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51-662: It is important for containing the first known inscription in Mongolian Script . According to the inscription, the stele commemorates an event that occurred in the settlement of Buqa Sočiγai, whose location is unknown. It was found, however, near Khirkhira in the Transbaikal region, which according to the Jami' al-tawarikh , was part of the Ulus of Qasar . The first message about a stone with an inscription carved with "oriental inscriptions"

102-510: A or e ( ᠎ᠠ ‑a/‑e ) is common, and can appear at the end of a word stem , or suffix . This form requires a final-shaped preceding letter, and an word-internal gap in between. This gap can be transliterated with a hyphen. The presence or lack of a separated a or e can also indicate differences in meaning between different words (compare ᠬᠠᠷ᠎ᠠ qar‑a 'black' with ᠬᠠᠷᠠ qara 'to look'). It has

153-627: A Latin alphabet. On 25 March 1941, the decision was reversed. According to later official claims, the alphabet had turned out to have not been thought out well. It was said not to distinguish all the sounds of the Mongolian language, and was difficult to use. However, those seem to have been pretexts rather than the true reasons. Using "y" as feminine "u" / u / , with additional feminine "o" ("ө") / ɵ / and with additional consonants "ç" for "ch" / tʃ / , "ş" for "sh" / ʃ / and ƶ for "zh" / dʒ / , it successfully served in printing books and newspapers. Many of

204-629: A dot was used below consonants to show that they were syllable-final. Horizontal square script is included in the Unicode Standard under the name "Zanabazar Square". The Zanabazar Square block, comprising 72 characters, was added as part of Unicode version 10.0 in June 2017. Before the 13th century, foreign scripts such as the Uighur and the Tibetan scripts were used to write the Mongolian language. Even during

255-815: A final tail as in ⟨ ᠪᠣ ⟩ bo / bu or ⟨ ᠮᠣ᠋ ⟩ mo / mu , and with a vertical tail as in ⟨ ᠪᠥ᠋ ⟩ bö / bü or ⟨ ᠮᠥ᠋ ⟩ mö / mü (as well as in transcriptions of Chinese syllables). Only in a late form can a definite order of signs be established for the alphabet, but can likely be traced back to an earlier Uyghur model. ‍ᠠ᠋ ‍ᠡ᠋ ‍ᠥ‍ ‍ᠦ‍ ‍ᠨ᠋‍ ‍ᠨ᠎ [REDACTED] [REDACTED] k [REDACTED] ‍ᠭ᠋‍ [REDACTED] ‍ᠭ᠎ [REDACTED] g ‍ᠳ᠋‍ In 1587,

306-528: A group named "Galig usug" to transcribe foreign words in modern use. In 1648, the Oirat Buddhist monk Zaya Pandita created this variation with the goal of bringing the written language closer to the actual Oirat pronunciation, and to make it easier to transcribe Tibetan and Sanskrit . The script was used by Kalmyks of Russia until 1924, when it was replaced by the Cyrillic alphabet. In Xinjiang , China,

357-561: A proto-Mongolic language and wrote down several pieces of literature in their language. They are believed to have used Chinese characters to phonetically represent Xianbei, like the Japanese system of Man'yōgana with Chinese, but all works written in Xianbei are now lost. In 2019, with the emergence of new evidence through the analysis of the Brāhmī Bugut and Khüis Tolgoi , Rouran language

408-544: A reader who knows the orthography. Letters have different forms depending on their position in a word: initial, medial, or final. In some cases, additional graphic variants are selected for visual harmony with the subsequent character. The rules for writing below apply specifically for the Mongolian language, unless stated otherwise. Mongolian vowel harmony separates the vowels of words into three groups – two mutually exclusive and one neutral: Any Mongolian word can contain

459-549: A stem. Such single-letter vowel suffixes appear with the final-shaped forms of a / e , i , or u / ü , as in ᠭᠠᠵᠠᠷ ᠠ [γaǰar‑a] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) 'to the country' and ᠡᠳᠦᠷ ᠡ edür‑e 'on the day', or ᠤᠯᠤᠰ ᠢ ulus‑i 'the state' etc. Multi-letter suffixes most often start with an initial- (consonants), medial- (vowels), or variant-shaped form. Medial-shaped u in

510-944: A wide variety of names. As it was derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet , the Mongol script is known as the Uighur(-)Mongol script . From 1941 onwards, it became known as the Old Script , in contrast to the New Script , referring to Cyrillic. The Mongolian script is also known as the Hudum or 'not exact' script, in comparison with the Todo 'clear, exact' script, and also as 'vertical script'. The traditional or classical Mongolian alphabet , sometimes called Hudum 'traditional' in Oirat in contrast to

561-454: Is one among Oirat Clear , Manchu , and Buryat are the only known vertical scripts written from left to right. This developed because the Uyghurs rotated their Sogdian -derived script, originally written right to left, 90 degrees counterclockwise to emulate Chinese writing, but without changing the relative orientation of the letters. The reed pen was the writing instrument of choice until

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612-412: Is somewhat comparable to the situation of English , which must represent ten or more vowels with only five letters and uses the digraph th for two distinct sounds. Ambiguity is sometimes prevented by context, as the requirements of vowel harmony and syllable sequence usually indicate the correct sound. Moreover, as there are few words with an exactly identical spelling, actual ambiguities are rare for

663-471: The Argun River . Local interpreters were able to read the initial two words of the inscription, "Genghis Khan", which led to it being named the "Stele of Genghis Khan". The stele was for a time kept in the "Natural History" room at the mining school of Nerchinsky Zavod . Between 1829 and 1832, along with a load of gold, it was transported to Saint Petersburg , during which period it was accidentally broken in

714-534: The Clear script ( Todo 'exact'), is the original form of the Mongolian script used to write the Mongolian language . It does not distinguish several vowels ( o / u , ö / ü , final a / e ) and consonants (syllable-initial t / d and k / g , sometimes ǰ / y ) that were not required for Uyghur , which was the source of the Mongol (or Uyghur-Mongol) script. The result

765-791: The Hudum Mongol bichig , was the first writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language , and was the most widespread until the introduction of Cyrillic in 1946. It is traditionally written in vertical lines [REDACTED] Top-Down, right across the page. Derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet , it is a true alphabet , with separate letters for consonants and vowels. It has been adapted for such languages as Oirat and Manchu . Alphabets based on this classical vertical script continue to be used in Mongolia and Inner Mongolia to write Mongolian, Xibe and, experimentally, Evenki . Computer operating systems have been slow to adopt support for

816-491: The Mongolian language over the centuries, and from a variety of scripts. The oldest and native script, called simply the Mongolian script , has been the predominant script during most of Mongolian history, and is still in active use today in the Inner Mongolia region of China and has de facto use in Mongolia . It has in turn spawned several alphabets, either as attempts to fix its perceived shortcomings, or to allow

867-660: The National Museum of Mongolia in Mongolia and the Inner Mongolia Museum in Inner Mongolia . A volumetric model of the stele was created in 2017 by the Hermitage's Laboratory for Science Restoration of Precious Metals, so that an exact polymer replica could be grown layer-by-layer. The replica was presented to Mongolia in 2019 to be placed in the under-construction Genghis Khan Museum in Ulaanbaatar . The text of

918-560: The Sartaγul people set up camp         and the noblemen of the entire Mongol nation had gathered at Buqa Sočiγai,      Yisüngge shot an arrow a distance of 335          alds . As the ald is a unit of measure equal to the length between someone's outstretched arms, approximating 160 cm = one ald results in 335 ald being equal to ~536 m. Mongolian Script The traditional Mongolian script , also known as

969-545: The Uyghur alphabet —a descendant of the Syriac alphabet , via Sogdian —to write Mongol. With only minor modifications, it is used in Inner Mongolia to this day. Its most salient feature is its vertical direction; it is the only vertical script still in use that is written from left to right. (All other vertical writing systems are written right to left.) This is because the Uyghurs rotated their script 90 degrees anticlockwise to emulate

1020-402: The national coat of arms since 1992, as well as money, stamps, etc. Zanabazar had created it for the translation of Buddhist texts from Sanskrit or Tibetan, and both he and his students used it extensively for that purpose. Aside from historical texts, it can usually be found in temple inscriptions . It also has some relevance to linguistic research, because it reflects certain developments in

1071-647: The 17th and 18th centuries, smoother and more angular versions of the letter tsadi became associated with [ dʒ ] and [ tʃ ] respectively, and in the 19th century, the Manchu hooked yodh was adopted for initial [ j ] . Zain was dropped as it was redundant for [ s ] . Various schools of orthography, some using diacritics , were developed to avoid ambiguity. Traditional Mongolian words are written vertically from top to bottom, flowing in lines from left to right. The Old Uyghur script and its descendants, of which traditional Mongolian

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1122-410: The 18th century, when the brush took its place under Chinese influence. Pens were also historically made of wood, bamboo , bone, bronze , or iron. Ink used was black or cinnabar red, and written with on birch bark , paper, cloths made of silk or cotton, and wooden or silver plates. Mongols learned their script as a syllabary , dividing the syllables into twelve different classes, based on

1173-653: The Chinese writing system. As a variant of the traditional script there exists a vertical square script (Босоо дөрвөлжин), also called folded script , used e.g. on the Mongolian banknotes . In 1587, the translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh created the Galik alphabet, inspired by Sonam Gyatso , the third Dalai Lama . It primarily added extra letters to transcribe Tibetan and Sanskrit terms in religious texts, and later also from Chinese and Russian . Later some of these letters were officially merged into traditional alphabet as

1224-571: The Latin letters (f, h, p, v) were even rarely used while q, w and x were completely excluded. The adoption of the Cyrillic script a short time later, almost simultaneously with most Soviet republics, suggests political reasons. In the advent of the Internet, people who use social networking services prefer typing in the Latin script for the ease of typing compared to the Cyrillic script, using the orthography introduced in 1939. The most recent Mongolian alphabet

1275-761: The Mandarin retroflex consonants . These letters remain in use in Inner Mongolia for the purpose of transcribing Chinese. ཛ When written between words, punctuation marks use space on both sides of them. They can also appear at the very end of a line, regardless of where the preceding word ends. Red (cinnabar) ink is used in many manuscripts, to either symbolize emphasis or respect. Modern punctuation incorporates Western marks: parentheses; quotation, question, and exclamation marks; including precomposed ⁈ and ⁉ . Mongolian numerals are either written from left to right, or from top to bottom. For typographical reasons, they are rotated 90° in modern books to fit on

1326-725: The Mongolian language of the middle period in Chinese transcription, etc.; in the western dialect, materials of the Arab–Mongolian and Persian–Mongolian dictionaries, Mongolian texts in Arabic transcription, etc. The main features of the period are that the vowels ï and i had lost their phonemic significance, creating the i phoneme (in the Chakhar dialect , the Standard Mongolian in Inner Mongolia , these vowels are still distinct); inter-vocal consonants γ / g , b / w had disappeared and

1377-417: The Mongolian language, such as that of long vowels. At around the same time, Zanabazar also developed the horizontal square script (Хэвтээ дөрвөлжин), which was only rediscovered in 1801. The script's applications during the period of its use are not known. It was also largely based on the Tibetan alphabet, read left to right, and employed vowel diacritics above and below the consonant letters. Additionally,

1428-538: The Mongolian script; almost all have incomplete support or other text rendering difficulties. The Mongolian vertical script developed as an adaptation of the Old Uyghur alphabet for the Mongolian language. Tata-tonga , a 13th-century Uyghur scribe captured by Genghis Khan , was responsible for bringing the Old Uyghur alphabet to the Mongolian Plateau and adapting it to the form of the Mongolian script. From

1479-559: The Oirats still use it. The traditional Mongolian alphabet is not a perfect fit for the Mongolian language, and it would be impractical to extend it to a language with a very different phonology like Chinese. Therefore, during the Yuan dynasty ( c.  1269 ), Kublai Khan asked a Tibetan monk, Drogön Chögyal Phagpa , to design a new script for use by the whole empire. Phagpa extended his native Tibetan script to encompass Mongolian and Chinese;

1530-714: The city of Hohhot ; as opposed to other compound words). This also allows components of different harmonic classes to be joined together, and vowels of an added suffix will harmonize with those of the latter part of the compound. Orthographic peculiarities are most often retained, as with the short and long teeth of an initial-shaped ⟨ ᠥ‍ → ᠊ᠥ᠌‍ ⟩ ö in ᠮᠤᠤ‍ ‍ᠥ᠌‍ ‍ᠬᠢᠨ Muu' ö kin 'Bad Girl' ( protective name ). Medial t and d , in contrast, are not affected in this way. Isolate citation forms for syllables containing o , u , ö , and ü may in dictionaries appear without

1581-574: The final phonemes of the syllables, all of which ended in vowels. The script remained in continuous use by Mongolian speakers in Inner Mongolia in the People's Republic of China . In the Mongolian People's Republic , it was largely replaced by the Mongolian Cyrillic alphabet , although the vertical script remained in limited use. In March 2020, the Mongolian government announced plans to increase

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1632-537: The line. Listed in the table below are letter components ( graphemes ) commonly used across the script. Some of these are used with several letters, and others to contrast between them. As their forms and usage may differ between writing styles , however, examples of these can be found under this section below. As exemplified in this section, the shapes of glyphs may vary widely between different styles of writing and choice of medium with which to produce them. The development of written Mongolian can be divided into

1683-758: The middle. Once in Saint Petersburg, it was first transferred to the Ministry of Finance and then to the Academy of Sciences and embedded in the wall in the entrance hall of the Asiatic Museum . In 1936, it was transferred to the Hermitage , to this day occupying a central place in the permanent exhibition of the Mongolian Art Hall in the third floor of the museum. Copies of the stele exist in various museums, including

1734-427: The neutral vowel i , but only vowels from either of the other two groups. The vowel qualities of visually separated vowels and suffixes must likewise harmonize with those of the preceding word stem. Such suffixes are written with front or neutral vowels when preceded by a word stem containing only neutral vowels. Any of these rules might not apply for foreign words however. A separated final form of vowels

1785-595: The notation of other languages, such as Chinese , Sanskrit and Tibetan . In the 20th century, Mongolia briefly switched to the Latin script , but then almost immediately replaced it with the modified Cyrillic alphabet because of its smaller discrepancy between written and spoken form, contributing to the success of the literacy campaign, which increased the literacy rate from 17.3% to 73.5% between 1941 and 1950. Nevertheless, Mongols living in Inner Mongolia as well as other parts of China continued to use alphabets based on

1836-513: The politician and linguist Bayantömöriin Khaisan published the rime dictionary Mongolian-Han Bilingual Original Sounds of the Five Regions , a bilingual edition of the earlier Original Sounds of the Five Regions , to aid Mongolian speakers in learning Mandarin Chinese. To that end, he included transliterations of Mandarin using the Mongolian script, and repurposed three Galik letters to represent

1887-432: The preliminary process of the formation of Mongolian long vowels had begun; the initial h was preserved in many words; grammatical categories were partially absent, etc. The development over this period explains why the Mongolian script looks like a vertical Arabic script (in particular the presence of the dot system). Eventually, minor concessions were made to the differences between the Uyghur and Mongol languages: In

1938-628: The reign of the Mongol Empire, people in the conquered areas often wrote it in their local systems. In some cases it was transcribed phonetically using Chinese characters , as is the case with the only surviving copies of The Secret History of the Mongols . Subjects from the Middle East hired into administrative functions would also often use Perso-Arabic script to write their Mongolian language documents. On 1 February 1930, Mongolia officially adopted

1989-454: The result was known by several descriptive names, such as the Mongolian new script , but today is known as the 'Phags-pa script. The script did not receive wide acceptance and fell into disuse with the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368. After this it was mainly used as a phonetic gloss for Mongols learning Chinese characters. However, scholars such as Gari Ledyard believe that in the meantime it

2040-452: The same shape as the traditional dative-locative suffix ‑a/‑e exemplified in the next section. This form of the suffix is, however, more commonly found in older texts, and is restricted in its Post- Classical use. All case suffixes , as well as any plural suffixes consisting of one or two syllables, are likewise separated by a preceding and hyphen-transliterated gap. A maximum of two case suffixes can be added to

2091-583: The seventh and eighth to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the Mongolian language separated into southern, eastern and western dialects. The principal documents from the period of the Middle Mongol language are: in the eastern dialect, the famous text The Secret History of the Mongols , monuments in the Square script , materials of the Chinese–Mongolian glossary of the fourteenth century and materials of

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2142-449: The stele consists of 5 lines - the first line, containing the name Genghis Khan is elevated as a sign of respect, as is the fourth line that contains the name of his nephew Yisüngge (but lower than the first). The scribe's writing style is also uncommon, as they write a few distinct letters with the same forms, such as ᠭ ( [γ] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script ( help ) ) and ᠬ ( q ), making

2193-539: The stele somewhat difficult to read. According to Igor de Rachewiltz (2010), the inscription reads (with letters in parentheses being unclear): Činggis Qaγan-i         Sartaγul irge dauliju baγuju qamuγ Mongγol ulus-un         (n)oyad-i Buqa Sočiγai quriγsan-dur      Yisüngge o(j)unudur-un γurban jaγud γučin tabun aldas-         tur o(n)duu(n)laγ-a. When Genghis Khan,         having subjugated

2244-785: The three periods of pre-classical (beginning – 17th century), classical (16/17th century – 20th century), and modern (20th century onward): The Mongolian script was added to the Unicode standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0. However, several design issues have been pointed out. The Unicode block for Mongolian is U+1800–U+18AF. It includes letters, digits and various punctuation marks for Hudum Mongolian , Todo Mongolian , Xibe (Manchu) , Manchu proper , and Ali Gali , as well as extensions for transcribing Sanskrit and Tibetan . Mongolian alphabet Various Mongolian writing systems have been devised for

2295-580: The traditional Mongolian script. In March 2020, the Government of Mongolia announced plans to use the traditional Mongolian script alongside the Cyrillic script in official documents (e.g. identity documents , academic certificates , birth certificates , marriage certificates , among others) as well as the State Great Khural by 2025, although the Cyrillic script could be used alone on an optional basis for less official writing. The Xianbei spoke

2346-403: The translator and scholar Ayuush Güüsh created the Galik alphabet ( Али-гали Ali-gali ), inspired by the third Dalai Lama , Sonam Gyatso . It primarily added extra characters for transcribing Tibetan and Sanskrit terms when translating religious texts, and later also from Chinese . Some of those characters are still in use today for writing foreign names (as listed below). In 1917,

2397-481: The two-letter suffix  ᠤᠨ ‑un / ‑ün is exemplified in the adjacent newspaper logo. Two medial consonants are the most that can come together in original Mongolian words. There are however, a few loanwords that can begin or end with two or more. In the modern language, proper names can usually join two words into graphic compounds (such as those of ᠬᠠᠰᠡᠷᠳᠡᠨᠢ Qas'erdeni 'Jasper-jewel' or ᠬᠥᠬᠡᠬᠣᠲᠠ Kökeqota –

2448-509: The use of the traditional Mongolian script and to use both Cyrillic and Mongolian script in official documents by 2025. However, due to the particularity of the traditional Mongolian script, a large part (40% ) of the Sinicized Mongols in China are unable to read or write this script, and in many cases the script is only used symbolically on plaques in many cities. The script is known by

2499-578: Was deciphered, and Rouran was spelled in Brahmi script . The Khitan spoke another proto-Mongolic language and developed two scripts for writing it: Khitan large script and Khitan small script , logographic scripts derived from Chinese characters. At the very beginning of the Mongol Empire , around 1204, Genghis Khan defeated the Naimans and captured a Uyghur scribe called Tata-tonga , who then adapted

2550-525: Was left by Russian historian and explorer Grigory Spassky in the journal Sibirskii Vestnik (Siberian Bulletin) in 1818. Later it turned out that the stone was discovered in 1802, not far from the remains of a settlement known as Khirkhira . Khirkhira was located on a low terrace above the flood-plain, close to the mouth of the Khirkhira River, which, through the Urulyunguy River , was a tributary of

2601-504: Was the source of some of the basic letters of the Korean hangul alphabet. The Soyombo script is an abugida created by the Mongolian monk and scholar Bogdo Zanabazar in the late 17th century, that can also be used to write Tibetan and Sanskrit . A special glyph in the script, the Soyombo symbol , became a national symbol of Mongolia , and has appeared on the national flag since 1921, and on

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