104-461: Bhoja was King of Malwa from 1010 until his death in 1055. Bhoja fought wars with nearly all his neighbours in attempts to extend his kingdom, with varying degrees of success. At its zenith, his empire extended from Chittor in the north to upper Konkan in the south, and from the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east. Because of his patronage to scholars, Bhoja became one of
208-514: A Chaulukya or Pratihara ruler). He also achieved some early successes against the Western Chalukya king Tailapa II , but was ultimately defeated and killed by Tailapa some time between 994 CE and 998 CE. Munja succeeded Siyaka as the Paramara king, ascending the throne around 972 CE. According to Prabandha-Chintamani by the 14th century writer Merutunga , Munja was an adopted child of
312-481: A polymath , and several books covering a wide range of topics are attributed to him. He is also said to have constructed a large number of Shiva temples, although Bhojeshwar Temple in Bhojpur (a city founded by him) is the only surviving temple that can be ascribed to him with certainty. Bhoja's father and predecessor was Sindhuraja . According to Bhoja-Prabandha , his mother's name was Savitri. Bhoja's reputation as
416-508: A Muslim dynasty of Turkic origin, invaded north-western India in the 11th century, led by Mahmud of Ghazni . The Udaipur Prashasti claims that Bhoja's mercenaries defeated the Turushkas (Turkic people). There are some legendary accounts of Bhoja's military successes against the foreign invaders identified with the Ghaznavids. However, there is no clear evidence to show that Bhoja fought against
520-536: A Paramara vassal. A contradictory theory is that the two turned enemies after their Chalukya campaign, sometime between 1028 CE and 1042 CE. The Udaipur Prashasti also claims that Bhoja defeated one Togglala, who might have been Gangeya's predecessor Kokalla II . During the last year of Bhoja's reign, or shortly after his death, the Chaulukya king Bhima I and the Kalachuri king Karna attacked his kingdom. According to
624-541: A contemporary of Bhoja. In order to enhance their imperial claims, the Paramaras promoted several legends associating Bhoja with the ancient legendary kings. For example, in Simhasana Dvatrimsika (popularly known as Singhasan Battisi ), Bhoja finds a throne of Vikramaditya, and each of the 32 divine figurines attached to the throne tell him a story about Vikramaditya. A Bhavishya Purana legend describes Bhoja as
728-468: A descendant of Vikramaditya and Shalivahana . According to this legend, the mleccha (foreign) influence had corrupted Indian culture by the time of Bhoja's ascension. Bhoja marched up to the banks of the Indus river , and defeated several mleccha kings. The poet Kalidasa , who accompanied him, magically turned into ashes a mleccha named Mahamada, whose followers came to be known as Muslim (The character Mahamada
832-430: A historical point of view. Some literary works suggest that Bhoja succeeded his uncle Munja as the Paramara king. These works include Tilaka-Manjari , Prabandha-Chintamani , and Rasmala . However, several other works as well as epigraphic evidence indicate that Bhoja succeeded his father Sindhuraja . Padmagupta, the court poet of Sindhuraja and Bhoja, also supports this fact. According to Bhoja-Prabandha , Munja left
936-403: A part of the sign manual of the king. It also shows the Paramara emblem Garuda in human form, about to strike a snake held in its left hand. The inscription begins with a siddham symbol, followed by two mangala-shlokas (auspicious verses). The first verse praises the manly throat of Srikantha ("the one with auspicious throat" or Shiva ), seeking more happiness. The second verse praises
1040-652: A patron of their actual writers. But it is known that he was an expert on poetry, and the treatise Shringara-Prakasha was definitely authored by him. According to Ajada, who wrote a commentary titled the Padaka-prakasha on the Sarasvati-Kanthabharana , Bhoja wrote 84 books. The surviving works attributed to Bhoja include the following Sanskrit -language texts ( IAST titles in bracket): The Prakrit language poems Kodanda-Kavya and Kurma-Sataka are also attributed to Bhoja. The Kodanda-Kavya (Kodaṅḍakāvya)
1144-515: A philosopher from Ahichchhatra, is recorded in his Dharampuri inscription. His Gaonri inscriptions record the names of several Brahmins who had migrated to his kingdom from the present-day Bengal, Bihar and Assam in eastern India. Munja also composed poetry himself. Although no complete work composed by him is now available, the Kashmiri poet Kshemendra quotes three stanzas composed by him. The 12th century Jain writer Hemachandra describes Munja among
SECTION 10
#17328583977671248-469: A result, Tailapa humiliated Munja by forcing him to beg door-to-door, and then had him executed. While Merutunga's account may not be entirely accurate from a historical point of view, there is little doubt that Munja died in Deccan , as a result of his war against Tailapa. Ballala claims that Munja died a peaceful death after appointing Bhoja as his successor. However, this is not historically accurate. Munja
1352-400: A scholar-king suggests that he was well-educated as a child. The Bhoja-Prabandha states that he was educated by his guardians as well as other learned scholars. According to Bhoja-Prabandha , early in his life, Bhoja suffered from intense headaches. Two Brahmin surgeons from Ujjain made him unconscious using an anaesthetic powder called moha-churna , opened his cranial bone , removed
1456-524: A temple of Sarasvatī in present-day Dhar . According to folklore, the Bhopal city was established by and named after him ("Bhojpal"), but it is possible that the city derives its name from another king called Bhupala (or Bhupal). Bhoja was renowned as a scholar-king, and several books are attributed to him. Because these books cover an enormous range of topics, it is not certain if he actually wrote all these books or if he only commissioned these works, acting as
1560-420: A tumor, and then made him regain his consciousness by administering another powder called sanjivani . According to Tilaka-Manjari , composed by Bhoja's contemporary Dhanapala, Bhoja's feet had auspicious birthmarks indicating that he was fit to be a king. His uncle Munja (and his father's predecessor) loved him greatly, and appointed him as the king. However, several later legendary accounts state that Munja
1664-517: Is also known as "Vakpati" (Master of speech), Vakpati- raja , Vakpati-raja-deva , and Utpala-raja . In addition, he assumed the titles Amoghavarsha , Sri-vallabha and Prithvi-vallabha , which were used by the Rashtrakuta kings. This was probably meant to commemorate his predecessor Siyaka's victory over the Rashtrakuta king Khottiga . At the time of Munja's ascension, the Paramara kingdom
1768-564: Is based on Muhammad possibly combined with Mahmud of Ghazni ). After returning to his capital, Bhoja established Sanskrit language among the top three varnas and Prakrit language among the Shudras . During his 50-year reign, Aryavarta (the land between the Himalayas and the Vindhyas ) became a blessed land where the varna system was established. On the other hand, caste mixture took place beyond
1872-829: Is believed to have excavated the Munja-sagara (Munj Sagar) lake in Dhara and the Munja-talao tank in Mandu . Munja also built temples and ghats (embankments) in Dharmapuri , Maheshvara , Omkara - Mandhata and Ujjayani . Munjapura, a former town in present-day Gujarat, was named after him. Munja was renowned as a great patron of art and literature. His royal patronage attracted scholars from many parts of India. The poets patronized by him included Dhananjaya , Bhatta Halayudha , Shobhana Dhanika, Padmagupta and Amitagati . His grant to Vasantacharya,
1976-517: Is best remembered for his intellect and patronage to cultural activities. Noted poets and writers of his time sought his sponsorship. The Kashmiri writer Bilhana famously rued that Bhoja died before him, because of which he failed to seek the king's patronage. Several later kings also emulated Bhoja. For example, Krishnadevaraya of the Vijayanagara Empire styled himself as Abhinava-Bhoja ("the new Bhoja") and Sakala-Kala-Bhoja ("Bhoja of all
2080-617: Is commonly regarded as the greatest king of Malwa and made extensive conquests. He created an alliance between the Kingdom of Chedi , the Chola empire and the Kingdom of Malwa, and defeated the Kingdom of Kuntala. However, in 1048, the Kingdom of Kuntala invaded and sacked the capital of Malwa, and forced to cede territories up till the Narmada . After his death in 1055, he was succeeded by his son. Jayasimha I
2184-673: Is considered as the first month of the year. The date can alternatively be interpreted as 23 August 975 CE, if Kartika is considered the first month, as was common in some regions. The inscription is inscribed on two copper plates that were found by a farmer in Dharampuri of Dhar district . It was sent to the Central India Agency 's Archives Office in Indore , and first translated into English by Fitzedward Hall in 1861. The two plates contain 18 and 16 lines respectively. The second plate has
SECTION 20
#17328583977672288-709: Is corroborated by the Kauthem grant inscription of Vikramaditya V , which states that "Utpala destroyed the power of the Chaidyas, the king of Chedis". However, this victory did not result in any territorial gains for the Paramaras. The Udaipur Prashasti further claims that he subdued the Cholas and the Keralas . However, this seems to be hyperbolic praise, as the Chola and the Kerala kingdoms lay to
2392-434: Is debated by the historians, but he is generally identified as a weak Gurjara-Pratihara ruler of Kannauj . Bhoja did not retain control of Kannauj for a long time, if at all. The 1046 CE Tilakawada copper plate inscription states that Bhoja's general Suraditya stabilized his royal fortune by slaughtering one Sahavahana in a battle. Some earlier historians identified Sahavahana as a king of Chamba , but this identification
2496-616: Is doubtful, considering the distance between Chamba and Malwa, and the fact that the ruler of Chamba was not powerful enough to destabilize Bhoja's kingdom. Sahavahana might been a general of one of Bhoja's rivals, possibly the Kalachuri king Karna. Bhoja defeated and killed Viryarama , the Shakambhari Chahamana ruler. Encouraged by this success, he also waged a war against the Chahamanas of Naddula . But in this second campaign, his army
2600-486: Is no evidence that Bhoja's reign began much earlier than 1010 CE. In the Paramara inscriptions, Bhoja is mentioned as Bhoja- deva . In some modern north Indian languages such as Hindi , he is also known as "Bhoj" (because of schwa deletion ). Bhoja's inscriptions mention his titles as Parama-bhattaraka , Maharajadhiraja and Parameshvara . Ganaratna Mahodadhi (1140 CE), a work on grammar by Vardhamana, suggests that "Tribhuvan Narayana" or "Triloka Narayana" ("Lord of
2704-477: Is not certain, as both Chalukya and Paramara panegyrics claimed victory. Historian D. C. Ganguly believes that Bhoja achieved some early victories against the Chalukyas, but was ultimately defeated. Others, including D. B. Diskalkar and H. C. Ray , believe that Bhoja was defeated by Jayasimha after some early successes, but ultimately emerged victorious against the Chalukyas after 1028 CE. According to Georg Bühler ,
2808-549: Is not certain. Subhashita-Ratna-Sandoha by the Jain writer Amitagati states that it was completed in 994 CE (1050 VS), when Munja was reigning at Dhara. Tailapa died in 998 CE. Therefore, Munja must have died between 994 and 998 CE. As a result of his victory against Munja, Tailapa conquered the southern part of the Paramara kingdom, possibly up to the Narmada River . According to Merutunga's Prabandha-Chintamani , Munja's successor
2912-492: Is not found in the works composed by the contemporaries of Munja, Sindhuraja and Bhoja. For example, the Nava-sahasanka-charita makes no mention of this story. The legend appears to be the poetic imagination of later composers. Ain-i-Akbari also contains a variation of this account, but completely distorts the legend, naming Munja as the one who was persecuted by Bhoja. This account is also completely unreliable from
3016-555: Is possible that Bhoja patronized other faiths despite being a Shaivite. Bhoja married multiple women as part of matrimonial alliances with other ruling dynasties. His chief queen was Liladevi or Lilavati. His other queens included Padmavati (princess of Kuntala ), Chandramukhi (princess of Anga ) and Kamala. Inscriptional evidence suggests that he was succeeded by Jayasimha , who was probably his son. Jayasimha's Mandhata grant of 1055 CE mentions his predecessors as Bhoja, Sindhuraja and Vakpati. However, this inscription does not specify
3120-746: The Bhojeshwar Temple in Bhojpur is the only surviving shrine that can be attributed to Bhoja with certainty. Several historians, including G. H. Ojha and R. Nath , have identified the Samadhishvara Shiva Temple in Chittor with the Tribhuvana Narayana Shiva or Bhoja-svamin temple attributed to Bhoja; the temple has been restored several times since its construction. The Jain legends state that Bhoja converted to Jainism . According to this account, his court poet Dhanapala convinced
3224-404: The Bhojeshwar Temple there, the construction of three now-breached dams in that area is attributed to him. The temple originally stood on the banks of a reservoir 18.5 long and 7.5 miles wide. This reservoir was formed through construction of 3 earth-and-stone dams during Bhoja's reign. The first dam, built on Betwa River , trapped the river waters in a depression surrounded by hills. A second dam
Bhoja - Misplaced Pages Continue
3328-615: The House of Paramara . It existed as a sovereign state until it was conquered by the Delhi Sultanate in 1305. In 1401, the governor of Malwa declared his independence and established the Sultanate of Malwa under the House of Khalji which reigned till its conquest by Akbar , the Emperor of Hindustan in 1562. Following Govinda's successful northern campaign , Govinda III ( r. 793–814 ),
3432-659: The Hoysalas and the Yadavas of Devagiri . He was also defeated by the Gurjara general Kumara. Despite these setbacks, he was able to restore the Paramara power in Malwa before his death. Vindhyavarman's son Subhatavarman invaded Gujarat, and plundered the territory. But he was ultimately forced to retreat by the Gurjara feudatory Lavana-Prasada. His son Arjunavarman I also invaded Gujarat, and defeated Jayanta-simha (or Jaya-simha), who had usurped
3536-611: The Hunas . The Gaonri plate issued by him in 981 CE records the grant of Vanika village in Huna- mandala to Brahmins. Vakpati's victory over Hunas does not appear to be decisive, because his successor Sindhuraja also had to fight against the Hunas. According to the Udaipur Prashasti inscription of his descendant Udayaditya, Munja also defeated Yuvaraja II, the Kalachuri ruler of Tripuri. This claim
3640-502: The Kingdom of Bundelkhand and the Gujarat king Jayasimha Siddharaja . By the end of his reign, Vijayapala had carved out an independent kingdom to the northeast of Ujjain . Yashovarman lost control of the capital Dhara to Jayasimha Siddharaja. His successor Jayavarman I regained control of Dhara, but soon lost it to an usurper named Ballala . The Gurjara king Kumarapala defeated Ballala around 1150 AD, supported by his feudatories
3744-503: The Kingdom of Sambhar , Kingdom of Mewar , Kingdom of Chedi , Nadol and the Kingdom of Gujarat . However, in 998, the Kingdom of Kuntala defeated and conquered the southern territories of Malwa. His brother, Sindhuraja succeeded him in 990. He defeated the Kuntala kingdom and took back the lost territories. He used the titles Avantishvara (lord of Avanti ) and Malava-raja (king of Malwa) His son Bhoja succeeded him in 1010. Bhoja
3848-564: The Marwar region, resulting in a conflict between the two kingdoms. Three Chahamana rulers Shobhita , Baliraja and Vigrahapala died within a period of 14 years, while Munja remained the Paramara king. K. C. Jain speculates that these deaths might have resulted from the Chahamana-Paramara conflict. The Paramara court poet Padmagupta states that the Munja "caused the pearls in the necklaces worn by
3952-549: The Naddula ruler Alhana and the Abu Paramara chief Yashodhavala. Malwa then became a province of the Gurjara kingdom. A minor branch of the Paramaras, who styled themselves as Mahakumara s, ruled the area around Bhopal during this time. Nearly two decades later, Jayavarman's son Vindhyavarman defeated the Gurjara king Mularaja II, and re-established the sovereignty of Malwa. During his reign, Malwa faced repeated invasions from
4056-430: The Rashtrakuta emperor, placed the newly conquered Malwa region under Upendra ( r. 800–818 ), the first known Paramara king. Upendra had two sons, of whom Vairasimha I succeeded to the throne. The younger brother Dambarisimha founded his own Paramara branch that ruled Vagada as the feudatories of the main branch. Vairasimha I was succeeded by Siyaka I. Siyaka I was succeeded by Vairisimha II. During his reign,
4160-474: The dapaka as Rudraditya, and ends with the royal sign-manual. This inscription, issued in 986 CE (1943 VS), records the grant of a village to a Brahmin. It begins with shlokas dedicated to Srikantha ( Shiva ) and Mura-ripu ( Krishna ), followed by the usual royal genealogy. It then states that while residing in Purna-pathaka, the king donated the village of Kadahichchhaka to a Brahmin named Sarvananda, who
4264-550: The 14th century author Merutunga, Bhoja had once thought of subjugating Bhima, but Bhima's diplomat avoided a Paramara invasion by instigating Bhoja against the Chalukyas of Kalyani instead. Sometime before 1031 CE, Bhima launched an expedition against the Paramara branch at Abu , forcing its ruler Dhandhuka to seek shelter with Bhoja. Hemachandra , who was patronized by the Chaulukyas, states that Bhoja's general Kulachandra once sacked
Bhoja - Misplaced Pages Continue
4368-845: The Chalukya ruler of that area. According to one theory, the defeated ruler was Tailapa's Lata Chalukya vassal Barappa or his son Goggiraja. According to another theory, "Chalukya" here refers to the Chaulukyas of present-day Gujarat, and Munja fought with their king Mularaja . The war between Munja and Tailapa has been described by Merutunga, whose account is based on a now-lost Apabhramsa poem called Munja-rasa . According to Merutunga, Tailapa harassed Munja by carrying out several raids into his kingdom, and Munja defeated Tailapa six times (sixteen times, according to some manuscripts). The Udaipur Prashasti also states that he defeated Tailapa. Despite these early successes, he could not subdue Tailapa. Against
4472-466: The Chaulukya capital while Bhima was fighting a war at the Sindh frontier. Bhima later dispatched his soldiers to raid Malwa several times. Merutunga's Prabandha-Chintamani states that once two such soldiers attacked Bhoja in the vicinity of his capital Dhara , but the Paramara king escaped unhurt. Merutunga also states that Karna once challenged Bhoja to either a war or a palace-building contest. Bhoja, who
4576-540: The Ghaznavids or any other Muslim army. Bhoja might have contributed troops to the Kabul Shahi ruler Anandapala 's fight against the Ghaznavids. He is believed to have granted asylum to Anandapala's son Trilochanapala. Several medieval Muslim historians state that Mahmud avoided a confrontation with a powerful Hindu ruler named Param Dev after sacking the Somnath Hindu temple. Modern historians identify Param Dev as Bhoja:
4680-565: The Guhilas. The Bijapur inscription of Dhavala states that the armies of the defeated ruler were left without a leader, and sought asylum with him. Kshemendra's Auchitya-vichara-charcha alludes to the miserable condition of the Gurjara king. According to historians D C Ganguly and Dasharatha Sharma , the defeated king was Mularaja , the Chaulukya king of Gujarat. On the other hand, historians Pratipal Bhatia, K. N. Seth and K. C. Jain believe that he
4784-628: The Kauthem inscription of the family of Munja's arch-rival Tailapa II mentions his bravery in wars against the Hunas, the Maravas (people of Marwar), and the Chedis (the Kalachuris). Early during his reign, Munja defeated the elephant forces of the Guhilas, and plundered their capital Aghata (present-day Ahar in Udaipur). The defeated Guhila ruler (either Naravahana or his son Shaktikumara) took shelter with Dhavala,
4888-509: The King of Kannauj, Mahipala I ( r. 913–944 ) re-conquered Malwa. Due to this Varisimha I shifted his capital to eastern Gujarat. Vairisimha re-conquered Malwa after 946 AD. Around 949 AD, Siyaka II succeeded his father Varisimha II. Siyaka II rebelled against the Rashtrakutas and sacked the capital Manyakheta in 972 AD. His son Vakapati II Munja succeeded him around 975. He defeated
4992-557: The Malwa capital from Dhara to the hilly Mandapa-Durga (present-day Mandu ), which offered a better defensive position. Arjunavarman II , the successor of Jayavarman II, proved to be a weak ruler. He faced rebellion from his minister. In the 1270s, the Yadava ruler Ramachandra invaded Malwa, and in the 1280s, the Ranthambhor ruler Hammira also raided Malwa. Arjuna's successor Bhoja II also faced an invasion from Hammira. Mahalakadeva ,
5096-637: The Paramara administration in hands of Sindhuraja before departing on a military expedition. Munja unexpectedly died in this campaign, and as a result, Sindhuraja succeeded him as the king. Sindhuraja's court poet Padmagupta, in his Nava-Sahasanka-Charita , states that Munja "placed the world in Sindhuraja's hands" before leaving for Ambika's town. This indicates that he left the administration in Sindhuraja's hands before leaving for his fatal expedition against Tailapa II . Udaipur Prashasti inscription seems to confirm this. The Modasa copper plates (1010–11 CE) are
5200-730: The Rashtrakuta capital Manyakheta . The plates are inscribed on one side only, and contain 23, 20 and 10 lines respectively. Like other Paramara inscriptions, the third plate shows a Garuda in human form, about to strike a snake. As with other inscriptions, it begins with shlokas and the royal genealogy. Next, the inscription records the grant of the Vanika village in the Avaraka bhoga (subdivision) of Huna - mandala . S. K. Dikshit identifies Vanika and Avaraka as present-day villages of Benka and Awar near Agar . H. V. Trivedi identifies them as Bani and Avra villages near Shamgarh . The donees mentioned in
5304-502: The Rashtrakuta ruler of Hastikundi. Munja's success is corroborated by the Bijapur inscription of Dhavala, which states that Munja "destroyed" Aghata, forcing the Guhila king to flee the battlefield and seek Dhavala's protection. As a result of this victory, the Paramaras gained control of the eastern part of Mewar, including Chittorgarh . Munja also defeated the ruler of Gurjara , an ally of
SECTION 50
#17328583977675408-562: The Vindhyas (that is, in South India ). Again, this is an imaginary account not supported by any historical evidence. He has been depicted numerous times in Indian cinema. Some films based on him include: Raja Bhoj (1922), Raja Bhoj (1926) by D. J. Jhaveri, King Bhoj (1930) by A. Narayanan and Bhoja Kalidasa (1940) by Hanumappa Vishwanath Babu. Kingdom of Malwa The Kingdom of Malwa
5512-535: The administrators of Abu and Jalor . A Paramara branch at Jalor is known to have been founded by one Vakpati-raja. According to K. N. Seth, this person is same as the Vakpati Munja. Seth speculates that Munja had only one son, Chandana, whom he appointed as the ruler of Jalor. Pratipala Bhatia rejects these theories, stating that Aranyaraja lived two generations before Munja, and there is no concrete evidence about Chandana being Munja's son either. The fact that Munja
5616-592: The advice of his prime minister Rudraditya, Munja decided to adopt a more aggressive policy and crossed the Godavari River in a campaign against Tailapa. Merutunga states that the minister foresaw Munja's defeat and committed suicide by jumping into a fire. In the ensuing conflict, Tailapa defeated Munja's army by force and fraud, and imprisoned him. In his victory against Munja, Tailapa appears to have been aided by his Yadava vassal Bhillama II . Bhillama's 1000 Sangamner inscription poetically boasts that he thrashed
5720-431: The arts"). Bhoja was himself a polymath. Under his rule, Mālwa and its capital Dhara became one of the chief intellectual centres of India. He is said to have paid great attention to the education of his people, so much so that even humble weavers in the kingdom are supposed to have composed metrical Sanskrit kavyas. Bhoja is said to have founded the city of Bhojpur , a belief supported by historical evidence. Besides
5824-573: The body of Mura-ripu ("slayer of the Mura demon" or Krishna ), requesting him to protect the world. Next, the inscription mentions the following genealogy of the issuer, stating that each king meditated at the feet of his predecessor: The inscription records the grant of a taḍāra (meaning unknown) called Pipparika, which was located on the banks of the Narmada River . K. N. Seth identifies Pipparika with Pipri village near Manawar in Dhar district. The king made
5928-487: The crown prince. Bhoja-Prabandha states that Munja ordered one Vatsaraja to kill Bhoja at the Mahamaya temple in Bhuvaneshvari forest. On hearing Bhoja's cultured manner of talking, Vatsaraja and his men abandoned the murder plan. They faked Bhoja's death, and presented to Munja a fake head and a verse from Bhoja. The verse described how great kings like Mandhata , Rama and Yudhishthira died leaving behind all their property; it then sarcastically added that Munja would be
6032-468: The departure of the Chalukya army. Nevertheless, the defeat was a major setback for the Paramaras, and pushed back the southern boundary of their kingdom from Godavari to Narmada . Although the Bhoja and Kalachuri king Gangeya were part of an alliance against the Chalukyas, Bhoja defeated Gangeya. It is not certain when they turned into enemies. According to one theory, Bhoja defeated Gangeya before his Chalukya campaign, in which Gangeya must have fought as
6136-955: The earliest historical record of Bhoja's reign. The Chintamani-Sarnika (1055 CE) was composed by Bhoja's court poet Dasabala. An inscription of Bhoja's successor Jayasimha I is also dated 1055 CE. Thus, 1055 CE can be taken as the last year of Bhoja's reign. Based on these evidences, scholars such as Pratipal Bhatia assign Bhoja's reign to 1010–1055 CE. However, some scholars assign the beginning of Bhoja's reign variously between 1000 CE and 1010 CE, based on their interpretations of inscriptions and legendary texts. For example, Merutunga's Prabandha-Chintamani states that Bhoja ruled for 55 years, 7 months and 3 days. Based on this, scholars such as D. C. Ganguly and K. C. Jain assign Bhoja's reign to 1000–1055 CE. However, as K. M. Munshi states, dates are "the weakest point in Merutunga's narratives". A. K. Warder , who dismisses Merutunga as "completely unreliable" and his narratives as "essentially fiction", believes there
6240-418: The end of his reign, Bhoja had lost this territory to the Chalukyas of Kalyani . Sometime before 1019 CE, Bhoja formed an alliance against the Chalukyas of Kalyani with Rajendra Chola and Gangeyadeva Kalachuri . At this time, Jayasimha II was the Chalukya king. The triple alliance engaged the Chalukyas at their northern and southern frontiers simultaneously. The extent of Bhoja's success in this campaign
6344-413: The four learned kings; the other three being the legendary Vikramaditya and Shalivahana , and Munja's nephew Bhoja . The following inscriptions of Munja, all written in Sanskrit language and Nagari script , have been discovered. This inscription records a grant, and is the first known Paramara inscription to be issued from outside Gujarat . It is dated 3 September 974 CE (1031 VS ), if Chaitra
SECTION 60
#17328583977676448-543: The goddess of prosperity Lakshmi on the battlefield because she had sided with Munja, and forced her to become an obedient housewife in the palace of Tailapa. According to Merutunga, during his imprisonment, Munja and Tailapa's widowed sister Mrinalavati fell in love. Meanwhile, Munja's ministers entered Tailapa's kingdom in disguise, and managed to get in touch with Munja. They made a rescue plan, which Munja divulged to Mrinalavati, because he wanted to take her to Malwa. Mrinalavati told her brother about Munja's escape plan. As
6552-461: The grant of a village to Brahmins . It is recorded on three copper plates, which were discovered on 20 June 1931 in Gaonri (or Gaowdi) village near Ujjain. A palimpsest containing a record of the Rashtrakuta king Suvarnavansha ( Govinda IV ) was found on the outer side of the first copper plate. This record is dated 929-930 CE (851 Saka ). S. K. Dikshit speculated that it might have been brought to Malwa by Munja's father Siyaka II , who had sacked
6656-460: The grant while staying at Ujjayani (Ujjain), to increase the merit of his family. The donee was Vasantacharya, a Brahmin philosopher from Ahichchhatra . The inscription mentions Kaṇhapaika, who is also mentioned in the 969 Ahmedabad copper plate of Munja's predecessor Siyaka, as the dapaka (the officer-in-charge of registering the grants). This inscription, discovered in Ujjain , was issued in 980 CE (1036 VS). The inscription states that it
6760-541: The historians. Munja's court poet Dhanapala states that the king had great love for Bhoja. Merutunga and Ballala are later writers, and their accounts are not historically reliable. Moreover, historical evidence indicates that Munja's successor was Sindhuraja, not Bhoja. The contemporary writers Padmagupta and Dhanapala state that Munja died childless. Merutunga states that the king had one son. Ballala states that he had multiple sons. D. C. Ganguly theorized that Munja had two sons, Aranyaraja and Chandana; he appointed these as
6864-400: The information about Bhoja comes from these legendary accounts, including Merutunga's Prabandha-Chintamani (14th century), Rajavallabha's Bhoja-Charitra (15th century), and Ballala's Bhoja-Prabandha (17th century). However, many of the popular legends about Bhoja do not have any historical basis. For example, the Bhoja-Prabandha anachronistically describes the ancient poet Kalidasa as
6968-477: The king Simhadantabhatta (Siyaka). The king discovered him in a munja grassland. Since the king did not have any children of his own at that time, he adopted the child and named him Munja. Although the king later had a biological son named Sindhuraja , he appointed Munja as his successor. Historians doubt the authenticity of this legend, in absence of any supporting evidence. Another later poet Ballala states that Munja and Sindhuraja were biological brothers. Munja
7072-402: The king to give up Vedic animal sacrifices . The poet also openly ridiculed Bhoja's other religious beliefs, including his worship of Kamadeva - Rati and cow . Gradually, Dhanapala convinced Bhoja to become a Jain. These accounts of Bhoja's conversion to Jainism are irreconcilable with historical evidence. In a Bhoja-Prabandlha legend, a Brahmin named Govinda calls Bhoja a Vaishnavite . It
7176-410: The king. According to Ballala's account, Munja did not want Bhoja to surpass his glory. Both accounts state that the person ordered to carry out the execution faked the killing. Before his faked death, Bhoja wrote a message for Munja, upon reading which Munja felt great remorse. When he came learned that Bhoja was still alive, Munja appointed him as his heir. This legend is considered of spurious nature by
7280-508: The last known Paramara king, was defeated and killed by the army of Ayn al-Mulk Multani , a general of Alauddin Khalji of the Delhi Sultanate , in 1305 AD. The Sultanate of Delhi annexed Malwa following its invasion and it remained a province of the sultanate for nearly a century until 1401, when the governor of Malwa declared his independence from the Sultan and re-established the independent Kingdom of Malwa. Vakpati Munja Munja (reigned c. 972-990s CE), also known as Vakpati II ,
7384-423: The legendary king Prithu , and states that he "ruled the earth from Kailasha to Malaya hills and up to the mountains of the setting and the rising sun". This is an obvious exaggeration: historical evidence indicates that Bhoja's empire extended from Chittor in the north to upper Konkan in the south, and from the Sabarmati River in the west to Vidisha in the east. Several legends mention conflicts between
7488-515: The most celebrated kings in the Indian history. After his death, he came to be featured in several legends as a righteous scholar-king. The body of legends clustered around him is comparable to that of the Emperor Vikramaditya . Bhoja is best known as a patron of arts, literature, and sciences. The establishment of the Bhoj Shala , a centre for Sanskrit studies, is attributed to him. He was
7592-648: The name may be a corruption of Paramara-Deva or of Bhoja's title Parameshvara-Paramabhattaraka . Bhoja may have also been a part of the Hindu alliance that expelled Mahmud's governors from Hansi , Thanesar and other areas around 1043 CE. Bhoja's attempt to expand his kingdom eastwards was foiled by the Chandela king Vidyadhara . However, Bhoja was able to extend his influence among the Chandela feudatories, possibly after Vidyadhara's death. The Kachchhapaghatas of Dubkund, who were
7696-546: The northern neighbours of the Paramaras, were originally Chandela feudatories. However, their ruler Abhimanyu accepted Bhoja's suzerainty. Bhoja also launched a campaign against the Kachchhapaghatas of Gwalior , possibly with the ultimate goal of capturing Kannauj , but his attacks were repulsed by their ruler Kirtiraja. According to the Udaipur Prashasti inscription, Bhoja defeated the Gurjara king. The identity of this king
7800-562: The number of legends centered around him, Bhoja is comparable to the Vikramaditya . Sheldon Pollock describes Bhoja as "the most celebrated poet-king and philosopher-king of his time, and perhaps of any Indian time". Bhoja came to be featured in several legends as a righteous scholar-king, who was the ultimate judge of literary qualities and generously rewarded good poets and writers. Most of these legends were written three to five centuries after his death. Apart from epigraphic records, much of
7904-605: The only one whom the earthly possessions would follow. The verse moved Munja to tears, and made him realize his mistake. When he learned that Bhoja was still alive, he invited Bhoja to back to his court. To repent for his sin, he also went on a pilgrimage to Dharmaranya, where he established a town called Munjapuram. The sarcastic verse, purportedly written by Bhoja to Munja, also appears as an antonymous extract in Sharngadhara-paddhati (1363 CE). These stories of Bhoja's persecution by Munja are essentially mythical. This legend
8008-503: The plates include Brahmins from a variety of gotras and shakha . Apart from Malwa, the Brahmins the came from distant regions such as Magadha , Dakshina (southern) Raḍha , Uttara-Kula, Savathika (possibly Savatthi or Bogra - Dinajpur region), Lata and Madhyadesha. The grant was made on 16 October 981 CE, on the occasion of a lunar eclipse . The official charter was issued nine months later, on 3 July 982 CE. The inscription mentions
8112-420: The relationship between Bhoja and Jayasimha, and it is the only epigraph that mentions a Paramara king named Jayasimha. The Udaipur Prashasti and Nagpur Prashasti inscriptions of the later Paramara kings give a detailed genealogy of the Paramara kings, but do not mention Jayasimha. These two inscriptions name Udayaditya as the next ruler after Bhoja. Udayaditya is now known to be Bhoja's brother. In terms of
8216-419: The ruler of Malwa and the Chaulukyas , during the reign of the Chaulukya kings Vallabha-raja and Durlabha-raja . Vallabha is said to have died of smallpox during an expedition against the Paramaras. This incident may have happened during the early part of Bhoja's reign, or during the reign of his father Sindhuraja . Vallabha's successor Durlabha is said to have repulsed an attack by a confederacy that included
8320-521: The ruler of Malwa, but modern historians doubt the authenticity of this legend. Bhoja's first military aggression appears to be his invasion of the Lata region (in present-day Gujarat ), around 1018 CE. Bhoja subjugated the Chalukyas of Lata , whose ruler Kirtiraja may have served as his feudatory for a brief period. Bhoja's invasion of Lata brought him close to the Shilahara kingdom of northern Konkana , which
8424-473: The sign-manual of the king. The inscription states that the king was at Bhagavatpura (identified with Bhagor village), when he made a gift to provide for the worship of the goddess, on 26 October 980, during a lunar eclipse . The charter of the gift was officially issued four months later, on when the king was staying at Gunapura (possibly the modern Gunavad village), after having achieved a great victory. This inscription, issued in 981-982 CE (1038 VS), records
8528-730: The south of the Western Chalukya (Karnata) kingdom. According to K. C. Jain, it is possible that the Cholas and the Keralas sought his help against mutual enemies. Munja was a staunch rival of the Western Chalukya king Tailapa II , whose Karnata kingdom lay to the south of the Paramara kingdom. Tailapa considered himself as the successor of the Rashtrakutas , and therefore, wanted to control Malwa. The Udaipur Prashasti inscription states that Munja attacked Lata (present-day Gujarat), and defeated
8632-506: The struggle probably ended with some advantage for Bhoja, which might have been exaggerated into a great victory by the Paramara poets. The Udaipur Prashasti states that Bhoja defeated a ruler named Indraratha. Modern historians identify this king with Indranatha, the Somavamshi king of Kalinga . This king was defeated by Rajendra Chola : Bhoja may have played a secondary role in the Chola campaign as part of an alliance. The Ghaznavids ,
8736-689: The three worlds ") was also a title of Bhoja. This is corroborated by epigraphic evidence: the Shiva temple ascribed to Bhoja in the Chittor fort has an idol which was named "Bhojasvamindeva" as well as "Tribhuvan Narayanadeva". While Bhoja became famous as a benevolent king and a patron of arts and culture, he was also renowned as a warrior. He inherited a kingdom centered around the Malwa region, and made several attempts to expand it with varying results. The Udaipur Prashasti inscription of Bhoja's brother compares Bhoja to
8840-532: The throne for a brief period. He was defeated by Yadava general Kholeshvara in Lata . Arjunavarman was succeeded by Devapala , who was the son of Harishchandra, a Mahakumara (chief of a Paramara branch). He continued to face struggles against Gujarat and the Yadavas. The Sultan of Delhi Iltutmish captured Bhilsa during 1233-34 AD, but Devapala defeated the Sultanate's governor and regained control of Bhilsa. He
8944-576: The women of Marwar to dance". At the same time, the Sevadi copper plates of the later Chahamana ruler Ratnapala call Shobhita as the Lord of Dhara (the Paramara capital). Baliraja's records also claim that he defeated Munja's army. K. C. Jain theorizes that the Chahamanas achieved successes in early part of the struggle, but were ultimately pushed back by Munja. Like his father Siyaka II, Vakpati also fought against
9048-586: Was a kingdom in Central India during the early medieval era . It was ruled by the Paramara dynasty . It reached its zenith under Bhoja between 1010 and 1055. In 1305, the kingdom was annexed by the Delhi Sultanate . It was administered as a province until 1401, when it regained its independence . Malwa had been ruled by the Rashtrakutas as a vassal state until 948 when it declared its independence under
9152-517: Was a devotee of Shiva . His writings qualify Shiva as "Jagadguru" ("World teacher"), and his inscriptions begin with verses praising Shiva. The Udaipur Prashasti inscription of the later Paramara rulers states that Bhoja "covered the earth with temples" dedicated to the various aspects of Shiva, including Kedareshvara, Rameshwara, Somanatha, Kala , and Rudra. The Jain writer Merutunga, in his Prabandha-Chintamani , states that Bhoja constructed 104 temples in his capital city of Dhara alone. However,
9256-509: Was an Indian ruler from the Paramara dynasty , who ruled the Kingdom of Malwa . He is known for consolidating the Malwa kingdom, for patronising poets and scholars and for achieving the military success against almost all of the neighbouring kingdoms. Munja achieved military successes against the Chahamanas , the Guhilas , the Hunas , the Kalachuris , and the ruler of Gurjara region (possibly
9360-478: Was an old man by this time, chose the second option. Bhoja lost this contest, but refused to accept Karna's suzerainty. As a result, Karna, in alliance with Bhima, invaded Malwa. According to Merutunga, Bhoja died of a disease at the same time the allied army attacked his kingdom. Several literary works written under Chaulukya patronage suggest that Bhima subjugated Bhoja while Bhoja was still alive. However, such claims are not corroborated by historical evidence. Bhoja
9464-452: Was constructed in a gap between the hills, near present-day Mendua village. A third dam, located in present-day Bhopal, diverted more water from the smaller Kaliasot river into the Betwa dam reservoir. This man-made reservoir existed until 15th century, when Hoshang Shah emptied the lake by breaching two of the dams. Bhoja established the Bhoj Shala which was a centre for Sanskrit studies and
9568-419: Was defeated by an alliance of Kingdom of Gujarat and Kingdom of Dahala . Jayasimha's successor and Bhoja's brother Udayaditya was defeated by Chamundaraja, his vassal at Vagada . He repulsed an invasion by the King of Gujarat, Karna , with help from his allies. Udayaditya's eldest son Lakshmadeva has been credited with defeating Dahala. Udayaditya's younger son Naravarman faced several defeats, losing to
9672-440: Was forced to retreat, and his general Sadha was killed. During the last years of Bhoja's reign, sometime after 1042 CE, Jayasimha's son and successor Someshvara I invaded Malwa, and sacked his capital Dhara . Multiple Chalukya inscriptions dated between 1058 and 1067 CE state that the Chalukyas plundered the important Paramara cities, including Dhara, Ujjayini and Mandapa . Bhoja re-established his control over Malwa soon after
9776-504: Was found inscribed on stone slab fragments at Mandu . The Kurma-Sataka ( Avanikūrmaśataka ), which praises the Kurma (tortoise) incarnation of Vishnu , was found inscribed at the Bhoj Shala in Dhar. Sangitaraja , attributed to Kalasena or Kumbha , names Bhoja as an authority on music, which suggests that Bhoja also compiled or wrote a work on music. Historical evidence suggests that Bhoja
9880-455: Was his nephew Bhoja . However, according to Nava-sahasanka-charita and epigraphic evidence, Munja was succeeded by his brother (and Bhoja's father) Sindhuraja . Merutunga mentions a legend about Munja's attempt to kill a young Bhoja. The legend is also repeated by Ballala with some variations. It states that an astrologer predicted the future greatness of Bhoja as a king. According to Merutunga's version, Munja wanted his own son to become
9984-530: Was initially jealous of Bhoja, and tried to prevent him from becoming a king. For example, the 14th century Prabandha-Chintamani states that during the reign of Munja, an astrologer prophesied Bhoja's long reign. Munja, who wanted his own son to become the king, ordered Bhoja's killing. Bhoja was appointed as the king by the royal ministers after Munja's death. According to a Gujarati legend documented in Rasmala , Munja ordered Bhoja's murder, but later appointed him as
10088-482: Was issued by Vakpati-raja-deva alias Amoghavarsha, whose title it gives as Parama-bhattaraka Maharajadhiraja Parameshvara . Like the Dharampuri grant, this inscription also begins with shlokas , followed by Munja's genealogy. The main objective of the inscription is to record the repairs to a temple of the goddess Bhatteshvari (identified with Harsidhhi ). The name of the dapaka is given as Rudraditya, followed by
10192-592: Was killed by Vagabhata of Ranthambhor , who suspected him of plotting his murder in connivance with the Delhi Sultan. During the reign of Devapala's son Jaitugideva , the power of Malwa greatly declined because of invasions from the Yadava king Krishna, the Delhi Sultan Balban , and the Vaghela prince Visala-deva. Devapala's younger son Jayavarman II also faced attacks from these three powers. Jayavarman II moved
10296-481: Was located to the south of Lata. Bhoja invaded and captured Konkana sometime between 1018 and 1020 CE, during the reign of the Shilahara king Arikesari . He celebrated this victory in a big way by making generous donations to Brahmins . His 1020 CE inscription states that he organized a Konkana-Grahana Vijaya Parva ("Konkan Victory Festival"). The Shilaharas probably continued to administer Konkana as Bhoja's vassals. By
10400-492: Was succeeded by his brother Sindhuraja also indicates that he died without any heir. Another possibility is that Munja did not expect to die in his expedition against the Chalukyas. Therefore, he left the administration in hands of his brother Sindhuraja temporarily. His unexpected death left Sindhuraja as the king, and then the throne passed on to Sindhuraja's son Bhoja. Munja dug several tanks and erected many temples. He commissioned several buildings in his capital Dhara . He
10504-498: Was succeeded by his brother Sindhuraja. Moreover, his defeat and death at the hands of Tailapa is supported by the inscriptions of Tailapa's descendants. The Kauthem grant inscription of Vikramaditya V states that Tailapa imprisoned Utpala (another name for Munja). The Gadag inscription of Vikramaditya VI states that Munja was killed by Tailapa. The Ain-i-Akbari also states that Munja died in Deccan. The exact year of Munja's death
10608-498: Was surrounded by Chahamanas of Shakambari , the Chahamanas of Naddula and the Guhilas of Medapata in the north; the Kalachuris of Chedi and the Chandelas in the east; the Chalukyas of Kalyani in the south; and the Chaulukyas of Gujarat in the west. Except the Chalukyas of Kalyani, Munja successfully dealt with his neighbours. Tilaka-Manjari , a work composed by Munja's court poet Dhanapala eulogizes him as an archer hero. Even
10712-517: Was the Pratihara ruler Vijayapala (r. 954-989 CE). According to Bhatia, Munja conquered Ujjain from the Pratiharas. Jain, however, states that Ujjain must have been conquered by his father Siyaka II since Munja issued land grants from Ujjain in 973 CE, just one year after his ascension. The Paramara conquest of eastern Mewar brought them closer to the Chahamanas of Naddula (Chauhans of Nadol), who ruled
10816-516: Was the son of Dikshita Lokananda. This donee is also one of the Brahmins mentioned in the earlier Gaonri inscription. The location of Kadahichchhaka is given as Maddhuka- bhukti (province) in Ujjayani vishaya (subdivision) of the Avanti mandala . It is identified with the present-day Kadchha village near Gaonri. The grant was made on the occasion of winter solstice on 22 December 986 CE. The date of
#766233