Nishada ( niṣāda ) is a tribe mentioned in ancient Indian literature (such as the epic Mahabharata ). The ancient texts mention several kingdoms ruled by this tribe.
77-586: In the Mahabharata, the Nishadas are described as hunters, fishermen, mountaineers or raiders that have the hills and the forests as their abode. Their origin is associated with a king called Vena who became a slave to wrath and malice, and became unrighteous. Sages killed him for his malice and wrongdoings. In the epic Ramayana , a king named Guha of the Nishada clan assists Rama during his period of exile. Ekalavya
154-450: A Brahmin?" Sonadanda initially lists five qualities as, "he is of pure descent on both the mother's and the father's side, he is well versed in mantras, he is of fair color handsome and pleasing, he is virtuous learned and wise, and he is the first or second to hold the sacrificial ladle". Buddha then asks the Brahmin, "If we omit one of these qualities you just listed, could not one be still
231-512: A beast, ruthlessly hunting innocent deer. Seeing his wicked acts, he was named Vena, 'the tormentor'. Unable to disciple his child, Anga lost his peace of mind, and left his kingdom in disgust, retiring to the forest. Fearing anarchy and thieves, the sages and the people crowned Vena as the king, even though they were dissatisfied with the prince. When Vena became the king, the thieves immediately stopped their crimes and hid themselves. However, Vena proclaimed that in his kingdom, no one would perform
308-599: A characteristic of the Nishadas, as attested by Nanda-pandita's commentary on the text and the Katha-sarit-sagara . The Raghuvamsha presents the Nishada as boatmen . The Ayodhya Kanda of the Ramayana , which mentions the Nishada as the name of an occupational caste ( jāti ), states that the Nishada king helped Rama cross the Ganges River . The Harivamsha states that the Nishadas collected gems and jewels from
385-404: A form of Vishnu. He was crowned as the new king, and went on to become a powerful ruler, restoring religious rites and sacrifices. The people sought out Prithu, informing him that during the anarchy before his accession, the world had become so gloomy and dark that the earth-goddess, and incarnation of Lakshmi , Bhumi , had decided that she would not provide crops to humans anymore. She had taken
462-490: A person's varna status determined how the contemporary law treated them. For example: Gradually, the Nishadas were relegated to the status of untouchables in the Indo-Aryan society. The main profession of Nishadas was fishing and hunting. According to one telling, once, a Nishada had killed one bird from a pair, causing the other bird to be aggrieved by its loss and experience the pangs of pain. Observing this deep pain inspired
539-503: A sacrifice, and that they would not spend a single coin on religious acts. He banned religion. The sages visited Vena's court to conciliate the king, offering him wisdom about dharma (duty), moksha (salvation), and his responsibility as a ruler from the Dharmashastras . They asked him to restore the practice of sacrificial offerings and religious ceremonies. Vena declared their devotion towards Yajneshvara to be foolish, for he himself
616-504: A sage named Bhrigu , "Brahmins Varna was white, Kshtriyas was red, Vaishyas was yellow, and the Shudras' black". This description is questioned by another prominent sage Bharadwaja who says that colours are seen among all the Varnas, that desire, anger, fear, greed, grief, anxiety, hunger and toil prevails over all human beings, that bile and blood flow from all human bodies, so what distinguishes
693-473: A son – Cākṣuṣa Manu , from his wife Ākūti. Manu and his wife Nadvalā had twelve sons. Ulkmuka, one of Manu's sons, and his wife Puṣkariṇī (who had the same name as the wife of Vyuṣṭha) had six sons. Anga, one of Ulmuka's sons, married Sunīthā, who gave birth to Vena. The Padma Purāṇa mentions that Sunīthā is the ugly daughter of Mṛtyu (death), and hence Vena is regarded to have been wicked from birth. The Padma Purana states that Sunitha, Vena's mother,
770-444: A true Brahmin?" Sonadanda, one by one, eliminates fair colour and looks, then eliminates Varna in which one was born, and then eliminates the ability to recite mantra and do sacrifices as a requirement of being a Brahmin. Sonadanda asserts that just two qualities are necessary to truthfully and without falling into falsehood identify a Brahmin; these two qualities are "being virtuous and being learned and wise". Sonadanda adds that it
847-482: A woman. Sunitha boasted of her lineage from Yama to him, but he was unimpressed. When Sunitha met Suśaṅkha again, she struck him with a whip. Furious, and shivering in pain, the youth cursed her thus: You wicked girl! When you become a house-holder and join your husband you will get a son who will be a scoffer of Devas and Brahmins and an all-round sinner. According to the Bhagavata Purana , once, when King Anga
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#1732844811925924-675: Is a form of social stratification, quite different from the more nuanced system of Jātis , which correspond to the European term "caste" . The varna system is discussed in Hindu texts, and understood as idealised human callings. The concept is generally traced to the Purusha Sukta verse of the Rig Veda. In the post-Vedic period, the varna division is described in the Mahabharata , Puranas and in
1001-504: Is a king in Hinduism , notorious for his wickedness and misrule. A descendant of the first Manu , he bans all worship, offerings, and sacrifices upon his accession. After denying all petitions to restore these practices, Vena is slain by sages with their consecrated blades of grass. He is succeeded by the legendary king Prithu , who springs from his right arm. In the Rigveda ( 10 .123), Vena
1078-663: Is a late 15th-century religion that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent . Sikh texts mention Varna as Varan , and Jati as Zat or Zat-biradari . Eleanor Nesbitt, a professor of Religion and specialising in Christian, Hindu and Sikh studies, states that the Varan is described as a class system in 18th- to 20th-century Sikh literature, while Zat reflected the endogamous occupational groups (caste). The Sikh texts authored by
1155-598: Is a personification of a celestial being, perhaps the rainbow. The name of the hymn is also Vena , as is the name of the author of RV 9 .85. The Bhāgavata Purāṇa traces the origin of Vena as a descendant of Dhruva and Cākṣuṣa Manu . Dhruva 's eldest son, Utkala, did not ascend the throne. So, Dhruva's second son, Vatsara, was made the king. Vatsara married Svarvīthi, who gave birth to Puṣpārṇa, Tigmaketu, Iṣa, Ūrja, Vasu, and Jaya. Puṣpārṇa married Prabhā and Doṣā. Doṣā gave birth to Pradoṣa, Niśitha and Vyuṣṭha. Vyuṣṭha married Puṣkariṇī, and gave birth to Sarvatejas, who had
1232-528: Is discussed in the Dharma-shastra texts, but only in the context of the individual's moral, ritual and biological pollution (eating certain kinds of food such as meat, urination and defecation). In his review of Dharma-shastras, Olivelle writes, "we see no instance when a term of pure/impure is used with reference to a group of individuals or a varna or caste". The only mention of impurity in the Shastra texts from
1309-472: Is important to recognize, in theory, Varna is nongenealogical. The four Varnas are not lineages, but categories." The Bhagavad Gita describes the professions, duties and qualities of members of different varnas. There is no entity on earth, or again in heaven among the Devas, that is devoid of these three Gunas, born of Prakriti. Of Brâhmanas and Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, as also of Sudras, O scorcher of foes,
1386-492: Is impossible to reduce the requirement for being a Brahmin any further, because "for wisdom is purified by morality, and morality is clarified by wisdom; where one is, the other is, the moral man has wisdom and the wise man has morality, and the combination of morality and wisdom is called the highest thing in the world". Brian Black and Dean Patton state Sonadanda admits after this, "we [Brahmins] only know this much Gotama; it would be well if Reverend Gotama would explain meaning of
1463-591: Is said to have accepted all the sins committed by Vena unto himself. Thereafter, the descendants of the man came to be known as the Nishadas , dwelling in the Vindhya mountains. The sages then began to knead the corpse’s right hand, from which a shining man, Prithu , bearing a divine bow, arrows, and armour appeared. The sages observed that Prithu had the mark of the Sudarshana Chakra , after which they identified him as
1540-418: Is stated to be an archer of a Nishada tribe in the text. In the earliest of the Indo-Aryan texts, the term "Nishada" may have been used as a generic term for all indigenous non-Aryan tribes rather than a single tribe. This is suggested by the fact that according to Yaska 's Nirukta , Aupamanyava explains the Rigveda term " pancha-janah " ("five peoples") as the four varnas of the Indo-Aryan society and
1617-689: Is the earliest mention of Varna and Jati in Jainism literature. Jinasena does not trace the origin of Varna system to Rigveda or to Purusha Sukta, instead traces varna to the Bharata legend. According to this legend, Bharata performed an " ahimsa -test" (test of non-violence), and those members of his community who refused to harm or hurt any living being were called as the priestly varna in ancient India, and Bharata called them dvija , twice born. Jinasena states that those who are committed to ahimsa are deva-Brāhmaṇas , divine Brahmins. The text Adi purana also discusses
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#17328448119251694-670: Is untouched by [pride and egoism], he only is the Brahmana. Such is the opinion of the Vedas, the smritis, the Itihasa and the Puranas. Otherwise one cannot obtain the status of a Brahmana." The Mahabharata , estimated to have been completed by about the 4th century CE, discusses the Varna system in section 12.181. The Epic offers two models on Varna. The first model describes Varna as colour-coded system, through
1771-566: The Dharmashastra literatures . The commentary on the Varna system in the Manusmriti is often cited. Counter to these textual classifications, many Hindu texts and doctrines question and disagree with the Varna system of social classification. In India, communities that belong to one of the four varnas or classes are called savarna Hindus. The Dalits and tribals who do not belong to any varna were called avarna . The word appears in
1848-466: The Rigveda , where it means "colour, outward appearance, exterior, form, figure or shape". The word means "color, tint, dye or pigment" in the Mahabharata . Varna contextually means "colour, race, tribe, species, kind, sort, nature, character, quality, property" of an object or people in some Vedic and medieval texts. Varna refers to four social classes in the Manusmriti . The earliest application to
1925-568: The Vayu Purana also emphasize the dark skin colour of the Nishadas. The Bhagavata Purana mentions the Nishadas as having copper-coloured hair, high cheekbones , and low-tipped nose. Various ancient texts associate the Nishadas with hunting and fishing . Nishadas are presented as hunters in the Bala Kanda of the Ramayana , Utpala's 8th century commentary on the Brihat Samhita , and
2002-675: The Austroasiatic family , the parent family of the Munda languages. The Nishadas are sometimes confused with the Nisadhas ( IAST : Niṣādha), who were a distinct, Indo-Aryan tribe. The Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata describes the Nishadas having dark skin colour similar to that of charred wood, black hair, blood red -coloured eyes, and short limbs. The later texts such as the Vishnu Purana and
2079-777: The Dandakas ( Aurangabad , Maharashtra ) the Kuru warrior, Sahadeva vanquished and brought under his subjection numberless kings of the Mlechchha tribe living on the sea coast, and the Nishadas and the cannibals and even the Karnapravarnas, and those tribes also called the Kalamukhas (2,30). This Nishada's battled for the sake of Pandavas in the Kurukshetra War : The Dravida , the Andhaka , and
2156-524: The Dharmasutras of Vaikhanasa and Ushanas. The Adi Parva of the Mahabharata describes the Nishada prince Ekalavya as the son of an archer, which suggests that archery was a hereditary trait of the Nishadas. The Manusmriti and the Anushasana Parva of the Mahabharata mention fishing as the profession of the Nishadas. The Vishnu Smriti also seems to consider subsistence on fishing
2233-478: The Guru Granth Sahib in their Gurdwaras with the texts of Ravidas. The terms varna (theoretical classification based on occupation) and jāti (caste) are two distinct concepts. Jāti (community) refers to the thousands of endogamous groups prevalent across the subcontinent. A jati may be divided into exogamous groups based on the same gotras . The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than
2310-554: The Indo-Aryans in India. Most of the other indigenous tribes find few mentions in the Vedic texts . The Nishadas appear in these texts several times, and as a full-fledged tribe within the Indo-Aryan social framework. Aitareya Brahmana , an early text, describes the Nishadas as raiders operating in the forests. However, the later Shrauta texts suggest that they were gradually assimilated into
2387-616: The Kali Yuga , the age of immorality and decline. The varna system is extensively discussed in the Dharma-shastras. The Varna system in Dharma-shastras divides society into four varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishya and Shudras). Those who fall out of this system because of their grievous sins are ostracised as outcastes (untouchables) and considered outside the varna system. Barbarians and those who are unrighteous or unethical are also considered outcastes. Recent scholarship suggests that
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2464-631: The Khalsa Dharam Sastar in 1914 argued that the entry of certain Sikh castes into major Sikh shrines should be barred. Similarly, in practice and its texts, the Gurus of Sikhism did not condemn or break with the convention of marrying (and marrying off their children) within the jati , and all the Sikh Gurus were Khatri, had Khatri wives and practiced arranged marriages within their zat . According to Dhavan,
2541-499: The Nishada foot-soldiers, urged on by Satyaki , once more rushed towards Karna in that battle ( Kurukshetra War ) (8,49). Manimat had his kingdom to the south of Kosala . This kingdom was visited by Bhima during his military campaign to the east, to collect tribute for Yudhishthira 's Rajasuya sacrifice;- After conquering Vatsabhumi Bhima defeated the king of the Bhargas, as also
2618-723: The Vangas , the Angas , the Nishadas and the Magadhas were mentioned together on the Kaurava side at (8,70). Nishadas were mentioned as battling for the sake of Pandavas along with the Pauravakas and Patachcharas; at(6,50). The southern Nishadas were also mentioned in the army of Pandavas (8,49). Nishada prince Ketumat was mentioned who was slain by Bhima along with the Kalinga heroes (6,54). Nishada army
2695-451: The varnas (see Social status section below). However, such classifications are not indicative of the contemporary occupations of the Nishadas: rather, they appear to be a legal attempt to define the status of the Nishadas relative to the other varnas, so that the varna-specific laws could be applied to them. The Nishadas appear to have been among the first indigenous tribes encountered by
2772-477: The 1st millennium is about people who commit grievous sins and thereby fall out of their varna. These, writes Olivelle, are called "fallen people" and impure, declaring that they be ostracised. Olivelle adds that the overwhelming focus in matters relating to purity/impurity in the Dharma-sastra texts concerns "individuals irrespective of their varna affiliation" and all four varnas could attain purity or impurity by
2849-499: The Dharma literature is concerned with the individual and not with groups, with purification and not with purity, and lends little support to a theory which makes relative purity the foundation of social stratification. The first three varnas are described in the Dharmashastras as " twice born " and they are allowed to study the Vedas . Such a restriction of who can study Vedas is not found in
2926-522: The Indo-Aryan society, and were not considered as untouchable at this time. For example: These references suggest that the Indo-Aryans made efforts to assimilate the Nishadas into their own social order, but the Vedic ritual status granted to the Nishadas was limited in nature. Historian Ramaprasad Chanda speculates that the Nishadas were too numerous and too powerful to be eliminated, enslaved, or expelled by
3003-439: The Indo-Aryan society. The Rudra Adhyaya of the ancient Yajurveda Samhita shows reverence to the Nishadas, among others. Nevertheless, the Nishadas held a low status in the Indo-Aryan society: In what appears to be an attempt to define the status of the Nishadas in the varna system , several ancient texts present them as progeny of parents from different varnas. This appears to have been done for legal purposes, since
3080-454: The Indo-Aryans: this may explain the limited attempts to assimilate them. It is possible that only the high-class among the Nishadas were inducted into the Indo-Aryan society, while the majority of them remained unassimilated. Panini 's Ganapatha mentions a gotra called Nishada, which according to scholar D. D. Kosambi , suggests that some tribal priests were assimilated as Brahmanas in
3157-597: The Kshatriyas, born of (their own) nature. Agriculture, cattle-rearing and trade are the duties of the Vaishyas, born of (their own) nature; and action consisting of service is the duty of the Sudras, born of (their own) nature. The Brahma Purana states that acting against both varna and ashrama (stage) , which together guide one's dharma, leads to hell. The Brahmanda Purana calls associations between low and high varnas signs of
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3234-652: The Nishada king. He could be the son of Manimat the Nishada king, who was defeated formerly by Bhima . Ketumat was slain by Bhima along with the Kalinga heroes (6,54). The Kalinga , the Vanga , and the Nishada heroes, riding on elephants were said to attack Arjuna in Kurukshetra War (8,17). Mekalas (a kingdom close to Dakshina Kosala kingdom , in Chathisgad ) and Utkalas (western Orissa ), and Kalingas , and Nishadas and Tamraliptakas (south of West Bengal ), were mentioned as advancing against Nakula (8,22). The Kalingas,
3311-553: The Nishadas. Linguist S. K. Chatterji notes that the Nishadas appear to be different from the Dasas and the Dasyus, which are the other non-Aryan people mentioned in the Vedic texts. Historian Ramaprasad Chanda identifies the Nishadas as the original speakers of the Munda languages . N. K. Dutt also identifies with them pre- Dravidian peoples of India, who presumably spoke a language belonging to
3388-525: The Rahit-namas and other prescriptive Sikh texts from mid-18th century onwards accommodate and affirm the "natal and marriage traditions of different caste groups within the Sikh community". Ravidassi Sikhs and Ramgarhia Sikhs follow their own textual and festive traditions, gather in their own places of worship. These are varan-based (caste-based) religious congregations that emerged from Sikhism, states Nesbitt. The Ravidassia group, for example, emphasizes
3465-503: The Rigveda and, both then and later, a social ideal rather than a social reality". Ram Sharan Sharma states that "the Rig Vedic society was neither organized on the basis of social division of labour nor on that of differences in wealth ... [it] was primarily organised on the basis of kin, tribe and lineage." The Chandogya Upanishad indicates that a person's varna is determined on
3542-449: The Sikh Gurus and by non-Sikh Bhagats such as the Namdev , Ravidas and Kabir , states Nesbitt, declared the irrelevance of varan or zat of one's birth to one's spiritual destiny. They taught that "all of humanity had a single refuge" and that the divine teaching is for everyone. Sikhism teaches a society without any varan . In practice, states Harjot Oberoi, secondary Sikh texts such as
3619-523: The Varnas, he asks? The Mahabharata then declares, according to Alf Hiltebeitel , a professor of religion, "There is no distinction of Varnas. This whole universe is Brahman. It was created formerly by Brahma, came to be classified by acts." The Mahabharata thereafter recites a behavioural model for Varna, that those who were inclined to anger, pleasures and boldness attained the Kshatriya Varna; those who were inclined to cattle rearing and living off
3696-574: The Vedic era literature. Manusmriti assigns cattle rearing as Vaishya occupation but historical evidence shows that Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Shudras also owned and reared cattle and that cattle-wealth was mainstay of their households. Ramnarayan Rawat, a professor of History and specialising in social exclusion in the Indian subcontinent, states that 19th century British records show that Chamars , listed as untouchables, also owned land and cattle and were active agriculturalists. The emperors of Kosala and
3773-438: The banks of Sarasvati River is mentioned as the gate to the kingdom of the Nishadas. There the river is completely dried up and exist as a dry river channel (3,130). Pandavas were led to this place by their guide viz sage Lomasa, during their pilgrimage all over India. This kingdom was visited by Sahadeva during his military campaign to the south, to collect tribute for Yudhishthira 's Rajasuya sacrifice;- After defeating
3850-410: The basis of their actions in their previous life. Among them, those who did good work in this world [in their past life] attain a good birth accordingly. They are born as a brāhmin, a kṣatriya, or a vaiśya. But those who did bad work in this world [in their past life] attain a bad birth accordingly, being born as a dog, a pig, or as a casteless person. The Vajrasuchi Upanishad , however, states that
3927-443: The content of their character, ethical intent, actions, innocence or ignorance, stipulations, and ritualistic behaviours. Olivelle states: Dumont is correct in his assessment that the ideology of varna is not based on purity. If it were we should expect to find at least some comment on the relative purity and impurity of the different vamas. What is even more important is that the ideology of purity and impurity that emerges from
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#17328448119254004-505: The country of the Nishadas and also the high hill called Gosringa, and that lord of earth called Srenimat (2,30). Nishada and Srenimat were mentioned together again at (5,4). Ekalavya, the king of the Nishadas, always used to challenge Vasudeva Krishna to battle; but he was slain by Krishna in battle (5,48), (7-178,179) (16,6). Arjuna had come to Nishada kingdom of Ekalavya, after the Kurukshetra War , to collect tribute for Yudhishthira 's Ashwamedha sacrifice. Arjuna proceeded to
4081-442: The death of Vena, there was anarchy, since Vena had no sons and heirs. Thieves and evil men begun to plunder and steal from innocent people. Wishing to continue the line of Vena's father, Anga, they kneaded the thigh of Vena, from which a dwarfish man appeared, with black features and blood-red eyes. The man bowed before the sages and asked them of his purpose. The sages told him to sit ( niṣīda ), after which he named himself . The man
4158-456: The discussion of varna as well as untouchable outcastes in these texts does not resemble the modern era caste system in India. Patrick Olivelle , a professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions and credited with modern translations of Vedic literature, Dharma-sutras and Dharma-shastras, states that ancient and medieval Indian texts do not support the ritual pollution, purity-impurity as the basis for varna system. According to Olivelle, purity-impurity
4235-422: The dominions of the Nishada king, viz., the son of Ekalavya. The son of Ekalavya received Arjuna in battle. The encounter that took place between the Kuru hero and the Nishadas was furious. Unvanquished in battle, the valiant son of Kunti defeated the Nishada king who proved an obstacle to the sacrifice. Having subjugated the son of Ekalavya, he proceeded towards the southern ocean. (14,83). A spot named Vinasana on
4312-506: The duties are distributed according to the Gunas born of their own nature. The control of the mind and the senses, austerity, purity, forbearance, and also uprightness, knowledge, realisation, belief in a hereafter– these are the duties of the Brâhmanas, born of (their own) nature. Prowess, boldness, fortitude, dexterity, and also not flying from battle, generosity and sovereignty are the duties of
4389-423: The form of a cow and gone into hiding, making the earth empty of any vegetation. Furious, Prithu chased Bhumi through the three worlds , bearing his bow, Ajagava . When he finally cornered her, she pleaded with him to spare her. She allowed him and the sages to milk her, which restored the vegetation and vitality of the earth, as well as its people. Hence, Vishnu was able to make his consort restore her prosperity to
4466-540: The formal division into four social classes (without using the term varna ) appears in the late Rigvedic Purusha Sukta ( RV 10 .90.11–12), which has the Brahman, Rajanya (instead of Kshatriya), Vaishya and Shudra classes forming the mouth, arms, thighs and feet at the sacrifice of the primordial Purusha , respectively: 11. When they divided Purusa how many portions did they make? What do they call his mouth, his arms? What do they call his thighs and feet? 12. The Brahman
4543-416: The hills and the forests for their abode and fishing as their chief occupation. They ruled over the hills, plains, land and dominated over the water. They were linked with a king called Vena (see Saraswata kingdom ) (12,58). Nishadas lived in hamlets (12,328). Aushmikas, and Nishadas , and Romakas were mentioned as bringing tribute to king Yudhishthira during his Rajasuya sacrifice (2,50). Ekalavya
4620-590: The human race, as Prithu. Due to this reason, Bhumi acquired the epithet Prithvi . Varna in Hinduism Traditional ' Varṇa' ( Sanskrit : वर्ण , Hindi pronunciation: ['ʋəɾɳə] ), in the context of Hinduism , refers to a social class within a hierarchical traditional Hindu society. The ideology is epitomized in texts like Manusmriti , which describes and ranks four varnas, and prescribes their occupations, requirements and duties, or Dharma . This quadruple division
4697-644: The phenomenon of caste" in India. Ancient Buddhist texts mention Varna system in South Asia, but the details suggest that it was non-rigid, flexible, non-hierarchal, and with characteristics devoid of features of a social stratification system. Digha Nikaya provides a discussion between Gotama Buddha and a Hindu Brahmin named Sonadanda who was very learned in the Vedas . Gotama Buddha asks, "By how many qualities do Brahmins recognize another Brahmin? How would one declare truthfully and without falling into falsehood, "I am
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#17328448119254774-451: The plough attained the Vaishyas; those who were fond of violence, covetousness and impurity attained the Shudras. The Brahmin class is modelled in the epic, as the archetype default state of man dedicated to truth, austerity and pure conduct. Indeed, it goes on to assert that all men are children of Brahmins, which does not make sense, unless understood this way.In the Mahabharata and pre-medieval era Hindu texts, according to Hiltebeitel, "it
4851-458: The priestly function, and that the Brahmin took food from anyone, suggesting that strictures of commensality were as yet unknown. The Nikaya texts also imply that endogamy was not mandated in ancient India. Masefield concludes, "if any form of caste system was known during the Nikaya period - and it is doubtful that it was - this was in all probability restricted to certain non-Aryan groups". Ādi purāṇa , an 8th-century text of Jainism by Jinasena,
4928-429: The prince of Kasi are other examples. Tim Ingold , an anthropologist, writes that the Manusmriti is a highly schematic commentary on the varna system, but it too provides "models rather than descriptions". Susan Bayly states that Manusmriti and other scriptures helped elevate Brahmin in the social hierarchy and these were a factor in the making of the varna system, but the ancient texts did not in some way "create
5005-505: The relationship between varna and jati. According to Padmanabh Jaini , a professor of Indic studies, Jainism and Buddhism, the Adi purana text states "there is only one jati called manusyajati or the human caste, but divisions arise account of their different professions". The varna of Kshatriya arose when Rishabh procured weapons to serve the society and assumed the powers of a king, while Vaishya and Shudra varna arose from different means of livelihood in which they specialised. Sikhism
5082-417: The river beds. Maskarin's commentary on Gautama Dharmasutra suggests that elephant-training was another occupation associated with the Nishadas. This is also corroborated the use of the term "Nishadin" to describe an elephant-keeper in Bana 's Harsha-charita and Magha 's Shishupala-vadha . Several ancient texts present the Nishadas as progeny of parents from different occupational classes, called
5159-408: The ruler of the Nishadas viz Manimat and numerous other kings (2,29). This kingdom is possibly the Jaunpur district of Uttar Pradesh . The famous Nishada king named Guha who befriended the Kosala prince Raghava Rama was also the king of this kingdom. A prince named Ketumat is mentioned as battling along with the Kalingas against Bhima , in the Kurukshetra War . He was mentioned as the son of
5236-462: The sage Valmiki to write about the legend of king Rama of Ayodhya and his dutiful wife queen Sita , who lived in separation due to her capture by the rakshasa king Ravana . In the Ramayana, the king of the Nishadas, named Guha, is stated to be an ally of Rama. He helps Rama and Sita to cross the Ganges river near Shringiverapura . The Mahabharata speaks of Nishaada as forest hunters and fishermen. Nishadas were mentioned as tribes that have
5313-412: The status of brahman is not based on birth, knowledge, or karma, but on the direct realisation of one's own Atman (inner self, soul). "Who indeed then is a Brahmana? He who has directly realized his Atman is without a second, devoid of class and actions[…] that exists penetrating all things that pervade everything. [He who] is devoid of the faults of thirst after worldly objects and passions… Whose mind
5390-457: The teachings of Bhagat Ravidas – a poet-saint born in a family whose traditional untouchable occupation related to dead animals and leather. They consider the teachings of living Gurus and the texts of Ravidass Dera as sacred and spiritually as important as the historic Sikh Gurus. This is rejected by Khalsa Sikhs. The disagreements have led the Ravidassia Sikhs to launch the Ravidassia religion movement which, amongst other things seeks to replace
5467-636: The two [morality, wisdom]". Peter Masefield, a Buddhism scholar and ancient Pali texts translator, states that during the Nikāya texts period of Buddhism (3rd century BC to 5th century AD), Varna as a class system is attested, but the described Varna was not a caste system. The Pali texts enumerate the four Varnas Brahmin , "Kshatriya", Vessa (Vaishya) and Sudda (Shudra). Masefield notes that people in any Varna could in principle perform any profession. The early Buddhist texts, for instance, identify some Brahmins to be farmers and in other professions. The text state that anyone, of any birth, could perform
5544-428: Was a cruel woman, who enjoyed hurting other people. Once, when she went to the forest to play with her maids, she saw a gandharva named Suśaṅkha. The handsome youth was engaged in a penance to propitiate the goddess of music, Saraswati . Sunitha started to annoy him, but Suśaṅkha resisted her attempts to distract him. Bitter that the youth was ignoring her, she struck him. Suśaṅkha was angered, but did not wish to strike
5621-678: Was his mouth, of both his arms was the Rajanya made. His thighs became the Vaishya, from his feet the Shudra was produced. Some modern indologists believe the Purusha Sukta to be a later addition, possibly as a charter myth . Stephanie Jamison and Joel Brereton, a professor of Sanskrit and Religious studies, state, "there is no evidence in the Rigveda for an elaborate, much-subdivided and overarching caste system", and "the varna system seems to be embryonic in
5698-864: Was mentioned to fight for the sake of Kauravas at various instances (6-118), (7,44), (8-17,20,22,60,70). Bhima is said to slay a Nishada prince (other than Ketumat) at (8,60). A mountain range in ancient India is named Nishada , mentioned along with other mountains like Meru, Mahendra, Malaya, Sweta, Sringavat, Mandara, Nila Dardurna, Chitrakuta, Anjanabha, the Gandhamadana mountains and the sacred Somagiri (13,165). Shadaja, Rishabha, together with Gandhara, Madhyama, and likewise Panchama; after this should be known Nishada, and then Dhaivata (14,50). The seven original notes are Shadja, Rishabha, Gandhara, Mahdhyama, Panchama, Dhaivata and Nishada (12,183). Vena (Hindu King) Vena ( Sanskrit : वेन , romanized : Vena , lit. 'tormentor')
5775-481: Was performing the ashvamedha sacrifice, the deities did not accept his oblations, for he did not have a son. On the advice of sages, Anga performed another sacrifice and venerated Vishnu . From the sacrificial fire arose a person with milk-boiled rice ( payasam ). Anga fed the rice to his wife, Sunitha, who gave birth to a son. The son, from his childhood, was attached to his maternal grandfather Mrityu (a portion of Adharma ), and turned to unrighteousness. He acted like
5852-406: Was the embodiment of all the deities. He commanded that all of his subjects worship him rather than any other being. Angered by the insult that the king had made towards their Brahmin birth, and the deity Vishnu , the sages slew him with consecrated blades of grass, while uttering the huṃ sound . A grieving Sunitha preserved her son's corpse by chanting mantras and applying medicines. After
5929-451: Was the son of Hiranyadhanus, king of the Nishadas (1,134). He came to Hastinapura to join the military school of Drona . Ekalavya's kingdom was the most famous Nishada kingdom during the time of the Pandavas . This kingdom was visited by Sahadeva during his military campaign to the south, to collect tribute for Yudhishthira 's Rajasuya sacrifice;- Sahadeva , the Kuru warrior, conquered
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