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127-645: The progenitor of Araújo's surname is probably Don Rodrigo Annes, who was the Lord of the Castle and the lands of Araújo, located in the south of the Kingdom of Galicia , in the current province of Ourense. That castle was on the border between the Kingdom of Galicia and the north of Portugal . Some point to the knight Vasco de Araujo, as the first to use that surname as a nickname. According to various historians, Don Rodrigo Annes de Araújo

254-421: A bishop sub regula as the highest authority of the community. Other monasteries used different, sometimes antagonistic rules. The Benedictine and Augustine rules were uncommon until the 11th century. As in most of Europe, the chartulary and chronicle proceedings of monasteries and bishoprics are the most important sources for the study of local history. By the 12th century the only known bourgeois were

381-525: A classicizing form, called Renaissance Latin . This was the basis for Neo-Latin which evolved during the early modern period . In these periods Latin was used productively and generally taught to be written and spoken, at least until the late seventeenth century, when spoken skills began to erode. It then became increasingly taught only to be read. Latin grammar is highly fusional , with classes of inflections for case , number , person , gender , tense , mood , voice , and aspect . The Latin alphabet

508-526: A faster pace. It is characterised by greater use of prepositions, and word order that is closer to modern Romance languages, for example, while grammatically retaining more or less the same formal rules as Classical Latin. Ultimately, Latin diverged into a distinct written form, where the commonly spoken form was perceived as a separate language, for instance early French or Italian dialects, that could be transcribed differently. It took some time for these to be viewed as wholly different from Latin however. After

635-718: A few in German , Dutch , Norwegian , Danish and Swedish . Latin is still spoken in Vatican City, a city-state situated in Rome that is the seat of the Catholic Church . The works of several hundred ancient authors who wrote in Latin have survived in whole or in part, in substantial works or in fragments to be analyzed in philology . They are in part the subject matter of the field of classics . Their works were published in manuscript form before

762-404: A few. Famous and well regarded writers included Petrarch, Erasmus, Salutati , Celtis , George Buchanan and Thomas More . Non fiction works were long produced in many subjects, including the sciences, law, philosophy, historiography and theology. Famous examples include Isaac Newton 's Principia . Latin was also used as a convenient medium for translations of important works first written in

889-601: A holy and atoning sacrifice, by your hands I offer to God eternal." King Reccared , Acts of the Third Council of Toledo . In 585, Liuvigild , the Visigothic king of Hispania and Septimania , annexed the Kingdom of Galicia, after defeating King Audeca , and later the pretender to the throne, Malaric . Thus the kingdom of the Suebi, which incorporated large territories of the ancient Roman provinces of Gallaecia and Lusitania, became

1016-563: A large Suebi community, to the level of Metropolitan Bishop along with Braga. Theodemar's son and successor, King Miro , called for the Second Council of Braga , which was attended by all the bishops of the kingdom, from the Briton bishopric of Britonia in the Bay of Biscay , to Astorga in the east, and Coimbra and Idanha in the south. Five of the attendant bishops used Germanic names, showing

1143-542: A military Norman mark, as well as due to the wealth that the pilgrimages and royal grants brought to their lands. Each bishopric was divided into a number of territories or counties, named terras, condados, mandationes, commissos , or territorios in local charters, which in the north were true continuations of the Suebic dioceses which frequently preserved old tribal divisions and denominations, such as Lemabos, Celticos, Postamarcos, Bregantinos, and Cavarcos . Rights to

1270-697: A number of Portuguese bearing the Araújo surname moved to settle Portugal's overseas empire. A lot of things have been named after the Araujo surname, such as lands; neighborhoods, streets, valleys, buildings, businesses, a plant, etc. The bishop of Malacca , D. João Ribeiro Gaio , dedicated this quintilla to the Araújos: Kingdom of Galicia The Kingdom of Galicia ( Galician : Reino de Galicia , or Galiza ; Spanish : Reino de Galicia ; Portuguese : Reino da Galiza ; Latin : Galliciense Regnum )

1397-405: A range of continental innovations and trends, from shipbuilding , to new architectural styles such as Romanesque art . The elites were composed of counts, dukes , senatores , and other high noblemen, who were frequently related by marriage with the monarch, and who usually claimed the most powerful positions in society, either as governors, bishops, or as palatine officials or companions of

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1524-551: A result, the list has variants, as well as alternative names. In addition to the historical phases, Ecclesiastical Latin refers to the styles used by the writers of the Roman Catholic Church from late antiquity onward, as well as by Protestant scholars. The earliest known form of Latin is Old Latin, also called Archaic or Early Latin, which was spoken from the Roman Kingdom , traditionally founded in 753 BC, through

1651-407: A separate language, existing more or less in parallel with the literary or educated Latin, but this is now widely dismissed. The term 'Vulgar Latin' remains difficult to define, referring both to informal speech at any time within the history of Latin, and the kind of informal Latin that had begun to move away from the written language significantly in the post-Imperial period, that led ultimately to

1778-510: A sharp reduction in monetary circulation, largely as a result of the Muslim occupations in the early 8th century in the south Mediterranean. The Gallaecia were also affected, and Fructuosus of Braga denounced the general cultural decline and loss of the momentum from previous periods, causing some discontent in the Galician high clergy. At the tenth Council of Toledo in 656, Fructuosus was appointed to

1905-572: A single surname, although noblemen frequently also used a patronymic . Muslim names and patronymics were rare amongst Galicians, as even serfs were frequently given a Germanic or Roman name, which is in contrast with the relative popularity of Muslim names amongst the Leonese. "When Fruela , king of Galicia, died (...) the Christians made king his brother Alfonso , who then found the throne disputed by his elder brother Sancho , who entered León, capital of

2032-695: A small number of Latin services held in the Anglican church. These include an annual service in Oxford, delivered with a Latin sermon; a relic from the period when Latin was the normal spoken language of the university. In the Western world, many organizations, governments and schools use Latin for their mottos due to its association with formality, tradition, and the roots of Western culture . Canada's motto A mari usque ad mare ("from sea to sea") and most provincial mottos are also in Latin. The Canadian Victoria Cross

2159-429: A sort of informal language academy dedicated to maintaining and perpetuating educated speech. Philological analysis of Archaic Latin works, such as those of Plautus , which contain fragments of everyday speech, gives evidence of an informal register of the language, Vulgar Latin (termed sermo vulgi , "the speech of the masses", by Cicero ). Some linguists, particularly in the nineteenth century, believed this to be

2286-618: A spoken and written language by the scholarship by the Renaissance humanists . Petrarch and others began to change their usage of Latin as they explored the texts of the Classical Latin world. Skills of textual criticism evolved to create much more accurate versions of extant texts through the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and some important texts were rediscovered. Comprehensive versions of authors' works were published by Isaac Casaubon , Joseph Scaliger and others. Nevertheless, despite

2413-432: A strictly left-to-right script. During the late republic and into the first years of the empire, from about 75 BC to AD 200, a new Classical Latin arose, a conscious creation of the orators, poets, historians and other literate men, who wrote the great works of classical literature , which were taught in grammar and rhetoric schools. Today's instructional grammars trace their roots to such schools , which served as

2540-470: A temporary peace. The Suebi maintained their independence until 585, when Leovigild, on the pretext of conflict over the succession, invaded the Suebic kingdom and finally defeated it. Audeca , the last king of the Suebi, who had deposed his brother-in-law Eboric , held out for a year before being captured in 585. This same year a nobleman named Malaric rebelled against the Goths, but he was defeated. As with

2667-689: A vernacular, such as those of Descartes . Latin education underwent a process of reform to classicise written and spoken Latin. Schooling remained largely Latin medium until approximately 1700. Until the end of the 17th century, the majority of books and almost all diplomatic documents were written in Latin. Afterwards, most diplomatic documents were written in French (a Romance language ) and later native or other languages. Education methods gradually shifted towards written Latin, and eventually concentrating solely on reading skills. The decline of Latin education took several centuries and proceeded much more slowly than

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2794-429: A written pact with him. Fructuosus was later consecrated as abbot-bishop of Dumio , the most important monastery of Gallaecia—founded by Martin of Braga in the 6th century—under Suebi rule. In 656 he was appointed bishop of Braga and metropolitan of Galicia, ostensibly against his own will. During his later years the Visigothic monarchy suffered a pronounced decline, due in large part to a decrease in trade and therefore

2921-458: A year later initiated a period of chaos, with several claimants to the crown. Fruela's son, Alfonso Fróilaz , received support from Asturias, but was captured and blinded by Sancho , Alfonso IV , and Ramiro II , sons of Ordoño, with the aid of the Basque troops of Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona . Vague and conflicting historical records make it uncertain whether Alfonso Fróilaz reigned briefly as king of

3048-411: Is Veritas ("truth"). Veritas was the goddess of truth, a daughter of Saturn, and the mother of Virtue. Switzerland has adopted the country's Latin short name Helvetia on coins and stamps, since there is no room to use all of the nation's four official languages . For a similar reason, it adopted the international vehicle and internet code CH , which stands for Confoederatio Helvetica ,

3175-626: Is a reversal of the original phrase Non terrae plus ultra ("No land further beyond", "No further!"). According to legend , this phrase was inscribed as a warning on the Pillars of Hercules , the rocks on both sides of the Strait of Gibraltar and the western end of the known, Mediterranean world. Charles adopted the motto following the discovery of the New World by Columbus, and it also has metaphorical suggestions of taking risks and striving for excellence. In

3302-628: Is directly derived from the Etruscan and Greek alphabets . Latin remains the official language of the Holy See and the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church at the Vatican City . The church continues to adapt concepts from modern languages to Ecclesiastical Latin of the Latin language. Contemporary Latin is more often studied to be read rather than spoken or actively used. Latin has greatly influenced

3429-548: Is found in any widespread language, the languages of Spain, France, Portugal, and Italy have retained a remarkable unity in phonological forms and developments, bolstered by the stabilising influence of their common Christian (Roman Catholic) culture. It was not until the Muslim conquest of Spain in 711, cutting off communications between the major Romance regions, that the languages began to diverge seriously. The spoken Latin that would later become Romanian diverged somewhat more from

3556-661: Is modelled after the British Victoria Cross which has the inscription "For Valour". Because Canada is officially bilingual, the Canadian medal has replaced the English inscription with the Latin Pro Valore . Spain's motto Plus ultra , meaning "even further", or figuratively "Further!", is also Latin in origin. It is taken from the personal motto of Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain (as Charles I), and

3683-958: Is taught at many high schools, especially in Europe and the Americas. It is most common in British public schools and grammar schools, the Italian liceo classico and liceo scientifico , the German Humanistisches Gymnasium and the Dutch gymnasium . Occasionally, some media outlets, targeting enthusiasts, broadcast in Latin. Notable examples include Radio Bremen in Germany, YLE radio in Finland (the Nuntii Latini broadcast from 1989 until it

3810-531: The Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum (CIL). Authors and publishers vary, but the format is about the same: volumes detailing inscriptions with a critical apparatus stating the provenance and relevant information. The reading and interpretation of these inscriptions is the subject matter of the field of epigraphy . About 270,000 inscriptions are known. The Latin influence in English has been significant at all stages of its insular development. In

3937-548: The Eastern Roman Empire . Under King Ariamir , who called for the First Council of Braga , the conversion of the Suebi to Nicene Christianity was apparent; while this same council condemned Priscillianism , it made no similar statement on Arianism. Later, King Theodemar ordered an administrative and ecclesiastical division of his kingdom, with the creation of new bishoprics and the promotion of Lugo, which possessed

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4064-811: The English language , along with a large number of others, and historically contributed many words to the English lexicon , particularly after the Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons and the Norman Conquest . Latin and Ancient Greek roots are heavily used in English vocabulary in theology , the sciences , medicine , and law . A number of phases of the language have been recognized, each distinguished by subtle differences in vocabulary, usage, spelling, and syntax. There are no hard and fast rules of classification; different scholars emphasize different features. As

4191-512: The Holy See , the primary language of its public journal , the Acta Apostolicae Sedis , and the working language of the Roman Rota . Vatican City is also home to the world's only automatic teller machine that gives instructions in Latin. In the pontifical universities postgraduate courses of Canon law are taught in Latin, and papers are written in the same language. There are

4318-557: The Middle Ages , borrowing from Latin occurred from ecclesiastical usage established by Saint Augustine of Canterbury in the 6th century or indirectly after the Norman Conquest , through the Anglo-Norman language . From the 16th to the 18th centuries, English writers cobbled together huge numbers of new words from Latin and Greek words, dubbed " inkhorn terms ", as if they had spilled from a pot of ink. Many of these words were used once by

4445-576: The Roman Republic it became the dominant language in the Italian Peninsula and subsequently throughout the Roman Empire . By the late Roman Republic , Old Latin had evolved into standardized Classical Latin . Vulgar Latin refers to the less prestigious colloquial registers , attested in inscriptions and some literary works such as those of the comic playwrights Plautus and Terence and

4572-553: The Romance languages . During the Classical period, informal language was rarely written, so philologists have been left with only individual words and phrases cited by classical authors, inscriptions such as Curse tablets and those found as graffiti . In the Late Latin period, language changes reflecting spoken (non-classical) norms tend to be found in greater quantities in texts. As it

4699-622: The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 and Germanic kingdoms took its place, the Germanic people adopted Latin as a language more suitable for legal and other, more formal uses. While the written form of Latin was increasingly standardized into a fixed form, the spoken forms began to diverge more greatly. Currently, the five most widely spoken Romance languages by number of native speakers are Spanish , Portuguese , French , Italian , and Romanian . Despite dialectal variation, which

4826-424: The chartulary of Celanova , year 929. "There king Don Sancho said (...) 'Don Alfonso , our father because of our sins left the land poorly divided, and he gave to Don Garcia most of the realm, and thou were left the most disinherited and with less lands; and that's why I propose to take from king Don Garcia the land our father gave to him.'" Primera Crónica General de España , 817. When Alfonso III of León

4953-434: The knights who participated in the battles, as well as other royal privileges. The existence of this knight is verified throughout the acts of royal privileges granted by the king Alfonso VII of Leon , and his son, where it is possible to see the name Iohannes Tirante among the nobles who received royal privileges. His name also appears in a scroll dated 1139 , in which he is mentioned together with other nobles involved in

5080-462: The multinational inhabitants of Compostela, by this stage a fortified and strong city. Meanwhile, the City Council of Santiago for centuries had struggled against their bishops for the recognition of a number of liberties. In the country, most people were freemen , peasants, artisans, or infantrymen , who could freely choose a patron, or buy and sell properties, although they frequently fell prey to

5207-548: The 14th century, as well as by many European Christian contemporaries. During the Iron Age , and later during Roman and Germanic rule, Southern Gallaecia—today north Portugal and south Galicia—was the more dynamic, urbanized, and richest area of Gallaecia. This role was assumed by the rural north during the Early and High Middle Ages, as a consequence not only of the Islamic invasion, but as

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5334-441: The 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries most of these bishoprics were re-established in their historical sees, but at this time the bishops of Lugo, Mondoñedo, and Iria became major political players—not just as religious figures, but also as wealthy, and sometimes mighty, secular powers. In particular, the bishops of Iria and Compostela were notorious warlords , due to the many fortresses and military resources they controlled as heads of

5461-617: The British Crown. The motto is featured on all presently minted coinage and has been featured in most coinage throughout the nation's history. Several states of the United States have Latin mottos , such as: Many military organizations today have Latin mottos, such as: Some law governing bodies in the Philippines have Latin mottos, such as: Some colleges and universities have adopted Latin mottos, for example Harvard University 's motto

5588-579: The Cordoban Caliphate, reconquering Coimbra or Viseu , and even raiding Santiago de Compostela. In the 1030s, Galicia became the sole holdout to the Leonese conquests of Sancho III of Pamplona . When the Count of Castile —nominally a Leonese vassal , but de facto independent—was assassinated in León in 1029, Sancho claimed the right to name the successor, giving it to his own son Ferdinand . Taking advantage of

5715-429: The Galician nobility through kinship, marriage and patronage, and he and his son, Ordoño III , whose mother was Galician, reigned with their support. This was not the case when Ordoño was succeeded by his half-brother Sancho I of León in 956. Sancho proved unpopular and ineffectual and the Galician nobles grew fractious, forming a coalition with Fernán González of Castile to overthrow Sancho in favor of Ordoño IV , who

5842-580: The Grinch Stole Christmas! , The Cat in the Hat , and a book of fairy tales, " fabulae mirabiles ", are intended to garner popular interest in the language. Additional resources include phrasebooks and resources for rendering everyday phrases and concepts into Latin, such as Meissner's Latin Phrasebook . Some inscriptions have been published in an internationally agreed, monumental, multivolume series,

5969-474: The Kingdom of the Galicians, as an opponent (...) Until they decided to depose Sancho and to throw him from Leon, joining under the king Alfonso. Sancho then fled to the extreme of Galicia, where he was received and enthroned by the locals." Ibn Hayyan, Muqtabis , V, c. 1050. "I Answar, to you, our lord and most serene king Don Sancho , prince of all Galicia, and to our lady, your wife, queen Goto." Document from

6096-537: The Kingdom of the Suevi from Tui , which is recorded as his capital. The possibility has also been raised that the 13th-century chronicler, Lucas of Tuy , when he records that Wittiza relieved the oppression of the Jews (a fact unknown from his reign at Toledo after his father), may in fact refer to his reign at Lucas' hometown of Tui, where an oral tradition may have been preserved of the events of his Galician reign. In 702, with

6223-471: The Leonese and Asturian realms through dynastic connections. Later, Ordoño II would integrate Galicia into the Kingdom of León when he inherited the latter. Though the Kingdom of Galicia had moments of semi-independence, it was typically seen as part of the Kingdom of León. Compostela became the capital of Galicia in the 11th century, while the independence of Portugal (1128) determined its southern boundary. The accession of Castilian King Ferdinand III to

6350-635: The Leonese kingdom in 1230 brought Galicia under the control of the Crown of Castile . Galicia resisted central control and supported a series of alternative claimants, including John of León, Galicia and Seville (1296), Ferdinand I of Portugal (1369) and John of Gaunt (1386) and was not brought firmly into submission until the Catholic Monarchs imposed the Santa Hermandad in Galicia. The Kingdom of Galicia

6477-504: The Lusitanian dioceses annexed by the Suevi to Galicia (Coimbra, Idanha, Lamego, Viseu, and parts of Salamanca ) were restored to Lusitania. This same reform reduced the number of mints in Galicia from a few dozen to just three, those in the cities of Lugo, Braga, and Tui. The most notable person of 7th century Galicia was Saint Fructuosus of Braga . Fructuosus was the son of a provincial Visigoth dux (military provincial governor), and

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6604-714: The Metropolitan seat of Potamio after the renunciation of its previous occupier. At the same time the Will of the Bishop of Dume Recimiro was declared void after he donated the wealth of the diocese convent to the poor. The crisis at the end of the Visigoth era dates to the reign of Egica . The monarch appointed his son Wittiza as his heir, and despite the fact that the Visigothic monarchy had been traditionally elective rather than hereditary Egica associated Wittiza during his lifetime to

6731-465: The Suebi in cities such as Lugo, Porto, Tui, and Viseu, alongside the cities' Catholic bishops. These Arian bishops returned to Catholicism in 589, when King Reccared himself converted to Catholicism, along with the Goths and Suebi, at the Third Council of Toledo . The territorial and administrative organization inherited from the Suevi was incorporated into the new Provincial status, although Lugo

6858-521: The Suebi and all of Galicia under the power of the Goths." Chronicle of Fredegar , III. p 116. "Not only the conversion of the Goths is found among the favors that we have received, but also the infinite multitude of the Sueves, whom with divine assistance we have subjected to our realm. Although led into heresy by others fault, with our diligence we have brought them to the origins of truth. Therefore, most holy fathers, these most noble nations gained by us, as

6985-629: The Suebi) but later as Regnum Galliciense (Kingdom of Galicia). A century later, the differences between Gallaeci and Suebi people had faded, which led to the systematic use of terms like Galliciense Regnum (Galician Kingdom), Regem Galliciae (King of Galicia), Rege Suevorum (King of Suebi), and Galleciae totius provinciae rex (king of all Galician provinces), while bishops, such as Martin of Braga , were recognized as episcopi Gallaecia (Bishop of Galicia). The independent Suebic kingdom of Galicia lasted from 409 to 585, having remained relatively stable for most of that time. In 409 Gallaecia

7112-409: The United States the unofficial national motto until 1956 was E pluribus unum meaning "Out of many, one". The motto continues to be featured on the Great Seal . It also appears on the flags and seals of both houses of congress and the flags of the states of Michigan, North Dakota, New York, and Wisconsin. The motto's 13 letters symbolically represent the original Thirteen Colonies which revolted from

7239-447: The University of Kentucky, the University of Oxford and also Princeton University. There are many websites and forums maintained in Latin by enthusiasts. The Latin Misplaced Pages has more than 130,000 articles. Italian , French , Portuguese , Spanish , Romanian , Catalan , Romansh , Sardinian and other Romance languages are direct descendants of Latin. There are also many Latin borrowings in English and Albanian , as well as

7366-520: The Vandal king Gunderic and the Suebi's Hermeric . After a blockade alongside the Nervasian Mountains, the Suebi obtained Roman help, forcing the Vandals to flee into the Baetica . In the absence of competitors, the Suebi began a period of expansion, first inside Gallaecia, and later into other Roman provinces. In 438 Hermeric ratified a peace treaty with the Gallaeci , the native and partially Romanized people. Illness led Hermeric to abdicate in favor of his son, Rechila , who moved his troops to

7493-409: The Visigothic language, there are only traces of the Suebi tongue remaining, as they quickly adopted the local vulgar Latin . Some words of plausible Suebi origin are the modern Galician and Portuguese words laverca ( lark ), meixengra or mejengra ( titmouse ), lobio (vine), escá (a measure, formerly "cup"), groba (ravine), and others. Much more significant was their contribution to names of

7620-490: The ancestor of Rodrigo Anes, lord of the castle of Araújo. Later, in 1492, the Kingdom of Galicia along with other Kingdoms in the Iberian peninsula were united to become the Kingdom of Spain. Throughout Spain's colonial period between the 16th and 19th century a number of Galician Spaniards bearing the surname Araújo in the service of the King of Spain moved to colonize the territories of the Spanish Empire in North America and South America. Throughout Portugal's colonial period

7747-400: The army of Ramiro in the battle of Portela de Areas and eventually made himself undisputed ruler of the Leonese kingdom. Once in control, Bermudo lost many of his Galician and Portuguese supporters by repudiating his Galician wife in favor of a new marriage alliance with Castile. His later reign was marked by the ascension of a strong military leader, Almanzor , who led a brief resurgence of

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7874-497: The author Petronius . While often called a "dead language", Latin did not undergo language death . By the 6th to 9th centuries, natural language change eventually resulted in Latin as a vernacular language evolving into distinct Romance languages in the large areas where it had come to be natively spoken. However, even after the fall of Western Rome , Latin remained the common language of international communication , science, scholarship and academia in Europe until well into

8001-425: The benefit of those who do not understand Latin. There are also songs written with Latin lyrics . The libretto for the opera-oratorio Oedipus rex by Igor Stravinsky is in Latin. Parts of Carl Orff 's Carmina Burana are written in Latin. Enya has recorded several tracks with Latin lyrics. The continued instruction of Latin is seen by some as a highly valuable component of a liberal arts education. Latin

8128-409: The careful work of Petrarch, Politian and others, first the demand for manuscripts, and then the rush to bring works into print, led to the circulation of inaccurate copies for several centuries following. Neo-Latin literature was extensive and prolific, but less well known or understood today. Works covered poetry, prose stories and early novels, occasional pieces and collections of letters, to name

8255-438: The city of Lugo in Galicia, and there he reunited the army of the whole province. After a while he burst into Asturias. He was met by Nepotianus, who has reunited a group of Asturians and Basques, at the bridge over the river Narcea . Nepotianus was immediately left stranded by his own people, being captured when fleeing by two counts, Sonna and Scipio." Chronicle of Alfonso III , ad Sebastianum , 21. For several centuries after

8382-415: The classicised Latin that followed through to the present are often grouped together as Neo-Latin , or New Latin, which have in recent decades become a focus of renewed study , given their importance for the development of European culture, religion and science. The vast majority of written Latin belongs to this period, but its full extent is unknown. The Renaissance reinforced the position of Latin as

8509-412: The country's full Latin name. Some film and television in ancient settings, such as Sebastiane , The Passion of the Christ and Barbarians (2020 TV series) , have been made with dialogue in Latin. Occasionally, Latin dialogue is used because of its association with religion or philosophy, in such film/television series as The Exorcist and Lost (" Jughead "). Subtitles are usually shown for

8636-447: The death of Egica, Wittiza as sole king moved his capital to Toledo . In 710, part of the Visigothic aristocracy violently raised Roderic to the throne, triggering a civil war with the supporters of Wittiza and his sons. In 711, the enemies of Roderic got a Muslim army to cross the Straits of Gibraltar and face him at the Battle of Guadalete . The defeat was the end of Roderic and of the Visigothic rule, with profound consequences for

8763-429: The decline in written Latin output. Despite having no native speakers, Latin is still used for a variety of purposes in the contemporary world. The largest organisation that retains Latin in official and quasi-official contexts is the Catholic Church . The Catholic Church required that Mass be carried out in Latin until the Second Vatican Council of 1962–1965 , which permitted the use of the vernacular . Latin remains

8890-432: The defeat of the Goths, Galicia was united with other neighboring regions under the same monarchs, with only brief periods of separation under different kings. Along with the rest of the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, it was free of Arab presence from the mid-8th century, being gradually incorporated into a growing Christian state. This is usually called the Kingdom of Asturias in traditional and modern sources, although

9017-438: The descendants of the 9th century's conquerors. In the Terra de Santiago (Land of Saint James, the fief of the bishops of Iria-Compostela) each territory was administered by a bishop's vicar, while justice was administered by a council composed of representatives of the local churchmen, knights, and peasants. Each territory or county could be further divided into mandationes and decanias . The basic territorial division

9144-406: The early 19th century, by which time modern languages had supplanted it in common academic and political usage. Late Latin is the literary language from the 3rd century AD onward. No longer spoken as a native language, Medieval Latin was used across Western and Catholic Europe during the Middle Ages as a working and literary language from the 9th century to the Renaissance , which then developed

9271-546: The east, marauding through the Provincia Tarraconensis , which was still held by Rome. The Roman emperor Avitus sent a large army of foederates , under the direction of the Visigoth Theoderic II , who defeated the Suebi army by the river Órbigo , near modern-day Astorga . Rechiar fled, but he was pursued and captured, then executed in 457. In the aftermath of Rechiar's death, multiple candidates for

9398-570: The educated and official world, Latin continued without its natural spoken base. Moreover, this Latin spread into lands that had never spoken Latin, such as the Germanic and Slavic nations. It became useful for international communication between the member states of the Holy Roman Empire and its allies. Without the institutions of the Roman Empire that had supported its uniformity, Medieval Latin

9525-498: The entire kingdom, but to briefly become overlord of Ferdinand's Castile. However, in 1037, the Castilian count killed Bermudo in battle, and Galicia passed with the Kingdom of León into the hands of Ferdinand, who then had himself crowned king. Ferdinand's death in 1065 led to another short-lived Galician state. In 1063 he had opted to partition his realm, giving the eastern Kingdom of Castile to his eldest son, Sancho II , along with

9652-467: The entire kingdom, or simply held a remote part of Asturias. In Galicia, Sancho succeeded, being crowned in Santiago de Compostela and marrying a Galician noblewoman. After reigning for just three years he died childless. Alfonso IV then took control of an again-reunited Kingdom of León in 929; however, he was forced into a monastery by their youngest brother, Ramiro, two years later. Ramiro II had ties with

9779-580: The final result of a continent-wide urban crisis. The old bishoprics of Braga, Ourense, Tui, Lamego, and others, were either discontinued, or re-established in the north, under the protection of Lugo—which was now a stronghold due to its Roman walls—and Iria Flavia . Dumio was re-established by the Bay of Biscay in Mondoñedo , Lugo assumed the role of Braga, and the bishops of Lamego and Tui sought refuge in Iria, where they received generous territorial grants. During

9906-530: The greed of the big owners, leading many of them to a life of servitude . Finally, servos , libertos , and pueros (servants, freedmen, and children), either obtained in war with the Moors or through trial, constituted a visible part of the society; they were employed as household workers ( domésticos and scancianes ), shepherds , and farmhands . Local charters also show that, in time, they were freed. In terms of religion, most were Roman Catholics, although

10033-535: The head—was in use in Galicia up to 681, when it was forbidden at a council in Toledo. There were no known Muslim communities in Galicia and northern Portugal, other than Moor serfs. Records of Hebrew people are also uncommon in local charters until the 12th century, except as travelers and merchants. Personal names in Galicia and northern Portugal were chiefly of Germanic origin, although Christian, Roman, and Greek names were also common. Names were usually composed just of

10160-559: The history of this area, or in fact Western Europe in general, the Suebi Kingdom reappears in European politics and history during the second half of the 6th century. This is following the arrival of Saint Martin of Braga , a Pannonian monk dedicated to converting the Suebi to Nicene Christianity and consequently into allegiance with the other Nicene Christian regional powers, the Franks and

10287-528: The integration of the different communities of the country. King Miro also promoted contention with the Arian Visigoths, who under the leadership of King Leovigild were rebuilding their fragmented kingdom which had been ruled mostly by Ostrogoths since the beginning of the 6th century, following the defeat and expulsion of Aquitania by the Franks. After clashing in frontier lands, Miro and Leovigild agreed upon

10414-679: The invention of printing and are now published in carefully annotated printed editions, such as the Loeb Classical Library , published by Harvard University Press , or the Oxford Classical Texts , published by Oxford University Press . Latin translations of modern literature such as: The Hobbit , Treasure Island , Robinson Crusoe , Paddington Bear , Winnie the Pooh , The Adventures of Tintin , Asterix , Harry Potter , Le Petit Prince , Max and Moritz , How

10541-449: The king or queen. The Galician nobility, however, were also frequently found as rebels, either as supporters of a different candidate to the throne, or aspiring to it themselves, or simply as disobedient to the king's orders and will. At the service of the noblemen were miles ( knights ) and infanzones ; they were often found marching to war with their subalterns on behalf of a patron, or as vicars and administrators. A sizable section of

10668-529: The kingdom lies in the 5th century, when the Suebi settled permanently in the former Roman province of Gallaecia . Their king, Hermeric , probably signed a foedus , or pact, with the Roman Emperor Honorius , which conceded them lands in Galicia. The Suebi set their capital in the former Bracara Augusta and set the foundations of a kingdom, which was first acknowledged as Regnum Suevorum (Kingdom of

10795-520: The kingdom through either military force or by matrimonial alliance with the royal family. To the east, this southern expansion led the capital of the Christian kingdom to be moved to the city of León , from which time the state is usually called the Kingdom of León . This same kingdom was frequently known as either Gallaecia or Galicia ( Yillīqiya and Galīsiya ) in Al-Andalus Muslim sources up to

10922-675: The language of the Roman Rite . The Tridentine Mass (also known as the Extraordinary Form or Traditional Latin Mass) is celebrated in Latin. Although the Mass of Paul VI (also known as the Ordinary Form or the Novus Ordo) is usually celebrated in the local vernacular language, it can be and often is said in Latin, in part or in whole, especially at multilingual gatherings. It is the official language of

11049-431: The later part of the Roman Republic , up to 75 BC, i.e. before the age of Classical Latin . It is attested both in inscriptions and in some of the earliest extant Latin literary works, such as the comedies of Plautus and Terence . The Latin alphabet was devised from the Etruscan alphabet . The writing later changed from what was initially either a right-to-left or a boustrophedon script to what ultimately became

11176-464: The local toponymy and onomastics . The historiography of the Suebi, and of Galicia in general, was long marginalized in Spanish culture, with the first connected history of the Suebi in Galicia being written by a German scholar. "After the death of Miro king of Galicia, and while his son Eboric and his son-in-law Audeca were fighting each other for the control of the kingdom, Leovigild subjugated

11303-522: The local rites—known today as Mozarabic rites —were notably different from those used in most of Western Europe. No Arian, Priscillianist , or Pagan organizations are known to have survived during the High Middle Ages. However, there were still pagans and pagan shrines in the Bierzo region during the 7th century, whilst Arian or Priscillianist tonsure —seen as long hair, with only a partial tonsure atop

11430-450: The most powerful men in that kingdom. In this period, in addition to fighting the Moors, He would help King Afonso VII of León defend Galician interests against Prince Afonso Henriques , who was trying to proclaim himself king of Portugal . At the time, Portugal was a county linked to the Kingdom of Galicia. According to Alexandre Herculano , in the year 1139, Fernando Annes - who was known by

11557-598: The north. Latin language Latin ( lingua Latina , pronounced [ˈlɪŋɡʷa ɫaˈtiːna] , or Latinum [ɫaˈtiːnʊ̃] ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages . Latin was originally spoken by the Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio ), the lower Tiber area around Rome , Italy. Through the expansion of

11684-462: The other varieties, as it was largely separated from the unifying influences in the western part of the Empire. Spoken Latin began to diverge into distinct languages by the 9th century at the latest, when the earliest extant Romance writings begin to appear. They were, throughout the period, confined to everyday speech, as Medieval Latin was used for writing. For many Italians using Latin, though, there

11811-462: The persistence of Galicia as a differentiated province within the realm, as indicated by the acts of several Councils of Toledo , chronicles such as that of John of Biclar , and in military laws such as the one extolled by Wamba which was incorporated into the Liber Iudicum , the Visigothic legal code. It was not until the administrative reformation produced during the reign of Recceswinth that

11938-507: The precise historical details of these events have been obscured by the national myths leading to the construction of modern Spanish identity. The 9th century saw this state expand southward, with Castilian and Asturian noblemen acquiring most of the northern Meseta , while in Galicia, a similar impulse led to the conquest and re-population of the regions of Astorga, southern Galicia, and northern Portugal down to Coimbra , by noblemen mostly proceeding from northern Galicia. Also significant

12065-409: The reconstruction of a church in the south of Galicia. Iohannes Tirante would be the son of a Galician nobleman named Fernando Annes, with a French woman of noble origin, a descendant of the royal houses of France and Borgoña, probably one of the daughters or granddaughters of king Philip I of France , or of Duchess Hidegard of Burgundy. He moved to Galicia after 1128 , to help his father who was one of

12192-514: The right to parias from the Taifas of Badajoz and Seville . As king, Garcia aimed to restore the old episcopal sees of Tui, Lamego, and Braga, which had been dissolved due to Arab and Viking assaults. The death of two of his most notable supporters, bishops Cresconius of Compostela and Uistrarius of Lugo, left the young king in a weaker position, and in 1071 the Count of Portugal , Nuno Mendes , rose in rebellion. García defeated and killed him in

12319-461: The right to the paria (tribute) from the Taifa of Zaragoza . His second son Alfonso VI was given the Kingdom of León , representing the central portion of the old realm, with the paria from Toledo . His youngest son, García II , who had been educated in Galicia under the tutelage of bishop Cresconius of Compostela, received the western half of Bermudo's old kingdom as King of Galicia, along with

12446-552: The same year at the Battle of Pedroso , and in recognition of his solidified control adopted the title King of Galicia and Portugal. However, his brothers, Alfonso and Sancho, immediately turned on the victor, forcing García to flee, first to central Portugal and later—after defeating him near Santarém —into exile in Seville in 1072. García's realm was divided, with Alfonso joining the county of Portugal to his Kingdom of León, while Sancho held

12573-590: The sixth province of the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo . The government of the Visigoths in Galicia did not totally disrupt the society, and the Suevi Catholic dioceses of Bracara , Dumio , Portus Cale or Magneto , Tude , Iria , Britonia , Lucus , Auria , Asturica , Conimbria , Lameco , Viseu , and Egitania continued to operate normally. During the reign of Liuvigild, new Arian bishops were raised among

12700-402: The society were churchmen — presbyters , deacons, clergymen, lectors , confessos , monks, and nuns—who frequently lived in religious communities , some of which were composed of both men and women living under vows of chastity and poverty . Most of these monasteries were directed by an abbot or abbess , ruled under a pactual tradition heavily influenced by Germanic legal traditions, with

12827-498: The south and the east, conquering Mérida and Seville , the capitals of the Roman provinces of Lusitania and Betica . In 448 Rechila died, leaving the expanding state to his son Rechiar , who in 449 became the first Germanic kings of post-Roman Europe to convert to Nicene Christianity . Rechiar married a Visigothic princess, and was also the first Germanic king to mint coins in ancient Roman territories. Rechiar led further expansions to

12954-451: The south expanded into Lisbon and Conimbriga , which were assaulted, and abandoned after their Roman inhabitants were banished. By 465 Remismund , who established a policy of friendship with the Goths and promoted the conversion of his own people into Arianism , was recognized by his people as the only king of the Suebi. After a period of obscurity, with very little remaining information on

13081-502: The tax collection and government of each territory was granted by the titular ruler —usually the king—to a count , bishopric, or large monastery, although there existed some singularities. The bishopric of Lugo was divided into counties, each one under the government of an infanzon (a lesser nobleman) as a concession of the bishop, while in the south, large and mighty territories such as the Portucalense became hereditary, passed down to

13208-417: The throne (for example, Egica and Wittiza are known to have issued coinage with the confronted effigies of both monarchs). In 701 an outbreak of plague spread westward from Greece to Spain, reaching Toledo , the Visigothic capital, in the same year, and having such impact that the royal family, including Egica and Wittiza, fled. It has been suggested that this provided the occasion for sending Wittiza to rule

13335-560: The throne appeared, finally grouping into two allegiances. The division between the two groups was marked by the Minius River (now Minho River), probably as a consequence of the localities of the Quadi and Marcomanni tribes, who constituted the Suebi nation on the Iberian Peninsula . The Suebi in the north conquered Lugo, proceeding to use that city as their co-capital, while the Suebi in

13462-469: The title Princeps Limiae for being governor in the south of Galicia - would defend the lands of Galicia against the attacks of Afonso Henriques. That fits perfectly with what the chroniclers say, because Iohannes Tirante would fight in this battle, in which he, his father, relatives and friends would defeat Afonso Henriques. After some time in Galicia, Iohannes Tirante married a woman named Mayor Garces de Asa, daughter of Count Don Garcia de Asa. Asa's family

13589-502: The towns of Braga ( Bracara Augusta ) and Porto , and later in Lugo ( Lucus Augusta ) and Astorga ( Asturica Augusta ). The valley of the Limia (or Lima) River is thought to have received the largest concentration of Germanic settlers, and Bracara Augusta—the modern city of Braga—became the capital of the Suebi, as it had previously been the capital of Gallaecia. In 419 a war broke out between

13716-485: The whole of the Iberian peninsula. "Alfonso king of Galicia and of Asturias, after having ravaged Lisbon, the last city of Spain, sent during the winter the insignias of his victory, breastplates, mules, and Moor prisoners, through his legates Froia and Basiliscus." Annales regni Francorum , c 798. "And so, as I've been told, when Adefonsus departed of this world, as Nepotianus usurped the kingdom of Ramiro , Ramiro went to

13843-432: The youth of Leonese king Bermudo III , Sancho seized disputed border regions, formalizing the arrangement by including the lands in the dowry of Bermudo's sister, who was married to Ferdinand in 1032. Two years later, in 1034, Sancho took Bermudo's capital, becoming de facto ruler of most of the kingdom, whilst leaving Bermudo to rule from his refuge in Galicia. Sancho's death the next year allowed Bermudo to regain not only

13970-437: Was subsistence , based mainly on the production of grain and beans, and notably in cattle breeding. Other valuable—though geographically restricted—products included fruits, salt, wine, honey, olive oil , horses, iron for the production of weapons and tools, and exotic oriental fabrics introduced from Spania . There were also specialized artisans who worked on demand, such as masons and goldsmiths . While local commerce

14097-444: Was a political entity located in southwestern Europe , which at its territorial zenith occupied the entire northwest of the Iberian Peninsula . In the early 10th century, the Kingdom of Galicia was formed following the division of the Kingdom of Asturias after the death of Alfonso III in 910. His sons split the kingdom, with Ordoño II inheriting Galicia. While Galicia became a distinct political entity, it remained closely tied to

14224-504: Was at that time one of the most powerful in the kingdom, descendants of one of the Infantes of the kingdom of León, which helps to explain the origins of the Araújo family in Asa's house, as some genealogists maintain. From the marriage with Dona Mayor Garces de Asa, Iohannes Tirante had at least one son, named Xoán Annes, who was Captain of Arms in the reign of Afonso VII. This Xoán Annes would also be

14351-491: Was common, long range interchanges—generally maintained by Hebrew merchants—were rare and appreciated. Monetary circulation was scarce, composed mainly of old Suebi and Visigothic coinage known locally as solidos gallicianos . War and pillaging against the thriving Al-Andalus was also a very important source for the acquisition of riches, exotic items, and Muslim serfs. Later, pilgrimage of Christians from all over Europe to Santiago de Compostela brought not only riches, but also

14478-466: Was descended from members of the royal families of the kingdom of France and the kingdom of Burgundy through a noble French knight named Iohannes Tirante , also known as "Jean Tyranothe". This French knight, along with a large number of knights from France and Burgundy, participated in the battles of the Reconquista , helping to expel the Moors and defend the kingdom. Reconquered lands were donated to

14605-500: Was divided, ad habitandum , between two Germanic people , the Hasdingi Vandals , who settled the eastern lands, and the Suebi, who established themselves in the coastal areas. As with most Germanic invasions, the number of the original Suebi is estimated to be relatively low, generally fewer than 100,000, and most often around 30,000 people. They settled mainly in the regions around modern northern Portugal and Western Galicia, in

14732-664: Was enthroned in Santiago de Compostela in 958. However, Sancho reclaimed the crown in 960 with support from his mother's Kingdom of Pamplona , the Leonese nobility, and Muslim assistance. His son, Ramiro III , grew increasingly absolutist, alienating the Galician nobility who also resented the lack of Leonese help when the Normans raided Galicia from 968 through 970. The Galician nobility again rose in rebellion, in 982 crowning and anointing Bermudo , son of Ordoño III , as king in Santiago de Compostela . With their support, he first repelled

14859-473: Was forced by his sons to abdicate in 910, his lands were partitioned, bringing about the first episode of a short-lived distinct kingdom of Galicia. García I obtained the Terra de Fora or León , consisting of the southeastern portion of their father's realm, while Ordoño II held the western lands, i.e. , Galicia (including the recently acquired lands of Coimbra ) where he had already been serving as governor, and

14986-413: Was free to develop on its own, there is no reason to suppose that the speech was uniform either diachronically or geographically. On the contrary, Romanised European populations developed their own dialects of the language, which eventually led to the differentiation of Romance languages . Late Latin is a kind of written Latin used in the 3rd to 6th centuries. This began to diverge from Classical forms at

15113-428: Was known for the many foundations he established throughout the west of the Iberian Peninsula , generally in places with difficult access, such as mountain valleys or islands. He also wrote two monastic rulebooks, characterized by their pact-like nature, with the monastic communities ruled by an abbot , under the remote authority of a bishop ( episcopus sub regula ), and each integrant of the congregation having signed

15240-496: Was much more liberal in its linguistic cohesion: for example, in classical Latin sum and eram are used as auxiliary verbs in the perfect and pluperfect passive, which are compound tenses. Medieval Latin might use fui and fueram instead. Furthermore, the meanings of many words were changed and new words were introduced, often under influence from the vernacular. Identifiable individual styles of classically incorrect Latin prevail. Renaissance Latin, 1300 to 1500, and

15367-441: Was no complete separation between Italian and Latin, even into the beginning of the Renaissance . Petrarch for example saw Latin as a literary version of the spoken language. Medieval Latin is the written Latin in use during that portion of the post-classical period when no corresponding Latin vernacular existed, that is from around 700 to 1500 AD. The spoken language had developed into the various Romance languages; however, in

15494-600: Was now recognized as king in an assembly of magnates held in Lugo. The youngest brother, Fruela II , received the Asturian heartland in the northeast, with Oviedo as its capital. From Galicia, Ordoño launched several successful raids on the Islamic south, returning with riches and Muslim serfs, and confirming himself as an able commander. At the death of García in 914, Ordoño also acquired León, and on his death in 924 his younger brother, Fruela, reunited Alfonso's realm. Fruela's death

15621-404: Was reduced again to the category of bishopric, and subjected to Braga. Meanwhile, the Suevi, Roman, and Galician cultural, religious, and aristocratic elite accepted new monarchs. The peasants maintained a collective formed mostly by freemen and serfs of Celtic, Roman and Suebi extraction, as no major Visigoth immigration occurred during the 6th and 7th centuries. This continuity led to

15748-478: Was shut down in June 2019), and Vatican Radio & Television, all of which broadcast news segments and other material in Latin. A variety of organisations, as well as informal Latin 'circuli' ('circles'), have been founded in more recent times to support the use of spoken Latin. Moreover, a number of university classics departments have begun incorporating communicative pedagogies in their Latin courses. These include

15875-413: Was the villa , centered on a church, and composed of one or more hamlets or villages, together with all its facilities, lands, and possessions. The villas perpetuated ancient Roman and Suevic foundations, and they were the base for the ecclesiastical organization, and for the economic production of the country, later evolving into the modern parroquias and freguesias (rural parishes). The local economy

16002-495: Was the discovery of the tomb of Saint James the Great at what would become Santiago de Compostela ; the shrine constructed there became the religious center of the nation, as well as being the destination of a major international pilgrimage route, the Way of St. James . This increased the political and military relevance of Galicia, and its noble families aspired to positions of power within

16129-707: Was then administered within the Crown of Castile (1490–1715) and later the Crown of Spain (1715–1833) by an Audiencia Real directed by a Governor which also held the office of Captain General and President. The representative assembly of the Kingdom was then the Junta or Cortes of the Kingdom of Galicia , which briefly declared itself sovereign when Galicia alone remained free of Napoleonic occupation (1808–1809). The kingdom and its Junta were dissolved by Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies , Regent of Spain, in 1834. The origin of

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