhae was conquered by the Khitan -led Liao dynasty in 926. Balhae survived as a distinct population group for another three centuries in the Liao and Jin dynasties before disappearing under Mongol rule . The history surrounding

19488-467: The environment. Unchecked industrialization and urban development have resulted in deforestation and the ongoing destruction of wetlands such as the Songdo Tidal Flat. However, there have been recent efforts to balance these problems, including a government run $ 84 billion five-year green growth project that aims to boost energy efficiency and green technology. The green-based economic strategy

19656-562: The exception of the short-lived Second Republic of Korea , the country has always had a presidential system with an independent chief executive. Under its current constitution the state is sometimes referred to as the Sixth Republic of Korea . The first direct election was also held in 1948. Balhae Balhae , also rendered as Bohai , known by the name Bohea and called Jin ( Korean :  진국 ; Hanja :  震國 ; Korean pronunciation: [tɕinguk̚] )

19824-496: The families of the retinues were moved to garrisons in the Eastern Capital Circuit. The southward migration of Jurchens, especially Jurchen aristocrats, may have contributed to a decline of people who identified as Balhae. In 1177, a decree was passed to abolish the "old Bohai custom" of marriage through mock abduction. Although the Balhae experienced less restrictions under the Jin, there was also less emphasis on Balhae as

19992-518: The fourth largest city in the world. It experienced a golden age of art and culture, exemplified by monuments such as Hwangnyongsa , Seokguram , and the Emille Bell . It also carried on the maritime legacy and prowess of Baekje, and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea, and Japan, most notably during the time of Jang Bogo . In addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on

20160-415: The government tried raising taxes on them. The leader of the rebellion was the Liao general Da Yanlin , a 7th generation descendant of the founder of Balhae. He arrested and killed Khitan leaders and proclaimed the establishment of a new dynasty, Xing Liao . He sent an ambassador to Goryeo requesting military support. Goryeo sent some military troops against the Liao but the Khitans repelled them and expelled

20328-477: The government, leading to mass corruption and weakening of the state. In addition, the strict isolationism of the Joseon government that earned it "the hermit kingdom " became increasing ineffective due to increasing encroachment from powers such as Japan, Russia, and the United States. This is exemplified by the Joseon–United States Treaty of 1882 , in which it was compelled to open its borders. In

20496-689: The incident, igniting the June Democratic Struggle across the country. Eventually, Chun's party, the Democratic Justice Party , and its leader, Roh Tae-woo , announced the June 29 Declaration , which included the direct election of the president. Roh went on to win the election by a narrow margin against the two main opposition leaders, Kim Dae-jung and Kim Young-sam . Seoul hosted the Olympic Games in 1988 , widely regarded as successful and

20664-552: The last Balhae king, and other members of the former royal lineage still held considerable authority in Dongdan and the Eastern Capital after Balhae's fall. Some Balhae elites, on the other hand, were integrated into the Liao aristocracy and often changed their personal identities dramatically. According to Wittfogel and Feng, an undated Liao census puts the number of Balhae households in Liaoyang at around 100,000, which would be around half

20832-409: The last name becoming a broad umbrella designation that involves numerous family clans. Therefore, individuals with Korean descent may be completely unrelated even if their last names are identical, depending on their family clan, or bon-gwan . In the Korean language, Bon-gwans are expressed before the family name when necessary and often involves the family progenitor's first settlement as the name of

21000-531: The late 14th century. Near the end of Mongol rule, Tao Zongyi (c. 1316–1402) put Balhae alongside Khitan and Jurchen under a subcategory within Hanren , which is not surprising given that most of them at the time of the Mongol conquest were literati, officials, or attachments to the Jin bureaucracy. Many chose to use Chinese style names, similar to Jurchens, probably for inclusion in the Hanren (Northern Chinese) category under

21168-743: The late 19th century, Japan became a significant regional power after winning the First Sino-Japanese War against Qing China and the Russo-Japanese War against the Russian Empire . In 1897, King Gojong, the last king of Korea , proclaimed Joseon as the Korean Empire . However, Japan compelled Korea to become its protectorate in 1905 and formally annexed it in 1910. What followed was a period of forced assimilation, in which Korean language, culture, and history were suppressed. This led to

21336-457: The majority of Balhae's population were Mohe. In a diplomatic mission to Japan in 727 or 728, the Balhae envoy said that Balhae has "recovered the lost land of Goguryeo and inherited the old traditions of Buyeo ." Some consider this divide to be a cause of tension that contributed to Balhae's eventual downfall. Chinese scholars have made claims that Han Chinese were a part of the Balhae population, but apart from Goguryeo and Mohe, no other group

21504-490: The mid 9th century. In the first few decades after Balhae's fall, Balhae refugees were welcomed by Goryeo. However, it seems few Balhae refugees retained high positions in Goryeo as service in the Khitan administration offered more benefits. Goryeo annals contain only six names of high-ranking officials who were of Balhae origin. From 1029 to 1030, the Khitan Administration was rocked by a rebellion by Balhae people after

21672-415: The mountainous interior. Summer can be uncomfortably hot and humid, with temperatures exceeding 30 °C (86 °F) in most parts of the country. South Korea has four distinct seasons; spring, summer, autumn and winter. Spring usually lasts from late March to early May, summer from mid-May to early September, autumn from mid-September to early November, and winter from mid-November to mid-March. Rainfall

21840-580: The name 震 (진, Jin ), read as tsyinH in Middle Chinese . The kingdom's name was transcribed as 振 in Chinese , with the same Middle Chinese reading as 震 . In 713, the Tang dynasty bestowed the ruler of Jin with the noble title "Prince of Commandery of Bohai (Balhae)" (渤海郡王). In 762, the Tang formally elevated Balhae to the status of a kingdom. The kingdom's territories did not overlap with

22008-426: The name Balhae had an underlying native name which was cognate to Manchu butha ("hunting"). The transcriptions Bohai (Chinese pinyin romanization), Po-hai (Chinese Wade–Giles romanization), and Parhae (Korean McCune–Reischauer romanization) are also used in modern academia. Most Western-language scholarship have opted for Bohai except in the field of Korean studies; however, some scholars have chosen

22176-607: The nation rapidly developed to become one of the Four Asian Tigers based on international trade and economic globalization , integrating itself within the world economy with export-oriented industrialization . The Fourth Republic was established after the October Restoration of 1972, in which Park wielded absolute power. The Yushin Constitution declared that the president could suspend basic human rights and appoint

22344-478: The national level, although various ministries in the executive branch also carry out local functions. The judicial branch operates at both the national and local levels. Local governments are semi-autonomous and contain executive and legislative bodies of their own. South Korea is a constitutional democracy. The constitution has been revised several times since its first promulgation in 1948 at independence. However, it has retained many broad characteristics and with

22512-461: The north and the south, the war eventually reached a stalemate. During the war, Rhee's party promoted the One-People Principle , an effort to build an obedient citizenry through ethnic homogeneity and authoritarian appeals to nationalism . The 1953 armistice , never signed by South Korea, split the peninsula along the demilitarized zone near the original demarcation line. No peace treaty

22680-475: The northern Korean peninsula. Three of the commanderies fell or retreated westward within a few decades. As Lelang Commandery was destroyed and rebuilt around this time, the place gradually moved toward Liaodong. Thus, its force was diminished and only served as a trade center until it was conquered by Goguryeo in 313. Beginning around 300 BC, the Japonic -speaking Yayoi people from the Korean Peninsula entered

22848-426: The official name for the entire territory, though it was not universally accepted. The new official name has its origin in the ancient kingdom of Gojoseon (2333 BCE). In 1897, the Joseon dynasty changed the country's official name from Joseon to Daehan Jeguk ( Korean Empire ). The name Daehan (Great Han) derives from Samhan (Three Han), referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea , not the ancient confederacies in

23016-528: The order. He advised Muye to abandon the plan twice. When Goguryeo was at its peak, the country had 300,000 elite soldiers. It resisted the Tang court and refused to submit itself to China. As soon as the Tang troops reached the country, however, Goguryeo was swept into the dust. Now the population of Balhae is several times less than that of Goguryeo. Yet you want to betray the Tang court. We must not do it. Muye paid his brother no heed and used his reluctance as pretext to remove Munye from command. Munye fled to

23184-478: The origin of the state, its ethnic composition, the modern cultural affiliation of the ruling dynasty, the reading of their names, and its borders are the subject of a historiographical dispute between Korea, China and Russia. Historical sources from both China and Korea have described Balhae's founder, Dae Joyeong, as related to the Mohe people and Goguryeo . Balhae was founded in 698 by Dae Joyeong (Da Zuorong) under

23352-426: The past [this tribe], being in competition with Gouli, moved to the inner region [China]. Russian scholars argue that the ethnic composition of Balhae cannot be determined with great precision because no materials exist that can confirm either the Chinese or Korean claims. Some Russian scholars claim Balhae as part of Manchurian history while others believe Balhae was neither a Korean state or Chinese province and there

23520-529: The peoples who traded with this part of the world known by the Portuguese as the Gores . Despite the coexistence of the spellings Corea and Korea in 19th-century publications, some Koreans believe that Imperial Japan , around the time of the Japanese occupation, intentionally standardized the spelling of Korea , making Japan appear first alphabetically. After Goryeo was replaced by Joseon in 1392, Joseon became

23688-504: The reign of King Yejong, according to Korean scholars. Due to this constant massive influx of Balhae refugees, the Goguryeo population is speculated to have become dominant in proportion compared to their Silla and Baekje counterparts that have experienced devastating war and political strife since the advent of the Later Three Kingdoms. Later Baekje fared only little better than Later Silla before its fall in 936. Meanwhile, of

23856-463: The relocation of its population. It was soon absorbed into the Liao in 936. The name of Balhae was officially removed in 982. Meanwhile, a series of nobilities and elites led by key figures such as crown prince Dae Gwang-hyeon , were absorbed into Goryeo . Some Balhae aristocrats were forced to move to Liaoyang, but Balhae's eastern territory remained politically independent in Later Balhae , which

24024-467: The resignation of the autocratic President Syngman Rhee. This was followed by 13 months of political instability as South Korea was led by a weak and ineffectual government. This instability was broken by the May 16, 1961, coup led by General Park Chung Hee . As president, Park oversaw a period of rapid export-led economic growth enforced by political repression . Under Park, South Korea took an active role in

24192-549: The ruler of Balhae. The ethnic identity of Balhae's founder is controversial and disputed. Many Chinese, Korean, Russian, and Japanese scholars of Balhae believe its population was composed of Goguryeo remnants and Mohe tribes. Chinese scholars consider that Mohe people form the ethnic majority of Balhae, and arguments for this opinion are also viewed positively in Russia and in the West. While modern Korean scholars usually consider Balhae

24360-435: The ruler was also called empress. A record in 834 says that Balhae had both kings and great kings. The epitath of Princess Jeonghyo (Zhenxiao), daughter of Heummu, states that his father was a "great king." During Heummu's reign, a trade route with Silla, called "Sillado" ( 신라도 ; 新羅道 ), was established. The Silla trade route began at the Eastern Capital located at the center of Balhae's Yongwon Province, came down along

24528-619: The ruling family by Wang Geon, thus unifying the two successor nations of Goguryeo. Like Silla, Goryeo was a highly cultural state, and invented the metal movable type printing press . After defeating the Khitan Empire, which was the most powerful empire of its time, in the Goryeo–Khitan War , Goryeo experienced a golden age that lasted a century, during which the Tripitaka Koreana was completed and significant developments in printing and publishing occurred. This promoted education and

24696-492: The southeast. Balhae kept diplomatic and commercial contacts with Japan until the end of the kingdom. Balhae dispatched envoys to Japan 34 times, while Japan sent envoys to Balhae 13 times. Balhae planned a joint attack on Silla with Japan. Gyeongdeok of Silla offended Japan twice. In 753 he treated Japanese ambassadors with arrogance and in 758 he refused to meet them. After 758, Japan asked Balhae to attack Silla with them. Balhae and Japan exchanged ambassadors several times in

24864-402: The southern Korean Peninsula. However, the name Joseon was still widely used by Koreans to refer to their country, though it was no longer the official name. Under Japanese rule , the two names Han and Joseon coexisted. Following the surrender of Japan , in 1945, the "Republic of Korea" was adopted as the legal English name for the new country. However, it is not a direct translation of

25032-417: The state, and Kim considers this group as refugees, not members of an ambassadorial mission. Kim believes that in the 11th century, Balhae people under the Liao started viewing Goryeo as a hostile state in which the Balhae people lacked support. The Balhae people played a pivotal role in the politics, literature, and society of northern China under the Liao and Jin dynasties. After the dissolution of Balhae by

25200-570: The successful hosting of the Winter Olympics in Pyeongchang . In April 2018, Park Geun-hye was sentenced to 24 years in jail because of abuse of power and corruption. The COVID-19 pandemic has affected the nation since 2020. That same year, South Korea recorded more deaths than births, resulting in a population decline for the first time on record. In March 2022, Yoon Suk Yeol , the candidate of conservative opposition People Power Party , won

25368-564: The three capitals of Goryeo, two were Kaesong and Pyeongyang which were initially populated by Goguryeoic settlers from the Paeseo Region ( 패서 ; 浿西 ) and Balhae. Crossley believes that according to Goryeo records, Balhae refugees only arrived in groups of a few hundred to a few thousand. She suggests that the total number could not be more than 100,000, while millions remained in Liao-controlled territories. According to Crossley, it

25536-488: The time, the Soviet Union had boycotted the UN, thus forfeiting their veto rights . This allowed the UN to intervene in a civil war when it became apparent that the superior North Korean forces would unify the entire country. The Soviet Union and China backed North Korea, with the later participation of millions of Chinese troops . After an ebb and flow that saw both sides facing defeat with massive losses among Korean civilians in both

25704-521: The total land area. South Korea has 20 national parks and popular nature places like the Boseong Tea Fields, Suncheon Bay Ecological Park , and Jirisan . About 3,000 islands, mostly small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts of South Korea. Jeju Province is about 100 kilometers (62 miles) off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country's largest island, with an area of 1,845 square kilometers (712 square miles). Jeju

25872-553: The trade between Balhae and Silla. The route led from Pukchong, which was Balhae's Southern Capital, down along the coast to the Yonghung River; across the river was Silla's Chonjong (Jeonjeong) Prefecture. King Mun moved the capital of Balhae several times. He also established Shangjing /Sanggyeong, the permanent capital near Lake Jingpo in the south of today's Heilongjiang province around 756, stabilizing and strengthening central rule over various ethnic tribes in his realm, which

26040-516: The transnational origins of Balhae discourse. In 696, Li Jinzhong (Wushang Khan) of the Khitans along with his brother-in-law Sun Wanrong rebelled against Tang (Wu Zetian's Zhou Dynasty ) hegemony, killed an abusive Tang commander, and attacked Hebei . Li died soon after and Sun succeeded him, only to be defeated by the Second Turkic Khaganate . The population of Yingzhou (營州, modern-day Chaoyang , Liaoning ) fled eastward toward

26208-436: Was "高麗別種" ( gaoli biezhong ). Literally speaking, biezhong means "separate kind." The term is interpreted as meaning "a branch of the Goguryeo people" by South and North Korean historians, but as "distinct from Goguryeo" by Japanese and Chinese researchers. According to Sloane, Tang sources divided Balhae's population into two categories, Goguryeo and Mohe. The royalty and upper class were composed of Goguryeo remnants while

26376-527: Was a Silla prince whose influence made Mount Jiuhua one of the Four Sacred Mountains of Chinese Buddhism. In 936, the Later Three Kingdoms were united by Wang Geon , who established Goryeo as the successor state of Goguryeo. Balhae had fallen to the Khitan Empire in 926, and a decade later the last crown prince of Balhae fled south to Goryeo, where he was warmly welcomed and included in

26544-513: Was a multiethnic kingdom established in 698 by Dae Joyeong (Da Zuorong) and originally known as the Kingdom of Jin (震, Zhen) until 713 when its name was changed to Balhae. At its greatest extent it corresponded to what is today Northeast China , the northern half of the Korean Peninsula and the southeastern Russian Far East . Balhae's early history involved a rocky relationship with the Tang dynasty that saw military and political conflict, but by

26712-462: Was a relatively new kingdom whereas Silla had been centuries old. The people of Jin did not know the system of ranks used in Silla and thus accepted the title. After a while, Dae Joyeong realized the meaning of the title and sought to change Balhae's international status. In 713 or 714, the Tang dynasty recognized Dae Joyeong as the "Prince of Bohai (Balhae)", the name for the sea surrounding Liaodong and Shandong . According to Alexander Kim, neither

26880-505: Was controlled by Later Silla . Relationships between Korea and China remained relatively peaceful during this time. Balhae was founded by a Goguryeo general and formed as a successor state to Goguryeo. During its height, Balhae controlled most of Manchuria and parts of the Russian Far East and was called the "Prosperous Country in the East". Late Silla was a wealthy country, and its metropolitan capital of Gyeongju grew to become

27048-585: Was ever signed, resulting in the two countries remaining technically at war. Approximately 3 million people died in the Korean War, with a higher proportional civilian death toll than World War II or the Vietnam War , making it one of the deadliest conflicts of the Cold War era. In addition, virtually all of Korea's major cities were destroyed by the war. In 1960, a student uprising (the " April Revolution ") led to

27216-459: Was expanded temporarily. He also authorized the creation of the Jujagam / Zhouzijian ( 주자감 ; 胄子監 ), the national academy, based on the national academy of Tang . The bilateral relationship between the Tang and Balhae grew friendlier. From 766 to 779, 25 missions from Balhae paid respect to Daizong. By the end of Heummu's reign in 793, princes from Balhae's royal family were serving as guards at

27384-401: Was inhabited as early as the Lower Paleolithic period. Its first kingdom was noted in Chinese records in the early 7th century BCE. After the unification of the Three Kingdoms of Korea into Silla and Balhae in the late 7th century, Korea was ruled by the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) and the Joseon dynasty (1392–1897). The succeeding Korean Empire (1897–1910) was annexed in 1910 into

27552-409: Was later renamed to Jeongan (Ding'an). The Liao invaded Jeongan in 975 but failed to conquer them. In 985–6, the Khitans attacked Jeongan again, this time successfully. Some scholars considered the eruption of Mount Baekdu in the 930–940s to have dealt a final blow to the surviving forces of Balhae based on records of massive population displacement of Balhae people to the Liaodong peninsula of

27720-435: Was overthrown in the April Revolution of 1960. However, the Second Republic failed to control the revolutionary fervor. The May 16 coup of 1961 led by Park Chung Hee put an end to the Second Republic, signaling the start of the Third Republic in 1963. South Korea's devastated economy began to soar under Park's leadership, recording one of the fastest rises in average GDP per capita . Despite lacking natural resources,

27888-439: Was sunk killing 46 South Korean sailors, allegedly by a North Korean submarine. In November 2010 Yeonpyeongdo was attacked by a significant North Korean artillery barrage, with 4 people dying. The lack of a strong response to these attacks from both South Korea and the international community (the official UN report declined to explicitly name North Korea as the perpetrator for the Cheonan sinking) caused significant anger with

28056-415: Was the center of maritime trade routes in East Asia, and was the locale where both Silla and Balhae envoys stayed when coming to pay tribute to the Tang Emperor. As a result, Balhae's attack on Dengzhou was not merely motivated by geopolitical retaliation against the Tang but also out a of a desire to assert its newfound maritime prowess as well as prevent the Heishui Mohe from establishing trade relations with

28224-558: Was the shortened name officially adopted by Goguryeo in the 5th century and the name of its 10th-century successor state Goryeo. Visiting Arab and Persian merchants pronounced its name as "Korea". The modern name of Korea appears in the first Portuguese maps of 1568 by João vaz Dourado as Conrai and later in the late 16th century and early 17th century as Corea (Korea) in the maps of Teixeira Albernaz of 1630. The Kingdom of Goryeo became first known to Westerners when Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca in 1511 and described

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