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111-558: Aboud ( Arabic : عابود , ʿĀbūd ) is a Palestinian village in the Ramallah and al-Bireh Governorate of the State of Palestine , in the central West Bank , northwest of Ramallah and 30 kilometers north of Jerusalem . Nearby towns include al-Lubban to the northeast and Bani Zeid to the northwest. Aboud is believed to be the site of a Jewish settlement before the Bar Kokhba revolt . During

222-454: A refuge cave for Jewish refugees who left there numerous objects, including oil lamps, glass and metal artifacts, and coins typical of the period. Based on the findings from the cave along with the nearby Mokata 'Abud tombs, archaeologists believe that 'Aboud was a Jewish village during the early Roman period. The settlement may have suffered damage during the Jewish–Roman wars , forcing

333-562: A collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of Arabic, first emerged during the Iron Age . Previously, the earliest attestation of Old Arabic was thought to be a single 1st century CE inscription in Sabaic script at Qaryat al-Faw , in southern present-day Saudi Arabia. However, this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the Arabic language group, such as

444-603: A collection of supplementary books of the Kartlis Cxovreba , dating from the 9th century. The most important manuscripts have since been filmed or digitized, and so are accessible to scholars. With planning assistance from Ligatus, a research center of the University of the Arts London , the library was extensively renovated, reopening at the end of 2017. Since 2011, a team of imaging scientists and experienced scholars in

555-435: A corpus of poetic texts, in addition to Qur'an usage and Bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya . Arabic spread with the spread of Islam . Following the early Muslim conquests , Arabic gained vocabulary from Middle Persian and Turkish . In the early Abbasid period , many Classical Greek terms entered Arabic through translations carried out at Baghdad's House of Wisdom . By

666-850: A gift from Tsar Alexander II of Russia . The Codex was sold by Stalin in 1933 to the British Museum and is now in the British Library , London, where it is on public display. Prior to September 1, 2009, a previously unseen fragment of Codex Sinaiticus was discovered in the monastery's library, as well as among the New Finds of 1975. On other visits (1855, 1857) Constantin von Tischendorf also amassed their more valuable manuscripts ( Greek , Christian Palestinian Aramaic , Georgian , Syriac ) and took them with him to St. Petersburg and Leipzig, where they are stored today. In February 1892, Agnes S. Lewis discovered an early palimpsest manuscript of

777-483: A lesser extent and more recently from Turkish, English, French, and Italian. Arabic is spoken by as many as 380 million speakers, both native and non-native, in the Arab world, making it the fifth most spoken language in the world, and the fourth most used language on the internet in terms of users. It also serves as the liturgical language of more than 2 billion Muslims . In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked Arabic

888-677: A millennium before the modern period . Early lexicographers ( لُغَوِيُّون lughawiyyūn ) sought to explain words in the Quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning, and to identify words of non-Arabic origin that appear in the Quran. They gathered shawāhid ( شَوَاهِد 'instances of attested usage') from poetry and the speech of the Arabs—particularly the Bedouin ʾaʿrāb  [ ar ] ( أَعْراب ) who were perceived to speak

999-511: A minority of Crusader settlers. Ottoman records indicate a predominant Syrian Christian majority in the sixteenth century, a status that endured into the nineteenth century. According to the 2017 census conducted by the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics , the village had a population of 2,153. Its citizens are majority Christians , mostly Eastern Orthodox. Near the village are numerous natural springs, which are sources for

1110-403: A place of pilgrimage for Christians. It is of good masonry, the foundations only remaining, measuring about 10 feet across inside, and 22 feet in length east and west. Between the chapel and the village of 'Abud is a fine pool lined with masonry, which was full when visited." Locals consider Saint Barbara to have been the oldest and most sacred of Aboud's churches. Palestinian Christians visited

1221-545: A relish in the kitchen. For most of the time of the Mamluk Sultanate the monastery was able to prosper, but as the sultanate started to decline, it went through a crisis. While there had been several hundred monks in the mid-14th century, a hundred years later there were only several dozens. Local Bedouin tribes started harassing the community, robbing their property of the Christian coastal village of Al-Tur and in 1505,

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1332-462: A script derived from ASA attest to a language known as Hasaitic . On the northwestern frontier of Arabia, various languages known to scholars as Thamudic B , Thamudic D, Safaitic , and Hismaic are attested. The last two share important isoglosses with later forms of Arabic, leading scholars to theorize that Safaitic and Hismaic are early forms of Arabic and that they should be considered Old Arabic . Linguists generally believe that "Old Arabic",

1443-628: A secluded storage area of the St George Tower in 1975. Highlights include "108 pages of previously unknown Greek poems and the oldest-known recipe attributed to the Greek physician Hippocrates ;" additional folios for the transmission of the Old Syriac Gospels; two unattested witnesses of an early Christian apocryphal text the Dormition of Mary ( Transitus Mariae ) of which most of the Greek text

1554-465: A single language, despite mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions. From a linguistic standpoint, it is often said that the various spoken varieties of Arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the Romance languages . This is an apt comparison in a number of ways. The period of divergence from a single spoken form is similar—perhaps 1500 years for Arabic, 2000 years for

1665-595: A total of 21,000 akçe . All of the revenue went to a waqf . It was later designated as a part of the Bani Zeid administrative region, still under the Ottomans. In 1870 the French explorer Victor Guérin found that Aboud contained 800 inhabitants, half Greek Orthodox and half Muslims, while an Ottoman village list of about the same year showed that Aboud had 225 Muslims with 69 houses, and 170 Greek Orthodox with 66 houses, though

1776-503: A type of Arabic. Cypriot Arabic is recognized as a minority language in Cyprus. The sociolinguistic situation of Arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia , which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language, usually in different social situations. Tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word. For example, al-hatif lexicographically means

1887-499: A variety of regional vernacular Arabic dialects , which are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Classical Arabic is the language found in the Quran , used from the period of Pre-Islamic Arabia to that of the Abbasid Caliphate . Classical Arabic is prescriptive, according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians (such as Sibawayh ) and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries (such as

1998-470: A wider audience." In the wake of the industrial revolution and European hegemony and colonialism , pioneering Arabic presses, such as the Amiri Press established by Muhammad Ali (1819), dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of Arabic literature and publications. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi proposed the establishment of Madrasat al-Alsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted

2109-585: Is a minimum level of comprehension between all Arabic dialects, this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity: for example, Levantine and Gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the Maghreb. The issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a complicating factor: A single written form, differing sharply from any of the spoken varieties learned natively, unites several sometimes divergent spoken forms. For political reasons, Arabs mostly assert that they all speak

2220-542: Is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor. Arabia had a wide variety of Semitic languages in antiquity. The term "Arab" was initially used to describe those living in the Arabian Peninsula , as perceived by geographers from ancient Greece . In the southwest, various Central Semitic languages both belonging to and outside the Ancient South Arabian family (e.g. Southern Thamudic) were spoken. It

2331-469: Is believed that the ancestors of the Modern South Arabian languages (non-Central Semitic languages) were spoken in southern Arabia at this time. To the north, in the oases of northern Hejaz , Dadanitic and Taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages. In Najd and parts of western Arabia, a language known to scholars as Thamudic C is attested. In eastern Arabia, inscriptions in

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2442-408: Is credited with establishing the rules of Arabic prosody . Al-Jahiz (776–868) proposed to Al-Akhfash al-Akbar an overhaul of the grammar of Arabic, but it would not come to pass for two centuries. The standardization of Arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century. The first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya "Arabic", Sībawayhi's al - Kitāb , is based first of all upon

2553-468: Is credited with standardizing Arabic grammar , or an-naḥw ( النَّحو "the way" ), and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants ( نقط الإعجام nuqaṭu‿l-i'jām "pointing for non-Arabs") and indicate vocalization ( التشكيل at-tashkīl ). Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi (718–786) compiled the first Arabic dictionary, Kitāb al-'Ayn ( كتاب العين "The Book of the Letter ع "), and

2664-478: Is derived from Classical Arabic . This distinction exists primarily among Western linguists; Arabic speakers themselves generally do not distinguish between Modern Standard Arabic and Classical Arabic, but rather refer to both as al-ʿarabiyyatu l-fuṣḥā ( اَلعَرَبِيَّةُ ٱلْفُصْحَىٰ "the eloquent Arabic") or simply al-fuṣḥā ( اَلْفُصْحَىٰ ). Arabic is the third most widespread official language after English and French, one of six official languages of

2775-479: Is lost; a previously unknown martyrdom of Patriklos of Caesarea Maritima ( Israel ), one of the eleven followers of Pamphilus of Caesarea ; some of the earliest known Georgian manuscripts; as well as insight into dead languages such as the previously hardly attested Caucasian Albanian and Christian Palestinian Aramaic , the local dialect of the early Byzantine period, with many unparalleled text witnesses. The complex houses irreplaceable works of art: mosaics,

2886-566: Is not present in the spoken varieties, but deletes Classical words that sound obsolete in MSA. In addition, MSA has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in Quranic times, and MSA continues to evolve. Some words have been borrowed from other languages—notice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation (e.g., فِلْم film 'film' or ديمقراطية dīmuqrāṭiyyah 'democracy'). The current preference

2997-883: Is official in Mali and recognized as a minority language in Morocco, while the Senegalese government adopted the Latin script to write it. Maltese is official in (predominantly Catholic ) Malta and written with the Latin script . Linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken Arabic, descended from Siculo-Arabic , though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with Italo-Romance varieties, and more recently also with English. Due to "a mix of social, cultural, historical, political, and indeed linguistic factors", many Maltese people today consider their language Semitic but not

3108-579: Is recognized by Guinness World Records as the world's oldest continuously operating library. It preserves the world's second-largest collection of early codices and manuscripts , outnumbered only by the Vatican Library . It contains Greek , Christian Palestinian Aramaic , Syriac , Georgian , Arabic , Ethiopic/Ge‘ez , Latin , Armenian , and Church Slavonic manuscripts and books, along with very rare Hebrew and Coptic books. In May 1844 and February 1859, Constantin von Tischendorf visited

3219-759: Is seen in European languages (mainly Spanish and to a lesser extent Portuguese , Catalan , and Sicilian ) owing to the proximity of Europe and the long-lasting Arabic cultural and linguistic presence, mainly in Southern Iberia, during the Al-Andalus era. Maltese is a Semitic language developed from a dialect of Arabic and written in the Latin alphabet . The Balkan languages, including Albanian, Greek , Serbo-Croatian, and Bulgarian , have also acquired many words of Arabic origin, mainly through direct contact with Ottoman Turkish . Arabic has influenced languages across

3330-537: Is situated in the center of Aboud. The earliest remains, including two capitals and the semi-circular arches they support, suggests a fifth- to sixth-century construction date. It was long believed to have been founded during the Crusader period in Palestine , when it was known as Casale Santa Maria. But, an Aramaic inscription on a vault in the church, found during late 20th century restoration work, indicates that it

3441-584: Is the variety used in most current, printed Arabic publications, spoken by some of the Arabic media across North Africa and the Middle East, and understood by most educated Arabic speakers. "Literary Arabic" and "Standard Arabic" ( فُصْحَى fuṣḥá ) are less strictly defined terms that may refer to Modern Standard Arabic or Classical Arabic. Some of the differences between Classical Arabic (CA) and Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) are as follows: MSA uses much Classical vocabulary (e.g., dhahaba 'to go') that

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3552-413: Is to avoid direct borrowings, preferring to either use loan translations (e.g., فرع farʻ 'branch', also used for the branch of a company or organization; جناح janāḥ 'wing', is also used for the wing of an airplane, building, air force, etc.), or to coin new words using forms within existing roots ( استماتة istimātah ' apoptosis ', using the root موت m/w/t 'death' put into

3663-516: Is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and post-industrial era , especially in modern times. Due to its grounding in Classical Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech, which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language. These dialects and Modern Standard Arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible. The former are usually acquired in families, while

3774-445: The Lisān al-ʻArab ). Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) largely follows the grammatical standards of Classical Arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary. However, it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties. Much of the new vocabulary

3885-493: The 1949 Armistice Agreements , Aboud came under Jordanian rule. It was annexed by Jordan in 1950. The Jordanian census of 1961 found 1,521 inhabitants, of whom 716 were Christians. Since the Six-Day War in 1967, Aboud has been under Israeli occupation . After Oslo II in 1995, 16.8% of village land was classified as Area B , and the remaining 83.2% as Area C . Israel has confiscated land from Aboud in order to construct

3996-569: The British Mandate authorities , Aboud had a population of 754; 352 Muslim and 402 Christians. The latter included 335 Orthodox, 41 Roman Catholics , and 26 who belonged to the Church of England . At the time of the 1931 census , the population had increased to 910; 470 Christians and 440 Muslims, in 215 houses. The Christians largely inhabited the older, northern part of Aboud, while the Muslims inhabited

4107-584: The Byzantine period, Aboud likely housed a significant Christian community, with the early architectural elements of St. Mary Church indicating construction from that era. Despite Arabization during the early Muslim period , the community retained the Aramaic language for ceremonial and liturgical purposes. During the Crusades , Aboud was known as Casale Santa Maria, primarily inhabited by local Orthodox Christians with

4218-410: The Byzantine period . Archaeologists trace its history to the 6th century CE. Ancient catacombs have been uncovered by the church; their dating is uncertain. One of the burial caves is especially grandiose, with a door post decorated with carvings of wreaths, grape vines and grape clusters standing at its entrance. On 5 June 1873, SWP visited and made a description: "A small ruined chapel; still

4329-540: The Christian Palestinian Aramaic language and tradition long into this period and beyond it. However, they no longer used it as a spoken language ; instead, they used this dialect for ceremonial events and liturgical uses . A Palestinian Syriac inscription in the St. Mary Church indicate that it was active 1058, during Fatimid rule. In 1099, Aboud and much of Syria was conquered by European Crusaders . During

4440-506: The Crusader period, Aboud was known by them as the Latin Casale Santa Maria. At the time, it was an unfortified agricultural village inhabited mostly by local Orthodox Christians. A minority of the population consisted of Crusader settlers. The Crusaders made improvements and additions to the church, such as the nave and the north aisle. In 1104, Mufarij ibn Abu al-Hayr al-Abudi, a monk from Aboud, copied Syriac manuscripts in

4551-629: The Gospel in St Catherine Monastery's library that became known as the Syriac Sinaiticus and it remains in the monastery's possession. Agnes and her sister Margaret D. Gibson returned in 1893 with the Cambridge team of the two scholars that included their wives, and also J. Rendel Harris to photograph and transcribe the manuscript in its entirety, as well as to prepare the first catalogues of

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4662-460: The Israeli settlements of Beit Aryeh-Ofarim . In late July 2018, Israeli authorities informed village elders that they intended seizing a further 324 dunums (80 acres) of land shared by both Aboud and Al-Lubban al-Gharbi on grounds that the land was needed in order to construct an Israeli-only road between the settlements of Beit Arye and Ofarim. Al-Abudiyah Church, also known as Saint Mary's Church,

4773-531: The Kingdom of Jerusalem , and their respective courts. Dominican theologian Felix Fabri visited the monastery in the 15th century and provided a detailed account of it. He also described the monastery's gardens, noting the presence of "tall fruit trees, salad herbs, grass, and grain," and mentioning "more than three thousand olive trees, many fig-trees and pomegranates, and a store of almonds and other fruits." The olives were used to produce oil for lighting lamps and as

4884-547: The Ottoman Empire . In the 1553–57 tax records , Aboud had a population of 35 families; 19 of whom were Christian and 16 Muslim. In the 1596 Ottoman tax records, it was classified as part of the nahiya ("sub-district") of Ramla , part of the Sanjak of Gaza . Its population remained the same, with 19 Christian households and 16 Muslim households, and the inhabitants paid a fixed tax rate of 25% on wheat, barley, and other produce;

4995-697: The Saint Catherine's Monastery in Sinai . In 1167, Casale Santa Maria was sold by King Baldwin IV to the Knights Hospitallers . Starting in 1176, they used revenues from the village to supply white bread to the sick in the hospital of Jerusalem . In 1225, Yaqut al-Hamawi noted Aboud was a "small town in Filastin Province , near Jerusalem. The name is Hebrew , and [has] become Arabicized ." At another point in

5106-645: The Second Intifada , which began in 2000, the residents who worked in Israel (10% of Aboud's labor force) lost their jobs there. The 'Abud cave, a large karst cave in the vicinity of the village, is also a significant archeological site. Artifacts from the Chalcolithic, Middle Bronze, and Iron Ages, as well as the Roman, Byzantine, and early Arab periods, have been discovered in it. During the Bar Kokhba revolt , it served as

5217-565: The Syriac and Arabic manuscripts. Only among the New Finds two additional palimpsest manuscripts came to light containing additional passages of the Old Syriac Gospels. The Monastery also has a copy of the Ashtiname of Muhammad , in which the Islamic prophet Muhammad is claimed to have bestowed his protection upon the monastery. Additionally, the monastery houses a copy of Mok'c'evay K'art'lisay,

5328-561: The Xth form , or جامعة jāmiʻah 'university', based on جمع jamaʻa 'to gather, unite'; جمهورية jumhūriyyah 'republic', based on جمهور jumhūr 'multitude'). An earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse (e.g., هاتف hātif 'telephone' < 'invisible caller (in Sufism)'; جريدة jarīdah 'newspaper' < 'palm-leaf stalk'). Colloquial or dialectal Arabic refers to

5439-517: The Yarkon River . Abud is located 17.7 km northwest of Ramallah . It is bordered by Deir Nidham to the east, Bani Zeid to the north, Rantis and al Lubban el Gharbi to the west, and Deir Abu Mash'al to the south. Sherds from the Iron Age II , Byzantine , Crusader / Ayyubid and Mamluk eras have been found here. There is archeological evidence that the village was inhabited during

5550-511: The earliest known depiction of Jesus as Christ Pantocrator . Saint Catherine's has as its backdrop the three mountains it lies near: Ras Sufsafeh (possibly the Biblical Mount Horeb , peak c.1 km (0.62 mi) west); Jebel Arrenziyeb, peak c.   1km south; and Mount Sinai (locally, Jabal Musa , by tradition identified with the biblical Mount Sinai ; peak c.  2 km (1.2 mi) south). The monastery

5661-494: The northern Hejaz . These features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor , Proto-Arabic . The following features of Proto-Arabic can be reconstructed with confidence: On the other hand, several Arabic varieties are closer to other Semitic languages and maintain features not found in Classical Arabic, indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from Classical Arabic. Thus, Arabic vernaculars do not descend from Classical Arabic: Classical Arabic

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5772-419: The "learned" tradition (Classical Arabic). This variety and both its classicizing and "lay" iterations have been termed Middle Arabic in the past, but they are thought to continue an Old Higazi register. It is clear that the orthography of the Quran was not developed for the standardized form of Classical Arabic; rather, it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of Old Higazi. In

5883-735: The "purest," most eloquent form of Arabic—initiating a process of jamʿu‿l-luɣah ( جمع اللغة 'compiling the language') which took place over the 8th and early 9th centuries. Kitāb al-'Ayn ( c.  8th century ), attributed to Al-Khalil ibn Ahmad al-Farahidi , is considered the first lexicon to include all Arabic roots ; it sought to exhaust all possible root permutations —later called taqālīb ( تقاليب ) — calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal ( مستعمَل ) and those that are not used muhmal ( مُهمَل ). Lisān al-ʿArab (1290) by Ibn Manzur gives 9,273 roots, while Tāj al-ʿArūs (1774) by Murtada az-Zabidi gives 11,978 roots. Saint Catherine%27s Monastery The monastery

5994-454: The 11th and 12th centuries in al-Andalus , the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical Arabic of Cordoba and the Maghreb. The Nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought "to fuse Arabic and European forms of expression." According to James L. Gelvin , " Nahda writers attempted to simplify the Arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to

6105-476: The 13th century and is still in use today on special occasions. During the Ottoman Empire , the mosque was in desolate condition; it was restored in the early 20th century. During the seventh century, the isolated Christian anchorites of the Sinai were eliminated: only the fortified monastery remained. The monastery is surrounded by the massive fortifications that have preserved it. Until the twentieth century, access

6216-507: The 13th century, an Aboud monk, Sarur ibn Abd al-Masih al-Abudi, was recorded as copying Syriac manuscripts in Cairo . The southern part of Aboud was founded in the 13th or 14th century, during Mamluk rule. Two ornate mausoleums in this part of Aboud were built during the Mamluk period. Arab historian al-Maqrizi mentioned these in the 14th century. Aboud as part of Palestine was incorporated into

6327-416: The 21st century takes up 43% of village lands. In total, 57% of Aboud's lands are cultivable; other crops are figs, apples, grapes, and almonds. Its primary agricultural products are olive oil , olive-based soap , dried figs, and almonds. In 2005 agriculture employed 19% of the village's labor force. The remaining 81% work in the governmental and private sectors, construction, and animal husbandry. Following

6438-562: The 4th to the 6th centuries, the Nabataean script evolved into the Arabic script recognizable from the early Islamic era. There are inscriptions in an undotted, 17-letter Arabic script dating to the 6th century CE, found at four locations in Syria ( Zabad , Jebel Usays , Harran , Umm el-Jimal ). The oldest surviving papyrus in Arabic dates to 643 CE, and it uses dots to produce the modern 28-letter Arabic alphabet. The language of that papyrus and of

6549-649: The 7th–8th centuries. Arabic language Arabic (endonym: اَلْعَرَبِيَّةُ , romanized :  al-ʿarabiyyah , pronounced [al ʕaraˈbijːa] , or عَرَبِيّ , ʿarabīy , pronounced [ˈʕarabiː] or [ʕaraˈbij] ) is a Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world . The ISO assigns language codes to 32 varieties of Arabic , including its standard form of Literary Arabic, known as Modern Standard Arabic , which

6660-762: The 8th century, knowledge of Classical Arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the Islamic world, both for Muslims and non-Muslims. For example, Maimonides , the Andalusi Jewish philosopher, authored works in Judeo-Arabic —Arabic written in Hebrew script . Ibn Jinni of Mosul , a pioneer in phonology , wrote prolifically in the 10th century on Arabic morphology and phonology in works such as Kitāb Al-Munṣif , Kitāb Al-Muḥtasab , and Kitāb Al-Khaṣāʾiṣ    [ ar ] . Ibn Mada' of Cordoba (1116–1196) realized

6771-557: The Chapel of the Burning Bush (also known as "Saint Helen's Chapel") ordered to be built by Empress Consort Helena , mother of Constantine the Great , at the site where Moses is supposed to have seen the burning bush . The living bush on the grounds is purportedly the one seen by Moses. Structurally the monastery's king post truss is the oldest known surviving roof truss in the world. From

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6882-411: The Deir al-Kaukab monastery, also called Monastery of St Elias (Mar Elia), near the village. The site of Mar Elia has been identified 1.5 km south-east of the village, and it is assumed that monastery excised into the twelfth century. Additional local churches include one dedicated to St. Theodore (located in the center of the village) and to St. Anastasia (to the south of the village). Both are from

6993-412: The Middle East and North Africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and ... feigning, or asserting, weakness or lack of facility in Arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status, class, and perversely, even education through a mélange of code-switching practises." Arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools, especially Muslim schools. Universities around

7104-446: The Muslims and Christians in Aboud. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics , the village had a population of approximately 2,084 inhabitants in 2007. It has a mixed population of Muslims and Christians , mostly Eastern Orthodox. It has ancient churches built during the Byzantine period of the 6th to 8th centuries. Historically, Aboud's economy was centered on agriculture, specifically olives. Their cultivation in

7215-416: The Ottoman period the monastic community became almost exclusively Greek, possibly due to the decline and depopulation of Transjordanian Christian towns. From the 1480s onwards, the Wallachian princes started sending out alms to the monastery. A mosque was created by converting an existing chapel during the Fatimid Caliphate (909–1171), which was in regular use until the era of the Mamluk Sultanate in

7326-474: The Qur'an is referred to by linguists as "Quranic Arabic", as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into " Classical Arabic ". In late pre-Islamic times, a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of Arabic emerged in the Hejaz , which continued living its parallel life after literary Arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the Hijra , most strongly in Judeo-Christian texts, keeping alive ancient features eliminated from

7437-414: The Roman, Byzantine, Crusader, Ayyubid, Mamluk and Ottoman eras. Based on the findings in the nearby 'Abud Cave and in the adjacent necropolis of Mokata 'Abud, archaeologists believe 'Aboud was the site of a Jewish settlement during the late Second Temple period and up until the Bar Kokhba revolt . Although construction from later periods has covered the ancient settlement's remains, the magnificence of

7548-413: The Romance languages. Also, while it is comprehensible to people from the Maghreb , a linguistically innovative variety such as Moroccan Arabic is essentially incomprehensible to Arabs from the Mashriq , much as French is incomprehensible to Spanish or Italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them. This suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages. With

7659-444: The United Nations , and the liturgical language of Islam . Arabic is widely taught in schools and universities around the world and is used to varying degrees in workplaces, governments and the media. During the Middle Ages , Arabic was a major vehicle of culture and learning, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have borrowed words from it. Arabic influence, mainly in vocabulary,

7770-432: The ancient burial caves indicates the splendor of the ancient settlement. During the Byzantine era, Aboud seems to have had a prominent Christian community. The earliest architectural parts of the St. Mary Church in Aboud indicate a fifth- to sixth-century construction date. Although it appears that the community in 'Abud underwent a process of Arabization during the early Muslim period , they were still able to preserve

7881-435: The autonomous Church of Sinai , which is part of the wider Greek Orthodox Church , the monastery became a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2002 for its unique importance to the three major Abrahamic religions : Judaism , Christianity , and Islam . The monastery library holds unique and rare works, such as the Codex Sinaiticus and the Syriac Sinaiticus , as well as a collection of early Christian icons , including

7992-443: The best collection of early icons in the world, many in encaustic , as well as liturgical objects, chalices and reliquaries, and church buildings. The large icon collection begins with a few dating to the 5th (possibly) and 6th centuries, which are unique survivals; the monastery having been untouched by Byzantine iconoclasm , and never sacked. The oldest icon on an Old Testament theme is also preserved there. A project to catalogue

8103-504: The body of Saint Catherine of Alexandria was said to be found in a cave in the area. Catherine was a popular saint in Europe during the Middle Ages; her story says that, for defending Christianity, she was sentenced to death on a spiked breaking wheel , but, at her touch, the wheel shattered. It was then ordered that she be beheaded . The relics of Saint Catherine, kept to this day inside

8214-460: The church annually on 17 December to celebrate the St. Barbara's Day festival. On 31 May 2002, the Israeli army blew up and destroyed the church. The Israeli military claimed that they were unaware of the church's significance and demolished it by mistake. Under Fatimid rule , in 1030, a Christian monk named Elias from Aboud copied Syriac manuscripts in Antioch . He later returned to Aboud and founded

8325-567: The conversion of Semitic mimation to nunation in the singular. It is best reassessed as a separate language on the Central Semitic dialect continuum. It was also thought that Old Arabic coexisted alongside—and then gradually displaced— epigraphic Ancient North Arabian (ANA), which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries. ANA, despite its name, was considered a very distinct language, and mutually unintelligible, from "Arabic". Scholars named its variant dialects after

8436-456: The decipherment of palimpsest manuscripts from the U.S. and Europe have photographed, digitized, and studied the library's collection of palimpsests during the international Sinai palimpsests project. Palimpsests are notable for having been reused one or more times over the centuries. Since parchment was expensive and time-consuming to produce, monks would erase certain texts with orange juice or scrape them off and write over them. Though

8547-510: The elaborate tombs of the Jewish elite of Jerusalem. While Magen has linked them to the exodus of Jewish craftsmen from Jerusalem to Samaria before the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE. SWP visited in 1866, and made extensive notes about 9 tombs here. Adjacent to Aboud is an ancient monastery named after Saint Barbara . Located on a hill due west of the village, the Church of Saint Barbara was erected in

8658-577: The emergence of Central Semitic languages, particularly in grammar. Innovations of the Central Semitic languages—all maintained in Arabic—include: There are several features which Classical Arabic, the modern Arabic varieties, as well as the Safaitic and Hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other Central Semitic language variety, including the Dadanitic and Taymanitic languages of

8769-728: The eve of the conquests: Northern and Central (Al-Jallad 2009). The modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests. Instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines, the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features, which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories. According to Veersteegh and Bickerton, colloquial Arabic dialects arose from pidginized Arabic formed from contact between Arabs and conquered peoples. Pidginization and subsequent creolization among Arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular Arabic compared to Classical and MSA. In around

8880-593: The fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of Arabic. The earliest attestation of continuous Arabic text in an ancestor of the modern Arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named Garm(')allāhe found in En Avdat, Israel , and dated to around 125 CE. This is followed by the Namara inscription , an epitaph of the Lakhmid king Imru' al-Qays bar 'Amro, dating to 328 CE, found at Namaraa, Syria. From

8991-501: The fourth most useful language for business, after English, Mandarin Chinese , and French. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet , an abjad script that is written from right to left . Arabic is usually classified as a Central Semitic language . Linguists still differ as to the best classification of Semitic language sub-groups. The Semitic languages changed between Proto-Semitic and

9102-742: The globe throughout its history, especially languages where Islam is the predominant religion and in countries that were conquered by Muslims. The most markedly influenced languages are Persian , Turkish , Hindustani ( Hindi and Urdu ), Kashmiri , Kurdish , Bosnian , Kazakh , Bengali , Malay ( Indonesian and Malaysian ), Maldivian , Pashto , Punjabi , Albanian , Armenian , Azerbaijani , Sicilian, Spanish, Greek, Bulgarian, Tagalog , Sindhi , Odia , Hebrew and African languages such as Hausa , Amharic , Tigrinya , Somali , Tamazight , and Swahili . Conversely, Arabic has borrowed some words (mostly nouns) from other languages, including its sister-language Aramaic, Persian, Greek, and Latin and to

9213-579: The inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries. They also publish old and historical Arabic manuscripts. In 1997, a bureau of Arabization standardization was added to the Educational, Cultural, and Scientific Organization of the Arab League . These academies and organizations have worked toward the Arabization of the sciences, creating terms in Arabic to describe new concepts, toward

9324-583: The jurisdiction of the Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem . The archbishop is traditionally consecrated by the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem ; in recent centuries he has usually resided in Cairo . During the period of the Crusades which was marked by bitterness between the Orthodox and Catholic churches, the monastery was patronized by both the Byzantine emperors and the rulers of

9435-608: The language. Software and books with tapes are an important part of Arabic learning, as many of Arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or Arabic language school classes available. Radio series of Arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations. A number of websites on the Internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education; most teach Modern Standard Arabic, but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries. The tradition of Arabic lexicography extended for about

9546-599: The late 6th century AD, a relatively uniform intertribal "poetic koine" distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the Bedouin dialects of Najd , probably in connection with the court of al-Ḥīra . During the first Islamic century, the majority of Arabic poets and Arabic-writing persons spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. Their texts, although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts, contain traces of non-standardized Classical Arabic elements in morphology and syntax. Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali ( c.  603 –689)

9657-420: The latter is taught in formal education settings. However, there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschool-aged children. The relation between Modern Standard Arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of Classical Latin and Vulgar Latin vernaculars (which became Romance languages ) in medieval and early modern Europe. MSA

9768-453: The locals to flee for their lives and abandon their homes. The evidence from the cave suggests that during the Bar Kokhba revolt, tens, possibly even hundreds, of the villagers temporarily took refuge inside. The absence of human remains may suggest that those who sought refuge there managed to escape unhurt, but it could also be a hint of antiquities' robbery, later activity in the cave (such as

9879-883: The many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language. Colloquial Arabic has many regional variants; geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible , and some linguists consider them distinct languages. However, research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related Arabic variants for native speakers listening to words, sentences, and texts; and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situations. The varieties are typically unwritten. They are often used in informal spoken media, such as soap operas and talk shows , as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising. Hassaniya Arabic , Maltese , and Cypriot Arabic are only varieties of modern Arabic to have acquired official recognition. Hassaniya

9990-631: The monastery for research and discovered the Codex Sinaiticus , dating from the 4th century, at the time the oldest almost completely preserved manuscript of the Bible. The finding from 1859 left the monastery for Russia , in circumstances that had been long disputed. But in 2003 Russian scholars discovered the donation act for the manuscript signed by the Council of Cairo Metochion and Archbishop Callistratus on 13 November 1869. The monastery received 9000 rubles as

10101-664: The monastery was captured and sacked. Though the sultan demanded that the property be returned to the monks, the Mamluk government was unable to subdue the Bedouin nomads and preserve order. The German explorer Martin Baumgarten visited the monastery in 1507 and noticed its decline. On April 18, 2017, an attack by the Islamic State group at a checkpoint near the Monastery killed one policeman and injured three police officers. The monastery's library, founded sometime between 527 and 565,

10212-522: The monastery, have made it a favourite site of pilgrimage . The patronal feast of the monastery is the Feast of the Transfiguration . The oldest record of monastic life at Mount Sinai comes from the travel journal written in Latin by a pilgrim woman named Egeria (Etheria; Saint Sylvia of Aquitaine ) about 381/2–386. The monastery was built by order of Emperor Justinian I (reigned 527–565), enclosing

10323-721: The need for a lexical injection in Arabic, to suit concepts of the industrial and post-industrial age (such as sayyārah سَيَّارَة 'automobile' or bākhirah باخِرة 'steamship'). In response, a number of Arabic academies modeled after the Académie française were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the Arabic lexicon to suit these transformations, first in Damascus (1919), then in Cairo (1932), Baghdad (1948), Rabat (1960), Amman (1977), Khartum  [ ar ] (1993), and Tunis (1993). They review language development, monitor new words and approve

10434-424: The one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen. Now the term al-hatif is used for a telephone. Therefore, the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally Arabic. In the case of Arabic, educated Arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their school-taught Standard Arabic as well as their native dialects, which depending on

10545-596: The original texts were once assumed to be lost, imaging scientists used narrowband multispectral imaging techniques and technologies to reveal features that were difficult to see with the human eye, including ink residues and small grooves in the parchment. These images have subsequently been digitized and are now freely available for research at the UCLA Library for scholarly use. As of June 2018, at least more than 160 palimpsests were identified, with over 6,800 pages of texts recovered. The newer finds were discovered in

10656-549: The overhaul of Arabic grammar first proposed by Al-Jahiz 200 years prior. The Maghrebi lexicographer Ibn Manzur compiled Lisān al-ʿArab ( لسان العرب , "Tongue of Arabs"), a major reference dictionary of Arabic, in 1290. Charles Ferguson 's koine theory claims that the modern Arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the Islamic conquests; this view has been challenged in recent times. Ahmad al-Jallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of Arabic on

10767-527: The population count included men only. In 1882, the PEF 's Survey of Western Palestine described the village as "a large and flourishing Christian village, of stone, the houses nearly all marked with the Cross in red paint," with a population of 400 Orthodox Christians and 100 Muslims. In 1896 the population of Abud was estimated to be about 303 Muslims and 366 Christians. In the 1922 census of Palestine conducted by

10878-410: The region may be mutually unintelligible. Some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have "sub-dialects" of their own. When educated Arabs of different dialects engage in conversation (for example, a Moroccan speaking with a Lebanese), many speakers code-switch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language, sometimes even within

10989-427: The relatively newer, southern part. In the 1945 statistics , the population was 1,080; 550 Muslims and 530 Christians. The total land area was 15,007 dunams , according to an official land and population survey. Of this, 4,843 dunams were allocated for plantations and irrigable land, and 1,905 for cereals, while 55 dunams were classified as built-up (urban) areas. In the wake of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War , and after

11100-738: The return of Jews to bury their brethren), or the archeological's survey's limitations. Mokata 'Abud, an archeological site located on the northwestern outskirts of the village, contains a necropolis believed to date back to the first century CE. The necropolis features a two-chamber tomb with loculi along with an elaborate portico adorned with wreaths, rosettes , and grapes, similar to those found in Jerusalem and in other locations in West Samaria. Peleg-Barkat conclude that Mokata 'Abud and other similar tombs in Samaria were built by local Jewish elites inspired by

11211-458: The same sentence. The issue of whether Arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged, in the same way it is for the varieties of Chinese , Hindi and Urdu , Serbian and Croatian , Scots and English, etc. In contrast to speakers of Hindi and Urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can, speakers of the varieties of Arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot. While there

11322-458: The sole example of Medieval linguist Abu Hayyan al-Gharnati – who, while a scholar of the Arabic language, was not ethnically Arab – Medieval scholars of the Arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics, considering all other languages inferior. In modern times, the educated upper classes in the Arab world have taken a nearly opposite view. Yasir Suleiman wrote in 2011 that "studying and knowing English or French in most of

11433-556: The standardization of these new terms throughout the Arabic-speaking world, and toward the development of Arabic as a world language . This gave rise to what Western scholars call Modern Standard Arabic. From the 1950s, Arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and Sudan. Arabic usually refers to Standard Arabic, which Western linguists divide into Classical Arabic and Modern Standard Arabic. It could also refer to any of

11544-558: The time of the First Crusade , the presence of Crusaders in the Sinai until 1270 spurred the interest of European Christians and increased the number of intrepid pilgrims who visited the monastery. The monastery was supported by its dependencies in Egypt, Palestine, Syria, Crete, Cyprus and Constantinople. Throughout the Middle Ages, the monastery had a multiethnic profile, with monks of Arab, Greek, Syrian, Slavonic and Georgian origin. However, in

11655-501: The towns where the inscriptions were discovered (Dadanitic, Taymanitic, Hismaic, Safaitic). However, most arguments for a single ANA language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article, a prefixed h-. It has been argued that the h- is an archaism and not a shared innovation, and thus unsuitable for language classification, rendering the hypothesis of an ANA language family untenable. Safaitic and Hismaic, previously considered ANA, should be considered Old Arabic due to

11766-535: The vaulting of the church was replaced with traditional mortar, stones inside the church were cleaned, the atrium was repaved, and a reinforcing northern wall was constructed. In 2013 Christians from the United Kingdom worked on a project with the church choir of St. Mary's Church to record "The Mary Prayers" as a fundraising initiative. Proceeds from the sales of the CD or downloads are directed to humanitarian projects for

11877-451: The world have classes that teach Arabic as part of their foreign languages , Middle Eastern studies , and religious studies courses. Arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn Arabic outside the academic world. There are many Arabic language schools in the Arab world and other Muslim countries. Because the Quran is written in Arabic and all Islamic terms are in Arabic, millions of Muslims (both Arab and non-Arab) study

11988-531: Was built around the location of what is traditionally considered to be the place of the burning bush seen by the Hebrew prophet Moses . Saint Catherine's monastery also encloses the "Well of Moses", where Moses is said to have met his future wife, Zipporah . The well is still today one of the monastery's main sources of water. The site is considered sacred by the three major Abrahamic religions : Judaism , Christianity , and Islam . Centuries after its foundation,

12099-489: Was built by the orders of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I , enclosing what is claimed to be the burning bush seen by Moses . Centuries later, the purported body of Saint Catherine of Alexandria , said to have been found in the area, was taken to the monastery; Saint Catherine's relics turned it into an important pilgrimage site , and the monastery was eventually renamed after the saint. Controlled by

12210-448: Was founded before the arrival of Crusaders, but fell into disrepair. According to the inscription, the church was rebuilt in 1058 CE during the Fatimid era. In the 18th century an additional wall, as well as several windows and doors were constructed. Restorations and conservation were conducted in 1997. This uncovered remains of a Byzantine church with mosaic floors. The cement plaster in

12321-501: Was through a door high in the outer walls. The monastery, along with several dependencies in the area, constitute the entire Church of Sinai , which is headed by an archbishop , who is also the abbot of the monastery. The exact administrative status of the church within the Eastern Orthodox Church is ambiguous: by some, including the church itself, it is considered autocephalous , by others an autonomous church under

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