Besuki is the name of a district ( kecamatan ) in Situbondo Regency , East Java , Indonesia with an area of 26.08 km. In 2004, its population was 57,109 people. In ancient time the city was important because it was the capital of the Residency of Besuki.
103-456: During Majapahit Kingdom , Besuki was already a growing area and was known by the name Keta . The town revolted along with Sadeng against the Majapahit Empire but was extinguished by Gajah Mada . This event occurred in the year 1331 CE. 7°45′16″S 113°42′08″E / 7.75448°S 113.7023°E / -7.75448; 113.7023 This East Java location article
206-529: A daughter together and he stayed with her in Java. Kelantan was ruled by his brother, Sultan Sadik Muhammad Shah, until his death in 1429. This necessitated Kemas Jiwa to return and took the throne as Iskandar, where he declared Kelantan as Majapahit II in Mahligai. Although Pararaton listed her husband as Bhra Hyang Parameswara Ratnapangkaja, which suggests she remarried after Kemas Jiwa returned. The reign of Suhita
309-490: A foothold on the northern coast of Java. Malacca prospered under Chinese Ming protection, while the Majapahit were steadily pushed back. Wikramawardhana ruled until 1429 and was succeeded by his daughter Suhita , who ruled from 1429 to 1447. She was the second child of Wikramawardhana by a concubine who was the daughter of Wirabhumi. She was married to future Kelantan king Iskandar Shah or Kemas Jiwa in 1427. Both of them had
412-439: A king with formal name Rajasawardhana. He died in 1453. A three-year kingless period was possibly the result of a succession crisis. Girisawardhana , son of Kertawijaya, came to power in 1456. He died in 1466 and was succeeded by Singhawikramawardhana. In 1468 Prince Kertabhumi rebelled against Singhawikramawardhana, promoting himself as the king of Majapahit. Deposed Singhawikramawardhana retreated upstream of Brantas River, moved
515-496: A legend linked to the establishment of a new settlement in the forest of Trik by Raden Wijaya in 1292. It was said that the workers clearing the Trik forest encountered some maja trees and consumed their bitter-tasting fruit which then gave its name to the village. Strictly speaking, the name Majapahit refers to the kingdom's capital, but today it is common to refer to the kingdom with its capital's name. In Javanese primary sources,
618-478: A massive expedition of 1000 ships to Java in 1293. By that time, Jayakatwang , the Adipati (Duke) of Kediri , a vassal state of Singhasari, had usurped and killed Kertanagara. After being pardoned by Jayakatwang with the aid of Madura's regent Arya Wiraraja, Kertanegara's son-in-law Raden Wijaya was given the land of Tarik timberland. He then opened the vast timberland and built a new settlement there. The village
721-714: A naval exploration, but also a show of power and a display of geopolitical reach. The Chinese Ming dynasty had recently overthrown the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, and was eager to establish their hegemony in the world, which changed the geopolitical balance in Asia. The Chinese intervened in the politics of the southern seas by supporting Thais against the declining Khmer Empire, supporting and installing allied factions in India, Sri Lanka and other places in Indian Ocean coasts. However, perhaps
824-533: A primary historical account of Majapahit court during the reign of King Hayam Wuruk , as well as detailed information about the East Javanese countryside and a summary of Singhasari history. The Pararaton focuses on Ken Arok , the founder of Singhasari , but includes a number of shorter narrative fragments about the formation of Majapahit. The Javanese sources incorporate some poetic mythological elements into their historical accounts. This complexity has led to
927-416: A royal monopoly. It also claimed relationships with Champa , Cambodia , Siam , southern Burma, and Vietnam, and even sent missions to China. Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed neighbouring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the archipelago. About the time Majapahit
1030-408: A single mapping into Roman. Hence it is a prefix code,[2] advantageous from a computation point of view. Typically the small case letters are used for un-aspirated consonants and short vowels while the capital case letters are used for aspirated consonants and long vowels. While the retroflexed voiceless and voiced consonants are mapped to 't, T, d and D', the dentals are mapped to 'w, W, x and X'. Hence
1133-584: A son from his previous marriage, the crown prince Wirabhumi , who also claimed the throne. By the time of Hayam Wuruk's death, Majapahit had lost its grip on its vassal states on the northern coasts of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, the latter which according to Chinese sources, would become a tributary state of the Ayutthaya Kingdom until the rise of Malacca Sultanate , supported by the Ming dynasty . In
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#17328451159291236-440: A story about a country called Tawalisi which oppose the king of China (Yuan dynasty) and waged war with him using numerous junks until he made a peace on certain conditions. Hayam Wuruk , also known as Rajasanagara, ruled Majapahit in 1350–1389. During this period, Majapahit attained its peak with the help of the prime minister Gajah Mada . Under Gajah Mada's command (1313–1364), Majapahit conquered more territories and became
1339-415: A variety of interpretive approaches. Cornelis Christiaan Berg, a Dutch historian, have considered the entire historical record to be not a record of the past, but a supernatural means by which the future can be determined. Most scholars do not accept this view, as the historical record corresponds in part with Chinese materials that could not have had similar intention. The references to rulers and details of
1442-410: Is ASCII-compatible. A pictorial explanation is here from Anthony Stone . The following is a comparison of the major transliteration methods used for Devanāgarī. The Devanāgarī standalone consonant letters are followed by an implicit shwa (/Ə/). In all of the transliteration systems, that /Ə/ must be represented explicitly using an 'a' or any equivalent of shwa . The table below shows just
1545-401: Is a stub . You can help Misplaced Pages by expanding it . Majapahit Kingdom Majapahit ( Javanese : ꦩꦗꦥꦲꦶꦠ꧀ , romanized: Måjåpahit ; Javanese pronunciation: [mɔd͡ʒɔpaɪt] (eastern and central dialect) or [mad͡ʒapaɪt] (western dialect) ), also known as Wilwatikta ( Javanese : ꦮꦶꦭ꧀ꦮꦠꦶꦏ꧀ꦠ ; Javanese pronunciation: [wɪlwatɪkta] ),
1648-549: Is also called Romanagari . The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a subset of the ISO 15919 standard, used for the transliteration of Sanskrit , Prakrit and Pāḷi into Roman script with diacritics. IAST is a widely used standard. It uses diacritics to disambiguate phonetically similar but not identical Sanskrit glyphs. For example, dental and retroflex consonants are disambiguated with an underdot: dental द=d and retroflex ड=ḍ. An important feature of IAST
1751-555: Is also credited to the famous prime minister Gajah Mada . According to the Nagarakretagama written in 1365, Majapahit was an empire of 98 tributaries, stretching from Sumatra to New Guinea ; including territories in present-day Indonesia , Singapore , Malaysia , Brunei , southern Thailand , Timor Leste , southwestern Philippines (in particular the Sulu Archipelago ) although the scope of Majapahit sphere of influence
1854-547: Is also referred to by the Sanskrit-derived synonym Wilwatikta ( Sanskrit : विल्वतिक्त , romanized : vilvatikta , lit. 'bitter maja '). Toponyms containing the word maja are common in the area in and around Trowulan (e.g. Mojokerto ), as it is a widespread practice in Java to name an area, a village or settlement with the most conspicuous or abundant tree or fruit species found in that region. The 16th-century chronicle Pararaton records
1957-459: Is an Indic script used for many Indo-Aryan languages of North India and Nepal , including Hindi , Marathi and Nepali , which was the script used to write Classical Sanskrit . There are several somewhat similar methods of transliteration from Devanagari to the Roman script (a process sometimes called romanisation ), including the influential and lossless IAST notation. Romanised Devanagari
2060-509: Is irrelevant. WX notation is a transliteration scheme for representing Indian languages in ASCII. This scheme originated at IIT Kanpur for computational processing of Indian languages, and is widely used among the natural language processing (NLP) community in India. The notation (though unidentified) is used, for example, in a textbook on NLP from IIT Kanpur.[1] The salient features of this transliteration scheme are: Every consonant and every vowel has
2163-445: Is more readable but requires diacritic printing) or capitalising them (e.g. making द = d and ड = D , which requires no diacritic printing but is less readable because it mixes small and capital letters in words). The National Library at Kolkata romanisation , intended for the romanisation of all Indic scripts , is an extension of IAST . It differs from IAST in the use of the symbols ē and ō for ए and ओ (e and o are used for
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#17328451159292266-653: Is much of the computer education available there. Due to low awareness of Devanagari keyboard layouts, many Indian users type Hindi in the Roman script. Before Devanagari was added to Unicode , many workarounds were used to display Devanagari on the Internet, and many sites and services have continued using them despite widespread availability of Unicode fonts supporting Devanagari. Although there are several transliteration conventions on transliterating Hindi to Roman, most of these are reliant on diacritics. As most Indians are familiar with
2369-404: Is still the subject of debate among historians. The nature of Majapahit's relations and influence upon its overseas vassals and also its status as an empire still provokes discussion. Majapahit was one of the last major Hindu-Buddhist empires of the region and is considered to be one of the greatest and most powerful empires in the history of Indonesia and Southeast Asia. It is sometimes seen as
2472-452: Is subject to debate. It may have had limited or entirely notional influence over some of the tributary states , including Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan , and eastern Indonesia, over which authority was claimed in the Nagarakretagama . Geographical and economic constraints suggest that rather than a regular centralised authority, the outer states were most likely to have been connected mainly by trade connections, which were probably
2575-689: Is that a single ASCII character is used for each Devanagari letter, a peculiarity that eases reverse transliteration. Hinglish refers to the non-standardised Romanised Hindi used online, and especially on social media. In India, Romanised Hindi is the dominant form of expression online. In an analysis of YouTube comments, Palakodety et al., identified that 52% of comments were in Romanised Hindi, 46% in English, and 1% in Devanagari Hindi. Other less popular ASCII schemes include WX notation , Vedatype and
2678-451: Is that it is losslessly reversible, i.e., IAST transliteration may be converted back to correct Devanāgarī or to other South Asian scripts without ambiguity. Many Unicode fonts fully support IAST display and printing. The Hunterian system is the "national system of romanisation in India" and the one officially adopted by the Government of India . The Hunterian system was developed in
2781-724: The Melayu Kingdom in Sumatra in 1275, Singhasari became the most powerful kingdom in the region. Kublai Khan , the Khagan of the Mongol Empire and the Emperor of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China, challenged Singhasari by sending emissaries demanding tribute. Kertanegara of Singhasari refused to pay the tribute, insulted Kublai's envoy, and challenged the Khan instead. In response, Kublai Khan sent
2884-485: The Regreg War , is thought to have occurred from 1405 to 1406. The war was fought as a contest of succession between the western court led by Wikramawardhana and the eastern court led by Bhre Wirabhumi . Wikramawardhana was victorious. Wirabhumi was caught and decapitated. However the civil war drained financial resources, exhausted the kingdom, and weakened Majapahit's grip on its outer vassals and colonies. During
2987-667: The Trowulan area, which was the royal capital of the kingdom. The area has become the centre for the study of Majapahit history. The Trowulan archaeological site was first documented in the 19th century by Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles , Lieutenant-Governor of British Java of the East India Company from 1811 to 1816. He reported the existence of "ruins of temples... scattered about the country for many miles", and referred to Trowulan as "this pride of Java". Aerial and satellite imagery has revealed an extensive network of canals crisscrossing
3090-593: The diacritic marks that IAST contains. Instead of diacritics, Harvard-Kyoto uses capital letters . The use of capital letters makes typing in Harvard-Kyoto much easier than in IAST but produces words with capital letters inside them. ITRANS is an extension of Harvard-Kyoto . The ITRANS transliteration scheme was developed for the ITRANS software package, a pre-processor for Indic scripts . The user inputs in Roman letters and
3193-416: The th of "this" (voiced, IPA /ð/) nor the th of "thin" (unvoiced, IPA /θ/). The aspiration is generally indicated in both formal and informal transliteration systems. As English is widely used a professional and higher-education language in India, availability of Devanagari keyboards is dwarfed by English keyboards. Similarly, software and user interfaces released and promoted in India are in English, as
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3296-405: The 14th century (1368 AD, 1376 AD). The close proximity of the site with the kraton means there were Muslim people in close relation with the court. Following Hayam Wuruk's death in 1389, Majapahit power entered a period of decline with conflict over succession. Hayam Wuruk was succeeded by the crown princess Kusumawardhani, who married a relative, Prince Wikramawardhana . Hayam Wuruk also had
3399-494: The 14th century a Malay Kingdom of Singapura was established, and it promptly attracted a Majapahit navy that regarded it as Tumasik , a rebellious colony. Singapura was finally sacked by Majapahit in 1398, after approximately 1 month long siege by 300 jong and 200,000 men. The last king, Parameswara , fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula to establish the Melaka Sultanate in 1400. A war of succession, called
3502-506: The 19th century adopted Devanagari for printed editions of Sanskrit texts. The editio princeps of the Rigveda by Max Müller was in Devanagari. Müller's London typesetters competed with their Petersburg peers working on Böhtlingk 's and Roth's dictionary in cutting all the required ligature types. From its beginnings, Western Sanskrit philology also felt the need for a romanised spelling of
3605-549: The 7-bit ISO 15919. WX notation is a transliteration scheme for representing Indian languages in ASCII. It originated at IIT Kanpur for computational processing of Indian languages and is widely used among the natural language processing (NLP) community in India. This scheme is described in NLP Panini Archived 26 November 2013 at the Wayback Machine (Appendix B). It is similar to, but not as versatile as, SLP1, as far as
3708-515: The ITRANS preprocessor converts the Roman letters into Devanāgarī (or other Indic scripts). The latest version of ITRANS is version 5.30 released in July 2001. The disadvantage of the above ASCII schemes is case-sensitivity, implying that transliterated names may not be capitalised. This difficulty is avoided with the system developed in 1996 by Frans Velthuis for TeX , loosely based on IAST, in which case
3811-450: The Majapahit capital. Findings from April 2011 indicate the Majapahit capital was much larger than previously believed after some artefacts were uncovered. While significant details about the history of Majapahit remain vague, this period of Javanese history is the more comprehensively documented than any other. The most reliable written sources for this period are Old Javanese inscriptions on stone and metal, which are contemporary with
3914-518: The Majapahit rulers, as well as to correct certain errors found in the Pararaton . A few inscriptions found outside Java, such as the Pura Abang C inscription discovered in northern Bali, offer conclusive evidence that these areas were under Majapahit control during the late 14th century. Two important chronicle sources are available to historians of Majapahit: Deśavarṇana ("Description of Districts")
4017-526: The Ming emperor. Malacca actively encouraged the conversion to Islam in the region, while the Ming fleet actively established Chinese-Malay Muslim community in coastal northern Java, thus created a permanent opposition to the Hindus of Java. By 1430, the expeditions had established Muslim Chinese, Arab and Malay communities in northern ports of Java such as Semarang , Demak , Tuban , and Ampel ; thus Islam began to gain
4120-454: The Roman script through the English language (which traditionally does not use diacritics), these transliteration systems are much less widely known. Most such "Romanagari" is transliterated arbitrarily to imitate English spelling, and thus results in numerous inconsistencies. It is also detrimental to search engines, which do not classify Hindi text in the Roman script as Hindi. The same text may also not be classified as English. Regardless of
4223-484: The Sanskrit क्रम is transliterated as krama (and not kram ). The system has undergone some evolution over time. For instance, long vowels were marked with an accent diacritic in the original version, but this was later replaced in the 1954 Government of India update with a macron . Thus, जान ( life ) was previously romanised as ján but began to be romanised as jān . The Hunterian system has faced criticism over
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4326-704: The Sunda royal family and the Majapahit troops on Bubat square was inevitable. Despite courageous resistance, the royal family were overwhelmed and decimated. Almost the whole of the Sundanese royal party was killed. Tradition mentioned that the heartbroken princess committed suicide to defend the honour of her country. The Battle of Bubat , or the Pasunda Bubat tragedy, became the main theme of Kidung Sunda , also mentioned in Carita Parahyangan and Pararaton , but it
4429-572: The actual fall of Majapahit itself as a whole. Demak sent reinforcements under Sunan Ngudung , who later died in battle and was replaced by Sunan Kudus , but they came too late to save Kertabumi although they managed to repel the Ranawijaya army. This event is mentioned in Trailokyapuri (Jiyu) and Petak inscription, where Ranawijaya claimed that he already defeated Kertabhumi and reunited Majapahit as one Kingdom. Ranawijaya ruled from 1474 to 1498 with
4532-526: The already crumbling empire. The rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca began to gain effective control of the Malacca Strait in the mid-15th century and expanding its influence to Sumatra. And amidst these events, Indragiri and Siantan, according to Malay Annals were given to Malacca as a dowry for the marriage of a Majapahit princess and the sultan of Malacca , further weakening Majapahit's influence on
4635-535: The capital and safely hid in Badander village. While the king was in hiding, Gajah Mada returned to the capital city to assess the situation. After learning that Kuti's rebellion was not supported by the people or nobles of Majapahit court, Gajah Mada raised resistance forces to crush the Kuti rebellion. After Kuti forces were defeated, Jayanegara was safely returned to his throne. For his loyalty and excellent service, Gajah Mada
4738-513: The common Unicode basis for Roman transliteration of South-Asian texts in a wide variety of languages/scripts. ISO 15919 transliterations are platform-independent texts so that they can be used identically on all modern operating systems and software packages, as long as they comply with ISO norms. This is a prerequisite for all modern platforms so that ISO 15919 has become the new standard for digital libraries and archives for transliterating all South Asian texts. ISO 15919 uses diacritics to map
4841-405: The country of Qaqula and Qamara. He arrived at the walled city named Qaqula/Kakula, and observed that the city had war junks for pirate raiding and collecting tolls and that elephants were employed for various purposes. He met the ruler of Mul Jawa and stayed as a guest for three days. Ibn Battuta said that the women of Java ride horses, understand archery, and fight like men. Ibn Battuta recorded
4944-525: The coverage of Vedic Sanskrit is concerned. Comparison of WX with other schemes is found in Huet (2009), App A. . Vedatype is another scheme used for encoding Vedic texts at Maharishi University of Management . An online transcoding utility across all these schemes is provided at the Sanskrit Library . ISO 15919 includes a so-called "limited character set" option to replace the diacritics by prefixes, so that it
5047-632: The creation (in the 4th-3rd centuries BCE) of the Kharoshti and Brahmi scripts. These writing systems, though adequate for Middle Indic languages , were not well-adapted to writing Sanskrit. However, later descendants of Brahmi were modified so that they could record Sanskrit in exacting phonetic detail. The earliest physical text in Sanskrit is a rock inscription by the Western Kshatrapa ruler Rudradaman , written c. 150 CE in Junagadh , Gujarat . Due to
5150-593: The differences between ISO 15919 and IAST for Devanagari transliteration. Devanāgarī consonants include an "inherent a" sound, called the schwa , that must be explicitly represented with an "a" character in the transliteration. Many words and names transliterated from Devanāgarī end with "a", to indicate the pronunciation in the original Sanskrit . This schwa is obligatorily deleted in several modern Indo-Aryan languages , like Hindi , Punjabi , Marathi and others. This results in differing transliterations for Sanskrit and schwa-deleting languages that retain or eliminate
5253-571: The early 14th century, the Italian Friar Odoric of Pordenone visited the Majapahit court in Java. He mentioned Java to be well-populated and filled with cloves, nutmeg and many other spices. He also mentioned that the king of Java had seven vassals under him and engaged in several wars with the "khan of Cathay". In 1328, Jayanegara was murdered by his physician, Tanca , during a surgical operation. In complete mayhem and rage, Gajah Mada immediately killed Tanca. The motive behind this regicide
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#17328451159295356-526: The empire slowly declined before collapsing in 1527 due to an invasion by the Sultanate of Demak . The fall of Majapahit saw the rise of Islamic kingdoms in Java. Established by Raden Wijaya in 1292, Majapahit rose to power after the Mongol invasion of Java and reached its peak during the era of the queen Tribhuvana and her son Hayam Wuruk , whose reigns in the mid-14th century were marked by conquests that extended throughout Southeast Asia. This achievement
5459-486: The events they describe. These inscriptions provide valuable information about dynasties, religious affairs, village communities, society, economics, and the arts. The Majapahit dynasty is described in royal inscriptions such as Kudadu (issued in 1294), Sukhamerta (1296), Tuhanyaru (1323), Gajah Mada (1351), Waringin Pitu (1447) and Trailokyapuri (1486). These sources help us to clarify the family relationships and chronologies of
5562-528: The expansion of the Majapahit Empire involved diplomacy and alliance. Hayam Wuruk decided, probably for political reasons, to take princess Citra Rashmi (Dyah Pitaloka) of neighbouring Sunda Kingdom as his consort . The Sundanese took this proposal as an alliance agreement. In 1357 the Sunda king and his royal family came to Majapahit to accompany and marry his daughter to Hayam Wuruk. However, Gajah Mada saw this event as an opportunity to demand Sunda's submission to Majapahit overlordship. The skirmish between
5665-832: The first battle in April 1358; killed Majapahit soldiers were burned in Tambak Wasi. Nansarunai captain Jamuhala was also killed in this battle. While prince Jarang and prince Idong hid in Man near Tabalong-kiwa river. Nansarunai soldiers were concentrated in Pulau Kadap before the second battle happened in December 1362. Casualties from this second battle were buried in Tambak in Bayu Hinrang. In this war Raden Anyan
5768-473: The formal name Girindrawardhana, with Udara as his vice-regent. This event led to the war between the Sultanate of Demak and Daha since Demak rulers were descendants of Kertabhumi. During this period, Demak , being the dominant ruler of the Javanese coastal lands and Java as a whole, seized the region of Jambi and Palembang in Sumatra from Majapahit. In 1498, there was a turning point when Girindrawardhana
5871-418: The fortune of Malayu in Sumatra, in the 1370s, a Malay ruler of Palembang sent an envoy to the court of the first emperor of the newly established Ming dynasty . He invited China to resume the tributary system, just like Srivijaya did several centuries earlier. Learning this diplomatic manoeuvre, immediately King Hayam Wuruk sent an envoy to Nanking, convinced the emperor that Malayu was their vassal, and
5974-833: The greatest extent of Majapahit, making it one of the most influential empires in Indonesian history. It is considered a commercial trading empire in the civilisation of Asia. In 1355, Hayam Wuruk launched the third invasion of Dayak Ma'anyan kingdom of Nan Sarunai , which at the time was led by Raden Anyan or Datu Tatuyan Wulau Miharaja Papangkat Amas. This invasion was led by Ampu Jatmika from Kalingga, Kediri with his entourage which according to Hikayat Banjar included his advisor Aria Megatsari, general Tumenggung Tatah Jiwa, minister Wiramartas, punokawan Patih Baras, Patih Basi, Patih Luhu, dan Patih Dulu, and bodyguards Sang Panimba Segara, Sang Pembelah Batung, Sang Jampang Sasak, and Sang Pengeruntung 'Garuntung' Manau. Multiple battles happened with
6077-531: The king of Java lived. The report was composed and collected in Yingya Shenglan , which provides valuable insight on the culture, customs, and also various social and economic aspects of Java ( 爪哇 , chao-wa ) during Majapahit period. The Veritable Records of the Ming Dynasty ( Ming shi-lu ) provide supporting evidence for specific events in Majapahit history, such as the Regreg War . After defeating
6180-473: The king's wishes. It was not clear what motivated Jayanegara's wish – it might have been his way to ensure his claim to the throne by preventing rivals from being his half-sisters' suitors, although in the later period of the Majapahit court the custom of marriage among cousins was quite common. In the Pararaton , he was known as Kala Gemet , or "weak villain". Around the time of Jayanegara's reign in
6283-531: The kingdom as an extended territory is generally referred to not as Majapahit but rather as bhūmi Jawa ("land of Java") in Old Javanese or yava-dvīpa- maṇḍala ("country of the island of Java") in Sanskrit . Compared to contemporary societies elsewhere in Asia, little physical evidence of Majapahit remains, Majapahit did produce physical evidence: the main ruins dating from the Majapahit period are clustered in
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#17328451159296386-531: The kingdom's capital further inland to Daha (the former capital of Kediri kingdom ), effectively splitting Majapahit, under Bhre Kertabumi in Trowulan and Singhawikramawardhana in Daha. Singhawikramawardhana continued his rule until he was succeeded by his son Girindrawardhana (Ranawijaya) in 1474. And in between this period of the dividing court of Majapahit, the kingdom found itself unable to control its western part of
6489-415: The language. Franz Bopp in 1816 used a romanisation scheme, alongside Devanagari, differing from IAST in expressing vowel length by a circumflex (â, î, û), and aspiration by a spiritus asper (e.g. bʽ for IAST bh). The sibilants IAST ṣ and ś he expressed with spiritus asper and lenis, respectively (sʽ, sʼ). Monier-Williams in his 1899 dictionary used ć, ṡ and sh for IAST c, ś and ṣ, respectively. From
6592-470: The most significant Chinese intervention was its support for the newly established Sultanate of Malacca as a rival and counter-weight to the Majapahit influence of Java. Previously, Majapahit had succeeded in asserting its influence in Malacca strait by containing the aspiration of Malay polities in Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula to ever reach the geopolitical might like those of Srivijaya. The Hindu Majapahit
6695-797: The much larger set of Brahmic graphemes to the Latin script. The Devanagari-specific portion is nearly identical to the academic standard, IAST : "International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration", and to ALA-LC , the United States Library of Congress standard. Another standard, United Nations Romanization Systems for Geographical Names (UNRSGN), was developed by the United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names (UNGEGN) and covers many Brahmic scripts. There are some differences between ISO 15919 and UNRSGN. Compared to IAST , Harvard-Kyoto looks much simpler. It does not contain any of
6798-487: The name of the scheme "WX", referring to the idiosyncratic mapping. Ubuntu Linux provides a keyboard support for WX notation. SLP1 (Sanskrit Library Phonetic) is a case-sensitive scheme initially used by Sanskrit Library which was developed by Peter Scharf and (the late) Malcolm Hyman, who first described it in appendix B of their book Linguistic Issues in Encoding Sanskrit. The advantage of SLP1 over other encodings
6901-470: The need for transliteration. Where the letter "h" appears after a plosive consonant in Devanāgarī transliteration, it always indicates aspiration . Thus "ph" is pronounced as the p in "pit" (with a small puff of air released as it is said), never as the ph in "photo" ( IPA /f/). (On the other hand, "p" is pronounced as the p in "spit" with no release of air.) Similarly "th" is an aspirated "t", neither
7004-766: The neighbouring island of Bali . According to the Babad Arya Tabanan manuscript, in 1342 Majapahit forces led by Gajah Mada, assisted by his general Arya Damar, the regent of Palembang, landed in Bali. After seven months of battles, Majapahit forces defeated the Balinese king and captured the Balinese capital of Bedulu in 1343. After the conquest of Bali, Majapahit distributed the governing authority of Bali among Arya Damar's younger brothers, Arya Kenceng, Arya Kutawandira, Arya Sentong, and Arya Belog. Arya Kenceng led his brothers to govern Bali under Majapahit suzerainty, and he would become
7107-528: The new Hunterian method carried the day. The Hunterian method was inherently simpler and extensible to several Indic scripts because it systematised grapheme transliteration, and it came to prevail and gain government and academic acceptance. Opponents of the grapheme transliteration model continued to mount unsuccessful attempts at reversing government policy until the turn of the century, with one critic calling appealing to "the Indian Government to give up
7210-400: The nineteenth century by William Wilson Hunter , then Surveyor General of India. When it was proposed, it immediately met with opposition from supporters of the earlier practiced non-systematic and often distorting "Sir Roger Dowler method" (an early corruption of Siraj ud-Daulah ) of phonetic transcription, which climaxed in a dramatic showdown in an India Council meeting on 28 May 1872 where
7313-602: The old Srivijaya , the only suzerainty under Majapahit in Sumatra, bordering Pagaruyung Kingdom on the west and independent Muslim kingdoms on the north. This Ming dynasty voyages are extremely important for Majapahit historiography, since Zheng He's translator Ma Huan wrote Yingya Shenglan , a detailed description of Majapahit, which provides valuable insight on the culture, customs, and also various social and economic aspects of Java during Majapahit period. The Chinese provided systematic support to Malacca, and its sultan made at least one trip to personally pay obeisance to
7416-683: The physical keyboard's layout, it is possible to install Unicode-based Hindi keyboard layouts on most modern operating systems. There are many online services available that transliterate text written in Roman to Devanagari accurately, using Hindi dictionaries for reference, such as Google transliteration or Microsoft Indic Language Input Tool . This solution is similar to input method editors, which are traditionally used to input text in languages that use complex characters, most notably those that use logographies. Early Sanskrit texts were originally transmitted by memorisation and repetition. Post-Harappan India had no system for writing Indic languages until
7519-461: The precedent for Indonesia's modern boundaries. Its influence extended beyond the modern territory of Indonesia and has been the subject of many studies. The name Majapahit (sometimes also spelled Mojopait to reflect Javanese pronunciation), derives from Javanese , meaning "bitter maja ". German orientalist Berthold Laufer suggested that the maja element comes from the Javanese name of Aegle marmelos , an Indonesian tree. Majapahit
7622-652: The progenitor of the Balinese kings of the Tabanan and Badung royal houses. Through this campaign, Majapahit planted a vassal dynasty that would rule the Bali Kingdom in the following centuries. Tribhuwana ruled Majapahit until the death of her mother in 1350. She abdicated the throne in favour of her son, Hayam Wuruk. Ibn Battuta in his travels between 1332 and 1347 visited a place called "Mul Jawa" (island of Java or Majapahit Java, as opposed to "al-Jawa" which refers to Sumatra). The empire spanned 2 months of travel and ruled over
7725-462: The queen of Majapahit under Rajapatni's auspices. Tribhuwana appointed Gajah Mada as the prime minister in 1336. During his inauguration Gajah Mada declared his Palapa oath , revealing his plan to expand Majapahit realm and building an empire . During Tribhuwana's rule, the Majapahit kingdom grew much larger and became famous in the area. Under the initiative of her able and ambitious prime minister, Gajah Mada , Majapahit sent its armada to conquer
7828-794: The regional power. According to the Nagarakretagama , canto XIII and XIV mentioned several states in Sumatra , the Malay Peninsula , Borneo , Sulawesi , Nusa Tenggara islands, Maluku , New Guinea , Mindanao , Sulu Archipelago , Luzon and some parts of the Visayas islands as under the Majapahit realm of power. The Hikayat Raja Pasai , a 14th-century Aceh chronicle describe a Majapahit naval invasion on Samudra Pasai in 1350. The attacking force consisted of 400 large jong and an uncountable number of malangbang and kelulus . This expansion marked
7931-416: The reign of Wikramawardhana, a series of Ming armada naval expeditions led by Zheng He , a Muslim Chinese admiral, arrived in Java several times spanning the period from 1405 to 1433. These Chinese voyages visited numbers of ports in Asia as far as Africa, including Majapahit ports. It was said that Zheng He has paid a visit to the Majapahit court in Java. These massive Chinese voyages were not merely
8034-472: The remarkable proliferation of different varieties of Brahmi in the Middle Ages, there is today no single script used for writing Sanskrit; rather, Sanskrit scholars can write the language in a form of whatever script is used to write their local language. However, since the late Middle Ages, there has been a tendency to use Devanagari for writing Sanskrit texts for a widespread readership. Western scholars in
8137-430: The schwa as appropriate: Some words may keep the final a, generally because they would be difficult to say without it: Because of this, some words ending in consonant clusters are altered in various modern Indic languages as such: Mantra=mantar. Shabda=shabad. Sushumna=sushumana. Most Indian languages make a distinction between the retroflex and dental forms of the dental consonants. In formal transliteration schemes,
8240-545: The short vowels present in many Indian languages), the use of 'ḷ' for the consonant (in Kannada ) ಳ , and the absence of symbols for ॠ , ऌ and ॡ . A standard transliteration convention not just for Devanagari, but for all South-Asian languages was codified in the ISO 15919 standard of 2001, providing the basis for modern digital libraries that conform to International Organization for Standardization (ISO) norms. ISO 15919 defines
8343-485: The standard Roman letters are used to indicate the dental form, and the retroflex form is indicated by special marks, or the use of other letters. E.g., in IAST transliteration, the retroflex forms are ṇ, ṭ, ḍ and ṣ. In most informal transcriptions the distinction between retroflex and dental consonants is not indicated. However, many capitalise retroflex consonants on QWERTY keyboard in informal messaging. That generally obviates
8446-455: The state structure show no sign of being invented. The Chinese historical sources on Majapahit mainly acquired from the chronicles of the Yuan and following Ming dynasty . The Chinese accounts on Majapahit are mainly owed to the Ming admiral Zheng He 's reports during his visit to Majapahit between 1405 and 1432. Zheng He's translator Ma Huan wrote a detailed description of Majapahit and where
8549-494: The two princesses – Gitarja and Rajadewi, the daughters of Gayatri Rajapatni from the king's cruelty. Since the slain king was childless, he left no successor. Jayanegara's stepmother, Gayatri Rajapatni – the most revered matriarch of the court – was supposed to take the helm. However, Rajapatni had retired from worldly affairs to become a Buddhist nun . Rajapatni appointed her daughter, Dyah Gitarja , or known in her formal regnal name as Tribhuwannottungadewi Jayawishnuwardhani, as
8652-457: The way for Ranawijaya to defeat Kertabumi. Dates for the end of the Majapahit Empire range from 1478, traditionally described in sinengkalan or chandrasengkala ( chronogram ) Sirna ilang kertaning bhumi that is correspond to 1400 Saka , to 1527. The year 1478 was the year of Sudarma Wisuta war , when Ranawijaya's army under general Udara (who later became vice-regent) breached Trowulan defences and killed Kertabumi in his palace, but not
8755-496: The western part of the archipelago. Kertabhumi managed to stabilize this situation by allying with Muslim merchants, giving them trading rights on the north coast of Java, with Demak as its centre and in return asked for their loyalty to Majapahit. This policy boosted the Majapahit treasury and power but weakened Hindu-Buddhism as its main religion because Islamic proselytizing spread faster, especially in Javanese coastal principalities. Hindu-Buddhist followers' grievances later paved
8858-590: The whole attempt at scientific (i.e. Hunterian) transliteration, and decide once and for all in favour of a return to the old phonetic spelling." Over time, the Hunterian method extended in reach to cover several Indic scripts, including Burmese and Tibetan . Provisions for schwa deletion in Indo-Aryan languages were also made where applicable, e.g. the Hindi कानपुर is transliterated as kānpur (and not kānapura ) but
8961-452: The years for not producing phonetically accurate results and being "unashamedly geared towards an English-language receiver audience." Specifically, the lack of differentiation between retroflex and dental consonants (e.g. द and ड are both represented by d ) has come in for repeated criticism and inspired several proposed modifications of Hunterian, including using a diacritic below retroflexes (e.g. making द = d and ड = ḍ , which
9064-471: Was a Javanese Hindu - Buddhist thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia based on the island of Java (in modern-day Indonesia ). At its greatest extent, following significant military expansions, the territory of the empire and its tributary states covered almost the entire Nusantara archipelago , spanning both Asia and Oceania . After a civil war that weakened control over the vassal states,
9167-485: Was also their last chance to catch the monsoon winds home; otherwise, they would have had to wait for another six months. In 1293, Raden Wijaya founded a stronghold with the capital Majapahit. The exact date used as the birth of the Majapahit kingdom is the day of his coronation, the 15th of Kartika month in the year 1215 using the Javanese Shaka era , which equates to 10 November 1293. During his coronation he
9270-430: Was composed 1365 and the Pararaton ("The Monarchs") was compiled sometime between 1481 and 1600. Both of these chronicles survive as 19th- or 20th-century palm-leaf manuscripts. The Deśavarṇana (also known as Nagarakretagama ) is an Old Javanese eulogy written during the Majapahit golden age under the reign of Hayam Wuruk , after which some events are covered narratively. Composed by Mpu Prapanca , it provides
9373-666: Was deposed by his vice-regent, Udara. After this coup, the war between Demak and Majapahit receded, since Raden Patah , Sultan of Demak, left Majapahit alone like his father had done before, some source said Udara agreed to become a vassal of Demak, even marrying Raden Patah's youngest daughter. Meanwhile, in the west, Malacca was captured by Portuguese in 1511 . The delicate balance between Demak and Majapahit ended when Udara, seeing an opportunity to eliminate Demak, asked for Portuguese help in Malacca, forcing Demak to attack both Malacca and Majapahit under Adipati Yunus to end this alliance. Romanization of Sanskrit Devanagari
9476-502: Was founded, Muslim traders and proselytisers began entering the area. The Troloyo/Tralaya tomb, a remnant of Islamic cemetery compound was discovered within the Trowulan area, the royal capital of Majapahit. Experts suggest that the cemetery was used between 1368 and 1611 AD, which means Muslim traders had resided in the capital as early as the mid-14th century during the reign of Hayam Wuruk. Two Muslim tombstones in Troloyo were dated from
9579-546: Was given the formal name Kertarajasa Jayawardhana. King Kertarajasa took all four daughters of Kertanegara as his wives, his first wife and prime queen consort Tribhuwaneswari, and her sisters: Prajnaparamita, Narendraduhita, and Gayatri Rajapatni the youngest. According to Pararaton, he also took a Sumatran Malay Dharmasraya princess named Dara Petak as his wife. The new kingdom faced challenges. Some of Kertarajasa's most trusted men, including Ranggalawe , Sora , and Nambi rebelled against him, though unsuccessfully. It
9682-617: Was killed, speared by Mpu Nala, and buried in Banua Lawas. In its place, Ampu Jatmika founded a Hindu kingdom state, Negara Dipa under Majapahit tributary, predecessor of Banjar . While surviving Javanese, Dayak, Madurese, and Bugis soldiers, sailors, metalsmiths of this war settled in Amuntai, Alabio, and Nagara. These invasions were recorded in Dayak Ma'anyan poetry as Nansarunai Usak Jawa . Along with launching naval and military expeditions,
9785-550: Was named Majapahit , which was taken from the name of a fruit that had a bitter taste ( maja is the fruit name and pahit means bitter). When the Yuan army sent by Kublai Khan arrived, Wijaya allied himself with the army to fight against Jayakatwang. Once Jayakatwang was destroyed, Raden Wijaya forced his allies to withdraw from Java by launching a surprise attack. The Yuan army had to withdraw in confusion as they were in hostile territory, with their ships being attacked by Javanese navy. It
9888-450: Was never clear. According to the Pararaton , it was Tanca's revenge for the king sexually abusing his wife. However, according to the Balinese manuscript Babad Dalem , the assassination was a stratagem crafted by Gajah Mada himself to rid the kingdom of an evil tyrant. Tradition mentions that the immoral, cruel and abusive king often seduced and abused women, even the wives of his own subordinates. Other possible reason includes to protect
9991-664: Was never mentioned in Nagarakretagama . The Nagarakretagama , written in 1365, depicts a sophisticated court with refined taste in art and literature and a complex system of religious rituals. The poet describes Majapahit as the centre of a huge mandala extending from New Guinea and Maluku to Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula . Local traditions in many parts of Indonesia retain accounts of 14th-century Majapahit's power in more or less legendary form. The direct administration of Majapahit did not extend beyond east Java and Bali , but challenges to Majapahit's claim to overlordship in outer islands drew forceful responses. To revive
10094-559: Was not an independent country. Subsequently, in 1377, a few years after the death of Gajah Mada, Majapahit sent a punitive naval attack against a rebellion in Palembang, contributing to the end of the Srivijayan successor kingdom. Besides Gajah Mada, Another famous military leader was Adityawarman , known for his chronicle in Minangkabau . The nature of the Majapahit empire and its extent
10197-399: Was promoted to high office to begin his career in royal court politics. According to tradition, Wijaya's son and successor, Jayanegara, was notorious for his immorality. One of his distasteful acts was his desire to take his half-sisters, Gitarja and Rajadewi, as wives. Since Javanese tradition abhorred the practice of half-siblings marrying, the council of royal elders spoke strongly against
10300-526: Was succeeded by his heir Jayanegara . The reign of Jayanegara was a difficult and chaotic one, troubled with several rebellions by his father's former companions in arms. Among others are Gajah Biru's rebellion in 1314, Semi rebellion in 1318 , and the Kuti rebellion in 1319 . The Kuti rebellion was the most dangerous one, as Kuti managed to take control of the capital city. With the help of Gajah Mada and his Bhayangkara palace guard, Jayanegara barely escaped from
10403-514: Was suspected that the Mahapati Halayudha set the conspiracy to overthrow all of his rivals in the court, led them to revolt against the king, while he gained king's favour and attained the highest position in the government. However, following the death of the last rebel Kuti , Halayudha's treachery was exposed, subsequently, he was captured, jailed for his stratagems and then sentenced to death. Wijaya himself died in 1309. Kertarajasa Wijaya
10506-543: Was the most powerful maritime power in Southeast Asian seas that time and were opposed to Chinese expansion into their sphere of influence. The Ming's support for Malacca and the spread of Islam propagated by both Malacca and Zheng He's treasure fleet has weakened Majapahit maritime influence in Sumatra, which caused the northern part of the island to increasingly converting to Islam and gained independence from Majapahit, leaving Indragiri , Jambi and Palembang , remnants of
10609-468: Was the second time Majapahit was reigned by a queen regnant after her great-grandmother Tribhuwana Wijayatunggadewi. Her reign is immortalized in Javanese legend of Damarwulan , as it involves a maiden queen named Prabu Kenya in the story, and during Suhita's reign there was a war with Blambangan as stated in the legend. In 1447, Suhita died and was succeeded by Kertawijaya , her brother. He ruled until 1451. After Kertawijaya died, Bhre Pamotan became
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