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88-558: In the epic, Sindhuraja shoots a deer with a golden arrow during a hunting expedition in the Vindhyas . The deer escapes to its owner, the Naga princess Shashiprabha, who sees the hero's title "Nava-Sahasanka" written on the arrow. Meanwhile, in pursuit of the deer, the king comes across a necklace bearing Shashiprabha's name. Sindhuraja and Shashiprabha subsequently meet, and fall in love with each other. Shashiprabha's father has decided to marry her to

176-460: A consequence, Menaka gave birth to a daughter, whom she abandoned on the banks of a river. That daughter was Shakuntala herself, the narrator of the story. Shu Ting referenced apsara in her poem "O Motherland, Dear Motherland". Many Indian apsaras were identified with names and were central in myths. However, since they were not attributed specific physical features or attributes, artistic depictions do not individualize them. Natya Shastra ,

264-535: A fanciful romantic legend. Historian V. S. Pathak theorizes that Shashikhanda represents the Northern Shilahara king Aparajita , while Vajrankusa represents the Southern Shilahara king Rattaraja. Ratnavati may be identified with modern Ratnagiri , which may have been the Southern Shilahara capital. Shashikhanda's "curse" may be a metaphor for his previous defeat and exile. Pathak also believes that

352-477: A golden palace city, where a caged parrot informs him that the river goddess Naramada will welcome him as a guest. In Canto 9, the goddess informs Sindhuraja that when Shashiprabha was born, the deities told her father - the Naga king - that she would marry the best of men ( purushottama ), and that she would bring ruin to the Naga enemy Vajrankusha. Consequently, the Naga king had declared that he would marry Shashiprabha to

440-447: A letter to Sindhuraja In Canto 16, Patala arrives with a message from Malayavati, stating that Shashi-prabha loves the king, and wants him to come back soon. Sindhuraja resumes his march, and is joined by Ratnachuda. The brilliant jewel on Ratnachuda's head lights up the army's way in the darkness. As Ratnavati approaches, Sindhuraja attempts to get the golden lotus using peaceful means. He sends Ramangada as an envoy to Vajrankusha, asking

528-516: A man who was offered Bidadari depended upon his holiness: how often he prayed, how much he turned away from the 'outside world', and how little he heeded worldly desires. Images of apsaras are found in several temples of ancient Java dating from the era of the Sailendra dynasty to that of the Majapahit empire. The apsara celestial maidens might be found as decorative motifs or also as integral parts of

616-670: A mansion in the Vindhyas. In Dashakumaracharita , the King Rajahamsa of Magadha and his ministers create a new colony in the Vindhya forest, after being forced out of their kingdom following a war defeat. The Vindhyas are one of the only two mountain ranges mentioned in the national anthem of India , the other being the Himalayas. Several tributaries of the Ganga-Yamuna system originate from

704-636: A member of a class of celestial beings in Hindu and Buddhist culture . They were originally a type of female spirit of the clouds and waters, but, later play the role of a " nymph " or " fairy ". They figure prominently in the sculptures, dance, literature and paintings of many South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures. The apsaras are described to be beautiful, youthful and elegant, and are said to be able to change their shape at will; making anyone fall for their beauty. There are two types of apsaras— laukika (worldly) and daivika (divine). They are great in

792-515: A part of the Vindhyas. Today, the definition of the Vindhyas is primarily restricted to the Central Indian escarpments, hills and highlands located to the north of the Narmada River . Some of these are actually distinct hill systems. The western end of the Vindhya range is located in the state of Gujarat , near the state's border with Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh , at the eastern side of

880-405: A pearl necklace in its beak. Ramangada remarks that the necklace probably belonged to one of the daughters of demons, gods, and Nagas , who amused themselves in the Vindhyas. On Ramangada's advice, Sindhuraja readies to shoot the bird with an arrow, but just then the bird drops the necklace on the shore of a lake, in order to pick up a lotus stalk. Ramangada brings the necklace to the king, who notes

968-509: A story in bas-relief . Images of apsaras can be found on Borobudur , Mendut , Prambanan , Plaosan , and Penataran . At Borobudur apsaras are depicted as divinely beautiful celestial maidens, pictured either in standing or in flying positions, usually holding lotus blossoms, spreading flower petals, or waving celestial clothes as if they were wings enabling them to fly. The temple of Mendut near Borobudur depicted groups of devatas , divine beings flying in heaven, which included apsaras. In

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1056-981: Is Rāma . The nominative singular form is अप्सरास् apsarās , or अप्सरा: apsarāḥ when standing alone, which becomes अप्सरा apsarā in Hindi, from which in turn the English "apsara" presumably is derived. The Monier-Williams et al . (1899) gives the etymology as अप् + √सृ, "going in the waters or between the waters of the clouds". Apsaras are widely known as Apsara ( អប្សរា Âbsâréa ) in Khmer , and also called Accharā in Pāli , or Bidadari ( Malay , Maranao ), Biraddali ( Tausug , Sinama ), Hapsari / Apsari or Widadari / Widyadari ( Javanese , Sundanese , and Balinese ), Helloi ( Meitei ) and Apsorn ( Thai : อัปสร ). The most ancient descriptions of apsara portray them as " water nymph "-like beings. The Rigveda tells of an apsara who

1144-668: Is 300–650 metres (980–2,130 ft), with the range rarely going over 700 metres (2,300 ft) during its 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) extent. The highest point of the Vindhyas is the Sad-bhawna Shikhar ("Goodwill Peak"), which lies 752 metres (2,467 ft) above the sea level. Also known as the Kalumar peak or Kalumbe peak, it lies near Singrampur in the Damoh district , in the area known as Bhanrer or Panna hills. Historical texts include Amarkantak (1,000 m+ or 3,300 ft+) in

1232-401: Is a complex, discontinuous chain of mountain ridges , hill ranges, highlands and plateau escarpments in west-central India . Technically, the Vindhyas do not form a single mountain range in the geological sense. The exact extent of the Vindhyas is loosely defined, and historically, the term covered a number of distinct hill systems in central India , including the one that is now known as

1320-428: Is a handsome and skilled king of Avanti, and would make an ideal husband for her. In Canto 7, Shashiprabha and Sindhuraja meet at the banks of the Narmada River , and are evidently in love with each other. Suddenly, a severe thunderstorm emerges, and Shashiprabha clings to Sindhuraja out of fear. In Canto 8, Sindhuraja's meeting with Shashiprabha ends abruptly, when a voice instructs the princess to return to her home in

1408-405: Is a plateau that lies to the north of the central part of the range. The Rewa - Panna plateaus are also collectively known as the Vindhya plateau. Different sources vary on the average elevation of the Vindhyas, depending on their definition of the range. M. C. Chaturvedi mentions the average elevation as 300 metres (980 ft). Pradeep Sharma states that the "general elevation" of the Vindhyas

1496-461: Is also known as "Vindhyachala" or "Vindhyachal"; the suffix achala (Sanskrit) or achal (Hindi) refers to a mountain. In the Mahabharata , the range is also referred to as Vindhyapadaparvata . The Greek geographer Ptolemy called the range Vindius or Ouindion, describing it as the source of Namados ( Narmada ) and Nanagouna ( Tapti ) rivers. The "Daksinaparvata" ("Southern Mountain") mentioned in

1584-513: Is derived from the Sanskrit word vaindh (to obstruct) and is in reference to a mythological story. The Vindhya range is also known as "Vindhyachala" or "Vindhyachal"; the suffix achala (Sanskrit) or achal ( Hindi ) refers to a mountain. The Vindhyas have a great significance in Indian mythology and history . Several ancient texts mention the Vindhyas as the southern boundary of the Āryāvarta ,

1672-611: Is one of the largest and thickest sedimentary successions in the world. The earliest known multicellular fossils of eukaryotes ( filamentous algae ) have been discovered from Vindhya basin dating back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago. Shelled creatures are documented to have first evolved at the start of the Cambrian 'explosion of life', about 550 million years ago. Apsara Apsaras ( Sanskrit : अप्सरा , IAST : Apsarā , Pali : अच्छरा , romanized:  Accharā Khmer : អប្សរា Thai :นางอัปสรา) are

1760-422: Is original. Some legends associate Bhoja with Kalidasa: this may actually be a reference to Padmagupta alias Parimala Kalidasa. Nava-sahasanka-charita is divided into 18 cantos, and centers around Sindhuraja's marriage to princess Shashiprabha. The title of the poem literally means the biography ( charita ) of the new ( nava ) Sahasanka. Vikramaditya , a famous legendary king, was also known as Sahasanka ("having

1848-538: Is played by a woman, wearing a tight-fitting traditional dress with gilded jewelry and headdress modelled after Angkor bas-reliefs, whose graceful, sinuous gestures are codified to narrate classical myths or religious stories. In the Indonesian language throughout medieval times, apsaras are also known as 'bidadari', being conflated with the 'vidyadharis' (from Sanskrit word vidhyadhari : vidhya , 'knowledge'; dharya , 'having, bearer, or bringer') known as Bidadari in

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1936-479: Is the wife of Gandharva ; however, the Rigveda also seems to allow for the existence of more than one apsara. The only apsara specifically named is Urvashi . An entire hymn deals with the colloquy between Urvashi and her mortal lover Pururavas . Later Hindu scriptures allow for the existence of numerous apsaras, who act as the handmaidens of Indra or as dancers at his celestial court serving as musicians alongside

2024-707: Is thus the oldest source to mention the Agnikula legend, which subsequently became popular among other dynasties. Padmagupta probably invented the legend to fabricate a mythical genealogy for the Paramara dynasty, as all other neighbouring dynasties claimed origins from mythical heroes or gods by this time: the Pratiharas from Lakshmana , the Chahamanas (Chauhans) from Surya (Sun), the Chaulukyas from Brahma 's water pot ( chaluka ), and

2112-605: The Angkorian temples in Cambodia (8th–13th centuries AD), however, not all female images are considered to be apsaras. In harmony with the Indian association of dance with apsaras, Khmer female figures that are dancing or are poised to dance are considered apsaras ; female figures, depicted individually or in groups, who are standing still and facing forward in the manner of temple guardians or custodians are called devatas . Angkor Wat ,

2200-605: The Chandelas from Chandra (Moon). The Paramaras were later recognized as " Rajputs ", and the myth of their origin from fire was adopted by other Rajput families. The medieval text Prithviraj Raso states that apart from Paramara, progenitors of three other dynasties - Pratihara , Chaulukya , and Chahamana - were created from fire by Vasishtha. The earlier records of these other dynasties do not mention this myth of origin. Vindhyas The Vindhya Range (also known as Vindhyachal ) ( pronounced [ʋɪnd̪ʱjə] )

2288-572: The Indo-Aryans and that of the others. The most ancient Hindu texts consider it as the southern boundary of Aryavarta . The Mahabharata mentions that the Nishadas and other Mleccha tribes reside in the forests of the Vindhyas. Although the Indo-Aryan languages (such as Marathi and Konkani ) spread to the south of Vindhyas later, the Vindhyas continued to be seen as the traditional boundary between

2376-698: The Kathiawar peninsula. A series of hills connects the Vindhya extension to the Aravalli Range near Champaner . The Vindhya range rises in height east of Chhota Udaipur . The principal Vindhya range forms the southern escarpment of the Central Indian upland. It runs roughly parallel to the Naramada river in the east-west direction, forming the southern wall of the Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh. The eastern portion of

2464-496: The Kaushitaki Upanishad is also identified with the Vindhyas. The Vindhyas do not form a single range in the proper geological sense: the hills collectively known as the Vindhyas do not lie along an anticlinal or synclinal ridge. The Vindhya range is actually a group of discontinuous chain of mountain ridges , hill ranges, highlands and plateau escarpments . The term "Vindhyas" is defined by convention, and therefore,

2552-554: The Mogao Caves , Yulin Caves , Tianlongshan grottoes , the Yungang , and Longmen Grottoes . They are also depicted on tiles of pagoda , such as Xiuding-si pagoda. They may also be depicted as dancers or musicians holding musical instruments such as flute , pipa , or sheng . Apsara may be portrayed as multiple spirits who played music for Buddhas. Generally, they are depicted with

2640-510: The Mount Meru , growing so high that it obstructed the sun. The sage Agastya then asked Vindhya to lower itself, in order to facilitate his passage across to the south. In reverence for Agastya, the Vindhya lowered its height and promised not to grow until Agastya returned to the north. Agastya settled in the south, and the Vindhya mountain, true to its word, never grew further. The Kishkindha Kanda of Valmiki's Ramayana mentions that Maya built

2728-556: The Prambanan temple compound, especially in Vishnu temple, along with the gallery, some images of male devata are found flanked by two apsaras. In the ancient Manipur culture of the Meitei people of northeastern India, apsaras are considered as celestial nymphs or hellois as the flying creatures resembling the human female body attracting the male wanderers or any knights who lost their ways in

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2816-542: The Satpura Range . Today, the term principally refers to the escarpment and its hilly extensions that runs north of and roughly parallel to the Narmada River in Madhya Pradesh . Depending on the definition, the range extends up to Gujarat in the west, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the north, and Chhattisgarh in the east. The average elevation of the Vindhyas is also dependent on different sources. The word Vindhya

2904-457: The Shiva temple at Ujjayini, accompanied by Shashiprabha and Ramangada. He then goes to Dhara , which is described as his "family capital", and installs the linga there. He sends Shashikhanda and Ratnachuda to their respective countries, and himself sits on the imperial throne with Shashiprabha by his side. The epic is a fusion of history with mythology, and narrates historical events transformed into

2992-452: The Vanara army had supported Rama . As Sindhuraja agrees, the parrot introduces himself as Ratnachuda, a Naga boy who had been transformed into a parrot because of a curse by a pupil of sage Kanva . The sage had told him that the curse will be over when he takes a message from Nava-Sahasanka to Shashiprabha. Accordingly, Sindhuraja told the parrot to inform the queen that he had followed her into

3080-503: The Vedic period , Vasishtha - the royal priest of the solar king Ikshvaku - had a wish-granting cow . When the warrior-turned-sage Vishvamitra stole this cow, Vasishtha made a ritual sacrifice on Mount Arbuda , and an armed warrior wearing a royal crown sprang from the sacrificial fire ( agni ). This warrior recaptured the cow, and was named Paramara ("slayer of the enemies") by Vasishtha. The Paramara kings were his descendants. The epic

3168-646: The Malay archipelago when Arabic traders came to trade spices with the Malays; at that time, Hinduism formed the basis of the Malay culture, but syncretism with the Islamic religion and culture spawned the idea of a Bidadari . It is usually seen as a prize offered to those who lived a lifestyle in service to and pleasing to God; after death, the Bidadari was the man's wife or wives, depending on what type of person he was. The worthiness of

3256-455: The Naga world, and would enter her city after getting the golden lotus. In Canto 11, following Narmada's directions, Sindhuraja comes to the hermitage of sage Vanku. Based on the king's appearance, the sage infers that he was a chakravartin (universal emperor), and welcomes him. When Vanku asks about the king's dynasty, Ramangada narrates the Agnikula legend, according to which the progenitor of

3344-522: The Nagas of the story represent the Sinda dynasty of Karahata (modern Karad ). The Naga princess Shashiprabha thus represents Sindhuraja's consort, whose Sinda family claimed descent from the mythical Nagas . The "underworld" represents the area to the south of the Narmada River . The 11th canto of Nava-sahasanka-charita contains the story of the Agnikula origin of the Paramara family. According to this story, in

3432-490: The Paramara dynasty originated from a sacrificial fire set up by the sage Vasishtha . Ramangada then names Sindhuraja's predecessors, including Upendra, Vakpati-raja I, Vairisimha, Sindhuraja's father Siyaka , and Sindhuraja's elder brother Vakpati-raja II . The minister then introduces Sindhuraja alias Nava-Sahasanka as the king of Ujjayini , the city of Shiva . He describes the king as a friend of poets, and as someone in whom Sarasvati (the goddess of learning) resided after

3520-645: The Sindhuraja's successors Munja and Bhoja . The Nava-sahasanka-charita is Padmagupta's only extant work, although he wrote at least one other poem. This can be inferred from the fact that some verses attributed to Padmagupta in the later works are not found in the Nava-sahasanka-charita . These later works include Bhoja 's Sarasvati-kantha-bharana , Kshemendra's Auchitya-vichara-charcha , Mammata's Kavya-prakasha , and Vardhamana's Gana-ratna-mahodadhi . The quoted verses suggest that Padmagupta's other poem

3608-475: The Vindhya range as the residence of fierce form of Shakti (goddess Kali or Durga ), who has lived there since slaying the demons. She is described as Vindhyavasini ("Vindhya dweller"), and a temple dedicated to her is located in the Vindhyachal town of Uttar Pradesh . The Mahabharata mentions the Vindhyas as the "eternal abode" of Kali. According to one legend, the Vindhya mountain once competed with

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3696-624: The Vindhyas comprises multiple chains, as the range divides into branches east of Malwa. A southern chain of Vindhyas runs between the upper reaches of the Son and Narmada rivers to meet the Satpura Range in the Maikal Hills near Amarkantak . A northern chain of the Vindhyas continues eastwards as Bhander Plateau and Kaimur Range , which runs north of the Son River . This extended range runs through what

3784-469: The Vindhyas once obstructed the path of the sun, resulting in this name. The Ramayana states that the great mountain Vindhya that was growing incessantly and obstructing the path of the Sun stopped growing any more in obedience to Agastya's words. According to another theory, the name "Vindhya" means "hunter" in Sanskrit , and may refer to the tribal hunter-gatherers inhabiting the region. The Vindhya range

3872-516: The Vindhyas, but today, it is considered a part of the Maikal Range , which is considered as an extension of the Satpuras. The Vindhyas are regarded as the traditional geographical boundary between northern and southern India, and have a distinguished status in both mythology and geography of India . In the ancient Indian texts, the Vindhyas are seen as the demarcating line between the territories of

3960-527: The Vindhyas. These include Chambal , Betwa , Dhasan , Sunar , Ken , Tamsa , Kali Sindh and Parbati . The northern slopes of the Vindhyas are drained by these rivers. Narmada and Son rivers drain the southern slopes of the Vindhyas. Both these rivers rise in the Maikal hills , which are now defined as an extension of the Satpuras, although several older texts use the term Vindhyas to cover them (see Historical definitions above). The "Vindhyan Supergroup"

4048-621: The art of dancing, and often wives of the gandharvas , the court musicians of Indra . The apsaras reside in the palaces of the gods and entertain them by dancing to the music made by the Gandharvas. The 26 apsaras of Indra's court are each said to symbolise a different facet of the performing arts, drawing comparisons to the Muses of ancient Greece . They are also renowned for seducing rishis in order to prevent them from attaining divine powers. Urvashi , Menaka , Rambha , Tilottama and Ghritachi are

4136-407: The deer turns into a man. The man explains that he used to be a commander of the guard ( pratihara-pala ) of Sindhuraja's father Siyaka alias Harsha, and had turned into a deer because of a curse by the sage Kanva. Sindhraja and Shashiprabha get married. Shankhapala gives Sindhuraja a crystal linga created by the artisan god Tvastar , and featuring Shiva as Ardhanarishvara . Sindhuraja then visits

4224-402: The demon king to hand over the golden lotus to enable Sindhuraja to marry Shashiprabha, and offering his friendship in return. Vajrankusha derisively rejects the offer, stating that a beautiful woman like Shashiprabha was not suitable for mere humans. Ramangada then explains that Sindhuraja was not merely a human: he was an incarnation of Vishnu, and will end up taking Vajrankusha's head along with

4312-626: The depictions of apsaras in the Tra Kieu Style of Cham art, a style which flourished in the 10th and 11th centuries AD. Apsaras are often depicted in East Asian Buddhist art. They are referred to as feitian ( simplified Chinese : 飞天 ; traditional Chinese : 飛天 ) in Chinese. They are depicted as flying figures in the mural paintings and sculptures of Buddhist cave sites in China such as in

4400-460: The elements of a refined elegance," wrote Marchal. The bas-reliefs of Angkorian temples have become an inspiration of Khmer classical dance . The indigenous ballet-like performance art of Cambodia is frequently called " Apsara Dance ". The dance was created by the Royal Ballet of Cambodia in the mid-20th century under the patronage of Queen Sisowath Kossamak of Cambodia. The role of the apsara

4488-672: The exact definition of the Vindhya range has varied at different times in history. Earlier, the term "Vindhyas" was used in a wider sense and included a number of hill ranges between the Indo-Gangetic plain and the Deccan Plateau . According to the various definitions mentioned in the older texts, the Vindhyas extend up to the Godavari in the south and the Ganges in the north. In certain Puranas ,

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4576-497: The female name "Shashi-prabha" written on it, and wears it. In Canto 4, Sindhuraja feels that he has fallen in love with the unknown woman Shashiprabha. Sometime later, he sees a beautiful woman, who turns out to be Patala, a daughter of the Naga Hema and a companion of Shashi-prabha. In Canto 5, Patala tells him that Shashiprabha is a Nāga princess, who is more beautiful than goddesses and nymphs , and her father Shankha-pala rules from

4664-399: The forest. He hits the deer with an arrow marked with his own name ( Nava-Sahasanka ), but the arrow does not cause any serious injury to the deer. The king notices a gold chain around the deer's neck, and suspects that there is something supernatural about it. After the animal disappears into the forest, Sindhuraja's minister Ramangada (alias Yahsobhata) advises the king to avoid the hot sun at

4752-455: The gandharvas ("celestial musicians"). The Kaushitaki Upanishad mentions apsaras as a class of divinities associated with ointments, garlands, vestments, and powdered aromatics. The origin of the apsaras is described in the Ramayana and Puranas . Apsaras are further associated with water by relating them to the churning of the ocean , water sports, and groups such as nāgas . In many of

4840-465: The gods to defeat the giant. Later in the Javanese tradition the apsara was also called Hapsari , also known as Widodari (from Sanskrit word vidyādhari). The Javanese Hindu-Buddhist tradition also influenced Bali . In Balinese dance, the theme of celestial maidens often occurs. Dances such as Sanghyang Dedari and Legong depicted divine maidens in their own way. In the court of Mataram Sultanate

4928-525: The gods. This theme occurs frequently in Javanese traditions, including the Kakawin Arjunawiwaha , written by mpu Kanwa in 1030 during the reign of king Airlangga . The story tells that Arjuna , in order to defeat the giant Niwatakawaca, engaged in meditation and asceticism, whereupon Indra sent apsaras to seduce him. Arjuna, however, managed to conquer his lust and then to win the ultimate weapons from

5016-444: The hearts of individuals practicing rigid austerities, and they danced there. And possessing slim waists and fair large hips, they began to perform various evolutions, shaking their deep bosoms, and casting their glances around, and exhibiting other attractive attitudes capable of stealing the hearts and resolutions and minds of the spectators. The Mahabharata documents the exploits of individual apsaras, such as Tilottama , who rescued

5104-493: The hills in Central India. In one passage, Valmiki 's Ramayana describes Vindhya as being situated to the south of Kishkindha (Ramayana IV-46. 17), which is identified with a part of the present-day Karnataka . It further implies that the sea was located just to the south of the Vindhyas, and Lanka was located across this sea. Many scholars have attempted to explain this anomaly in different ways. According to one theory,

5192-463: The kingdom's capital Bhogavati. Patala also tells Sindhuraja that the deer shot by him belonged to Shashiprabha, and the princess had fallen in love with him after seeing the name "Nava-Sahasanka" on the arrow. Furthermore, the necklace found by Sindhuraja was taken from the princess by a wild goose. Patala takes the necklace and departs to bring Sindhuraja's golden arrow to him. In Canto 6, Shashiprabha's companion Malayavati tells her that Nava-Sahasanka

5280-456: The largest Angkor temple (built in 1113–1150 AD), features both Apsaras and Devata , however, the devata type are the most numerous with more than 1,796 in the present research inventory. Angkor Wat architects employed small apsara images (30–40 cm as seen below) as decorative motifs on pillars and walls. They incorporated larger devata images (all full-body portraits measuring approximately 95–110  cm) more prominently at every level of

5368-410: The legendary kings Vikramaditya and Satavahana had died. Ramangada then tells Vanku about Sindhuraja's expedition, gifts him a jeweled bracelet, and asks him for guidance. The sage praises the king, predicts success for him in the expedition, and invites him to rest at the hermitage. In Canto 12, Sindhuraja rests at the hermitage, dreaming of Shashiprabha in his sleep. After waking up, as he talks to

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5456-420: The lotus. Canto 17 describes Sindhuraja's siege of Ratnavati. Ramangada beheads Vajrankusha's son with a discus ( chakra ), and Sindhuraja beheads Vajrankusha with an arrow. Sindhuraja is supported by Shashikhanda who fights beside him, and Ratnachuda who lights up the dark underworld with his jewel. After emerging victorious, Sindhuraja grants protection to the residents of Ratnavati, and appoints Ratnachuda as

5544-432: The man who brings him a golden lotus in the possession of the demon king Vajrankusha. Sindhuraja goes on a campaign against Vajrankusha, guided by the river goddess Narmada and sage Vanku, and supported by the Naga warrior Ratnachuda and the vidyadhara leader Shashikhanda. He defeats the demon king, brings the lotus, and marries Sahshiprabha. The epic was written by Padmgaupta, who was also known as Parimala Kalidasa, and

5632-458: The mark of boldness"). His capital Ujjain happened to be located in what had become the Paramara kingdom by Padmgaupta's time. One day, king Sindhuraja (alias Nava-Sahasanka) and his companions go on a hunting expedition in the Vindhya Range . In Canto 2, after shooting various animals with arrows, he tries to hunt a deer. During the chase, he dismounts from his horse, and follows the deer into

5720-814: The modern Indonesian , the females of the vidyādharas , another class of celestial beings in Indian mythology. 'Vidyādhara' literally means 'possessed of science or spells', and refers to 'a kind of supernatural being ... possessed of magical power' or 'fairy' according to Monier-Williams' dictionary. The bidadaris are heavenly maidens, living in the svargaloka or in celestial palace of Indra , described in Balinese dedari (bidadari or apsara) dance. Traditionally apsaras are described as celestial maidens living in Indra 's heaven (Kaéndran). They are well known for their special task: being sent to earth by Indra to seduce ascetics who by their severe practices may become more powerful than

5808-459: The most famous among the apsaras. In Japan, Apsara are known as " Tennin " (天人); "Tennyo" (天女) for "female Tennin" and "Tennan" (天男) for "male Tennin". The origin of 'apsara' is the Sanskrit अप्सरस्, apsaras (in the stem form, which is the dictionary form). Note that the stem-form ends in 's' as distinct from, e.g. the nominative singular Rāmas / Rāmaḥ (the deity Ram in Hindi), whose stem form

5896-431: The noon, and get some rest. Sindhuraja then bathes in a nearby lake, and takes a short nap. After waking up, he wanders around searching for the deer, but is unable to find the animal. At night, he sleeps on a bed of shoots made by Ramangada. In Canto 3, the next morning, Sindhuraja goes into the forest searching for the deer, accompanied by Ramangada. The men follow a track marked by blood drops, and see goose flying with

5984-437: The north and the south of India. Vindhyas appear prominently in the Indian mythological tales. Although the Vindhyas are not very high, historically, they were considered highly inaccessible and dangerous due to dense vegetation and the hostile tribes residing there. In the older Sanskrit texts, such as the Ramayana , they are described as the unknown territory infested with cannibals and demons . The later texts describe

6072-426: The person who brought him the golden lotus that grew in the pool of the demon ( asura ) king Vajrankusha. The goddess urges Sindhuraja to do this, telling him that he was a partial incarnation of the god Vishnu , and that the sage Vanku would guide him to Vajrankusha's capital Ratnavati. In Canto 10, Ramangada urges Sindhuraja to invade Vajrankusha's kingdom, assuring him that the Naga army would support him, just like

6160-401: The principal work of dramatic theory for Sanskrit drama, lists the following apsaras: Manjukesi, Sukesi, Misrakesi, Sulochana, Saudamini, Devadatta, Devasena, Manorama, Sudati, Sundari, Vigagdha, Vividha, Budha, Sumala, Santati, Sunanda, Sumukhi, Magadhi, Arjuni, Sarala, Kerala, Dhrti , Nanda, Supuskala, Supuspamala and Kalabha. Apsaras represent an important motif in the stone bas-reliefs of

6248-453: The ruler of Vajrankusha's former kingdom. In Canto 18, Sindhuraja enters Bhogavati, as the local women admire him, while Ramangada carries the golden lotus taken from Ratnavati. On the way to Shankhapala's palace, he stops at a temple of the god Hatakeshvara (an aspect of Shiva) to sing a hymn. As he enters the palace, he sees Shashiprabha ready for the wedding ceremony. When he puts the golden lotus on Shashiprabha's ear at Malayavati's request,

6336-419: The sage would have to be distracted from his penances, he sent the apsara Menaka to work her charms. Menaka trembled at the thought of angering such a powerful ascetic, but she obeyed the god's order. As she approached Vishvamitra, the wind god Vayu tore away her garments. Seeing her thus disrobed, the sage abandoned himself to lust and they made love, during which Vishvamitra's asceticism was put on hold. As

6424-449: The sage, a monkey comes to him, and gives him a pomegranate made of jewels. As soon as the king accepts the gift, the monkey turns into a man. The man introduces himself as Shashikhanda, a son of the vidyadhara (wizard) king Sikhandaketu. Shashikhanda explains that a thousand years ago, he tried to abduct a girl from a sage's hermitage, because of which the sage cursed him to become a monkey. The sage had told him that his curse will end when

6512-507: The seven Kula Parvatas ("clan mountains") of Bharatavarsha , that is, India. The exact identification of these three ranges is difficult due to contrasting descriptions in the various texts. For example, the Kurma , Matsya and Brahmanda Puranas mention Vindhya as the source of Tapti ; while Vishnu and Brahma Puranas mention the Rksa as its source. Some texts use the term Vindhyas to describe all

6600-418: The son of king Siyaka took an ornament from him. Shashikhanda then summons his vidyadhara army to help Sindhuraja. In Canto 13, with the blessings of sage Vanku, Sindhuraja's forces begin the march to Vajrankusha's capital. In Canto 14, with the help of the vidyadhara magical spell, Sindhuraja's chariot flies in air. The vidyadharas vimanas (flying chariots) accompanying him have women who pick up flowers from

6688-627: The stories related in the Mahabharata , apsaras appear in important supporting roles. The epic contains several lists of the principal Apsaras, which lists are not always identical. Here is one such list, together with a description of how the celestial dancers appeared to the residents and guests at the court of the gods: Ghritachi, Menaka , Rambha , Tilottama , Purvachitti, Swayamprabha, Urvashi , Misrakeshi, Dandagauri, Varuthini, Gopali, Sahajanya, Kumbhayoni, Prajagara, Chitrasena, Chitralekha, Saha, and Madhuraswana—these and thousands more, possessed of eyes like lotus leaves, were employed in enticing

6776-467: The temple from the entry pavilion to the tops of the high towers. In 1927, Sappho Marchal published a study cataloging the remarkable diversity of their hair, headdresses, garments, stance, jewelry and decorative flowers, which Marchal concluded were based on actual practices of the Angkor period. Some devatas appear with arms around each other and seem to be greeting the viewer. "The devatas seem to epitomize all

6864-641: The term "Vindhyas" covered a number of mountains to the south of the Indo-Aryan territories at the time Ramayana was written. Others, such as Frederick Eden Pargiter , believe that there was another mountain in South India, with the same name. Madhav Vinayak Kibe placed the location of Lanka in Central India . The Barabar Cave inscription of the Maukhari ruler Anantavarman mentions the Nagarjuni hill of Bihar as

6952-815: The term Vindhya specifically covers the mountain range located between the Narmada and the Tapti rivers; that is, the one which is now known as the Satpura Range . The Varaha Purana uses the name "Vindhya-pada" ("foot of the Vindhyas") for the Satpura range. Several ancient Indian texts and inscriptions (e.g. the Nasik Prasasti of Gautamiputra Satakarni ) mention three mountain ranges in Central India: Vindhya (or "Vindhya proper"), Rksa (also Rksavat or Riksha) and Pariyatra (or Paripatra). The three ranges are included in

7040-524: The territory of the ancient Indo-Aryan peoples . Although today Indo-Aryan languages are spoken south of the Vindhyas, the range continues to be considered as the traditional boundary between north and south India . The former Vindhya Pradesh was named after the Vindhya Range. According to the author of a commentary on Amarakosha , the word Vindhya derives from the Sanskrit word vaindh (to obstruct). A mythological story (see below ) states that

7128-449: The tradition of depicting heavenly maidens in dances is still alive and well. The Javanese court dances of Bedhaya portray apsaras. However, after the adoption of Islam , bidadari is equated with houri , the heavenly maiden mentioned in the Quran , in which God stated that the 'forbidden pearls' of heaven are for those men who have resisted temptation and borne life's trials. Islam spread in

7216-450: The trees during the low flight. The army encamps at near the river Ganga to allow the women to take rest. Canto 15 is dedicated to describing the women's bathing in the river, liquor-drinking, and love-making. On the one hand this large eyed girl, her body softer than the śirīṣa (flower), And on the other this fever of love, rough as a fire of chaff! Nava-sahasanka-charita 16.28, Malayavati describes Shashiprabha's state in

7304-428: The underworld ( patala ). As she departs, Sindhuraja follows her by jumping into the river, looking for an entrance to the underworld, and Ramangada follows him. On the way to the underworld, he overcomes several obstacles: these include a lion and an elephant who vanish when he draws his bow; and a river that turns anyone who touches it into a stone - Sindhuraja jumps over it using a bamboo. Sindhuraja ultimately reaches

7392-448: The woods. They were known for their beauty, glamour, magical powers and enchanting supernatural Androphilic Magnetism. They are believed to be seven in number and are the daughters of the sky god or the Soraren deity. Apsaras were also an important motif in the art of Champa , medieval Angkor 's neighbour to the east along the coast of what is now central Vietnam. Especially noteworthy are

7480-555: The world from the rampaging asura brothers Sunda and Upasunda ; and Urvashi , who attempted to seduce the hero Arjuna . A recurring theme in the Mahabharata is that of an apsara sent to distract a sage from his ascetic practices. One story embodying this theme is that recounted by the epic heroine Shakuntala to explain her own parentage. Once upon a time, the sage Vishvamitra generated such intense energy by means of his asceticism that Indra himself became fearful. Deciding that

7568-512: Was an expedition of King Tailapa 's general Basapa against the king Mularaja . Written in the Vaidarbhi style, Nava-sahasanka-charita does not feature long compounds or heavy alliteration, except in the description of the battle in Canto 12. Padmagupta was an admirer of the ancient poet Kalidasa , and wrote in a highly-embellished language. He often appears to imitate Kalidasa although his expression

7656-565: Was once Vindhya Pradesh , reaching up to the Kaimur district of Bihar. The branch of the Vindhya range spanning across Bundelkhand is known as the Panna range. Another northern extension (known as the Vindhyachal hills) runs up to Uttar Pradesh , stopping before the shores of Ganga at multiple places, including Vindhyachal and Chunar ( Mirzapur District ), near Varanasi . The Vindhyan tableland

7744-400: Was the son of Mriganka-gupta. He was a Paramara court-poet in the late 10th century and the early 11th century. Padmagupta was a courtier of the epic's subject, the Paramara king Sindhuraja (r. c. 990s), who ruled the Malwa region in central India. In the epic, Padmagupta states that he composed the text at the command of Sindhuraja. Padmagupta's literary career may have spanned the reigns of

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